Editing Frontinus

{{short description|Roman civil engineer, author, soldier and senator (c. 40–103 AD)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}

{{Infobox person
| name               = Sextus Julius Frontinus
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| alt                = <!-- descriptive text for use by speech synthesis (text-to-speech) software -->
| caption            = 
| birth_date         = 
| birth_place        = c. 40 AD
| death_date         = 
| death_place        = {{death year and age|103|40}} AD
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| monuments          = 
| nationality        = Roman
| education          = 
| alma_mater         = 
| occupation         = Engineer, author, soldier & politician
| notable_works      = ''[[De aquaeductu]]''<br>''[[Strategemata]]''
| office             = [[Roman consul]]
| children           = 1+
| awards             = 
| module             = 
| signature          = 
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}}

'''Sextus Julius Frontinus''' (c. 40 – 103 AD) was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of the late 1st century AD. He was a successful general under [[Domitian]], commanding forces in [[Roman Britain]], and on the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] frontiers. A ''[[novus homo]]'', he was [[Roman consul|consul]] three times. Frontinus ably discharged several important administrative duties for [[Nerva]] and [[Trajan]]. However, he is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially ''[[De aquaeductu]]'', dealing with the [[aqueducts of Rome]].

== Family ==
Due to a lack of either a ''[[Titulus (inscription)|titulus]] honorarius'' or ''sepulcralis'', there is no outline of Frontinus' life, the names of his parents, or of his wife. Some details can be inferred from chance mentions: He is thought to be of [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonese]] origins, and originally of the [[equites|equestrian class]].<ref>William McDermott, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44080105 "Stemmata quid faciunt? The descendants of Frontinus"], ''Ancient Society'', 7 (1976), p. 255</ref> From the nomenclature of the name of [[Publius Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus]] (consul c. 84), it is likely Frontinus had a sister, who was the other's mother.<ref>Ronald Syme, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20184085 "P. Calvisius Ruso. One Person or Two?"], ''[[Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik]]'', 56 (1984), pp. 190f</ref> Frontinus had at least one daughter, the wife of [[Quintus Sosius Senecio]] (cos. 99, II 107) and mother of Sosia Polla.<ref>McDermott, "Stemmata quid faciunt?", p. 254</ref>

== Career ==
In AD 70, Frontinus participated in the suppression of the Rhineland revolt, and later recorded that he received the surrender of 70,000 [[Lingones]].<ref>''Strategemata'' 4.3.14. A.R. Birley, ''The'' Fasti ''of Roman Britain'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 70</ref> Between that date and being appointed [[Roman governors of Britain|governor]] of [[Roman Britain|Britain]] to succeed [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] a few years later, Frontinus was appointed [[Roman consul|suffect consul]]. While governor of Britain, he subjugated the [[Silures]] of South Wales and is thought to have likewise campaigned against the [[Brigantes]].<ref name=Birley-71>Birley, ''Fasti'', p. 71</ref> He was succeeded by [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], the father-in-law of the famous historian [[Tacitus]], in 77. Birley believes it "is fair to speculate" that Frontinus was with Domitian during the German campaign of 83. An inscription at [[Hieropolis]] in [[Phrygia]], as well as a number of coins of [[Smyrna]], attests that he was [[proconsul]] of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] in AD 86.<ref name=Birley-71/>

In 97, he was appointed ''[[Curator Aquarum|curator aquarum]]'' (supervisor of the [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]]) by the emperor [[Nerva]], an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. In this capacity, he followed another distinguished Roman statesman, [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]], the friend, ally and son-in-law of Augustus, who organised in 34 BC a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct [[Aqua Marcia]] and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city.

