Editing Fumarole

{{Short description|Volcanic opening that emits hot gases}}
{{Redirect|Solfatara|the volcanic crater in Italy|Solfatara (volcano)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}

[[File:Sol de Mañana 2018.jpg|thumb|Fumarole at [[Sol de Mañana]], Bolivia]]

A '''fumarole''' (or '''fumerole''')<ref name="MerriamWebsterE">{{cite web | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fumerole | title=fumerole – Definition and meaning | publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] | work=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary | accessdate=4 June 2023}}</ref> is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot [[volcanic gas]]es and [[vapor]]s are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of [[volcanic activity]], but fumarole activity can also precede a volcanic eruption and has been used for [[Prediction of volcanic activity|eruption prediction]]. Most fumaroles die down within a few days or weeks of the end of an eruption, but a few are persistent, lasting for decades or longer. An area containing fumaroles is known as a '''fumarole field'''.

The predominant vapor emitted by fumaroles is [[steam]], formed by the circulation of [[groundwater]] through heated rock. This is typically accompanied by volcanic gases given off by magma cooling deep below the surface. These volcanic gases include [[sulfur]] compounds, such as various [[sulfur oxides]] and [[hydrogen sulfide]], and sometimes [[hydrogen chloride]], [[hydrogen fluoride]], and other gases. A fumarole that emits significant sulfur compounds is sometimes called a '''solfatara'''.

Fumarole activity can break down rock around the vent, while simultaneously depositing sulfur and other minerals. Valuable [[hydrothermal mineral deposit]]s can form beneath fumaroles. However, active fumaroles can be a hazard due to their emission of hot, poisonous gases.

==Description==
[[Image:Baker Fumarole.jpg|thumb|Sampling gases at a fumarole on [[Mount Baker]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington]], United States]]
[[File:Fumarola, Vulcano, Sicilia, Italia, 2015.gif|thumb|right|Fumaroles at [[Vulcano]], [[Sicily]], Italy]]

A ''fumarole'' (or ''fumerole''; from French ''fumerolle'', a domed structure with lateral openings, built over a kitchen to permit the escape of smoke<ref>{{oed|fumarole}}</ref>) is an opening in a planet's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] which emits [[steam]] and [[gas]]es