The following year Frontinus held a second consulship as suffect in February, with [[Trajan]] as his colleague, and two years later he was made ''consul ordinarius'' with Trajan. Birley notes, "This exceptional honour underlines the high regard in which he [Frontinus] was held, and suggests, further, that Trajan had a debt to repay."<ref name=Birley-72/> He was also a member of the [[Augur|College of Augurs]].<ref name=Birley-72>Birley, ''Fasti'', p. 72</ref> He died in 103 or 104, a date based on [[Pliny the Younger]] writing to his friends that he was elected to the college of augurs to fill the vacancy Frontinus' death had created.<ref name=Birley-72/>

== Writings ==
===Aqueducts of Rome===
[[File:Porta Maggiore 030106.JPG|thumb|left|Remains of aqueducts [[Aqua Claudia]] and [[Aqua Anio Novus]], integrated into the [[Aurelian Wall]] as a gate in 271 AD.]]
Frontinus's chief work is ''[[De aquaeductu]]'', in two books, an official report to the emperor on the state of the [[aqueducts of Rome]].  It presents a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use and maintenance. He provides the history, sizes and discharge rates of all of the nine [[aqueducts of Rome]] at the time at which he was writing at the turn of the 1st century AD: the [[Aqua Marcia]], [[Aqua Appia]], [[Aqua Alsietina]], [[Aqua Tepula]], [[Anio Vetus]], [[Anio Novus]], [[Aqua Virgo]], [[Aqua Claudia]] and [[Aqua Augusta (Rome)|Aqua Augusta]]. Frontinus describes the quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring.

====Fraud and theft====
One of the first jobs he undertook when he was appointed water commissioner was to prepare maps of the system so that he could assess their condition before undertaking their maintenance. He says that many had been neglected and were not working at their full capacity. He was especially concerned by diversion of the supply by unscrupulous farmers and tradesmen, among many others. They would insert pipes into the channel of the aqueducts to tap the supply. He, therefore, made a  meticulous survey of the intake and the supply of each line, and then investigated the discrepancies. [[Lead pipe stamp]]s bearing the name of the owner were also used to prevent such [[water theft]]. He was well aware of the seminal work ''[[De architectura]]'' by [[Vitruvius]], which mentions [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]] construction and maintenance published in the previous century; Frontinus refers to the possible influence of Vitruvius on the plumbers.<ref>[25:1]</ref>

[[File:RomaAcquedottoTraCelioePalatino.JPG|thumb|Remains of Aqua Claudia]]

====Distribution system====
Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for drinking water. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system.

====Maintenance====
He was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that the masonry was kept in good condition, especially those running on arched superstructures. It was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures. He reviewed the existing law governing the state aqueducts, as well as the need for enforcement of those [[statute]]s.

===Military tactics===
Frontinus also wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters, the ''[[Stratagems (book)|Stratagems]]'' (Latin: ''Strategemata''), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in [[Germania]] under [[Domitian]], but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like [[Valerius Maximus]] and [[Livy]] suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources.  The authenticity of the fourth book has been challenged.<ref>Paper by Rogier van der Wal (Amsterdam) to the 2010 Classical Association Conference, Cardiff</ref>
One example he gives of control of river water during a siege reads:
{{blockquote|Lucius Metellus, when fighting in [[Hispania Citerior|Hither Spain]], diverted the course of a river and directed it from a higher level against the camp of the enemy, which was located on low ground. Then, when the enemy were in a panic from the sudden flood, he had them slain by men whom he had stationed in ambush for this very purpose.}}

==Selected editions and translations==
[[File:Frontinus, Sextus Iulius – Stratagemata, 1664 – BEIC 11311375.jpg|thumb|''Stratagemata'', 1664]]

===''De aquaeductu''===
* The standard edition of the Latin text of Frontinus' major work, with extensive commentary in English, is now R.H. Rodgers, ''Frontinus: De aquaeductu urbis Romae'' ([[Cambridge University Press]], 2004).
* Rodgers has published his English translation online [http://www.uvm.edu/~rrodgers/Frontinus.html]
* An English translation by Charles E. Bennet, edited by [[Mary B. McElwain]], has been published in the [[Loeb Classical Library]].<ref>no. L174, Stratagems. De aquaeductu (1925)</ref>
* A translation by Herschel is useful for his commentary on the engineering aspects of the ''De aquaeductu''.

===Other works===
* The latest edition of the ''[[Stratagems (book)|Stratagems]]'' is by R. I. Ireland ([[Teubner]], 1990 {{ISBN|3-322-00746-4}}) {{in lang|la}}; English translation in Loeb Classical Library (translated by Charles Bennet and edited by Mary B. McElwain), 1925. {{ISBN|9780674991927}}
* Extracts from a treatise on land surveying ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in B. Campbell (2000), ''The Writings of the Roman Land Surveyors: Introduction, Text, Translation and Commentary,'' London.
* [https://librivox.org/stratagems-and-aqueducts-by-frontinus/ The Stratagems and The Aqueducts of Rome], translated by Charles E. BENNETT (1858 - 1921), available on Librivox as an audiobook.

==In fiction==
He  appears as a fictionalised character in the [[Marcus Didius Falco]] novels ''[[The Silver Pigs]]'', ''[[Shadows in Bronze]]'', ''[[Three Hands in the Fountain]]'', and ''[[The Jupiter Myth]]''. He also appears as a character in [[The Centurions (Hunter novel)|The Centurions]] novels ''[[Barbarian Princess (book)|Barbarian Princess]]'' and ''[[The Emperor's Games]]''.

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Cloaca Maxima]]
* [[Dolaucothi]]
* [[Gromatici]]
* [[List of aqueducts in the city of Rome]]
* [[List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire]]
* [[List of Roman aqueducts by date]]
* [[Quinaria]]
* [[Roman aqueducts]]
* [[Roman conquest of Britain]]
* [[Aggenus Urbicus]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{EB1911|wstitle=Frontinus, Sextus Julius|volume=11|page=250}}

==Further reading==
* Ashby, Thomas (1934) ''The Aqueducts of Rome'', Oxford.
* Blackman, Deane R., Hodge, A. Trevor (2001). ''Frontinus' Legacy: Essays on Frontinus' de aquis urbis Romae''. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|978-0-472-06793-0}}
* Dahm, Murray K (1997), [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/MKDahm**/body.html ''The Career and Writings of Sextus Julius Frontinus'']. Master's Thesis, University of Auckland.
* Herschel, C (1973) ''The Two Books on The Water Supply of the City of Rome of Frontinus'', (trans with explanatory chapters) New England Water Works Association.
* Hodge, A.T. (2001). ''Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply'', 2nd ed. London: Duckworth.

==External links==
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/home.html Frontinus at LacusCurtius]: full texts of ''De aquis'' and ''Strategemata'' in Latin and English; illustrated with some of the Monscassinensis manuscript from the Herschel edition.
* {{Gutenberg author |id=6556| name=Sextus Julius Frontinus}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* {{Librivox author |id=14264}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080325203924/http://www.leg8.com/Corpus/Sextus_Iulius_Frontinus.php Sextus Iulius Frontinus] '''(fr)'''
* [http://www.maquettes-historiques.net/P9.html Models of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080610040616/http://www.roman-empire.net/maps/rome/ Routes of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome]
* [http://www.thais.it/citta_italiane/roma/fontane/fontane.htm Famous Fountains of Rome]
* [http://www.romeartlover.it/Fountain.html The Fountains of Rome (by Region)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080528061612/http://traianus.rediris.es/ Spanish site dedicated to Roman technology, especially aqueducts and mines]

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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Suffect Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]] |years=73 |regent1='''ignotus'''}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Frontinus}}
[[Category:40s births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:103 deaths]]
[[Category:1st-century Romans]]
[[Category:1st-century writers]]
[[Category:2nd-century Romans]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman civil engineers]]
[[Category:Augurs of the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Julii|Frontinus, Sextus]]
[[Category:Imperial Roman consuls]]
[[Category:Roman aqueducts]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Britain]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Asia]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman military writers]]
[[Category:Silver Age Latin writers]]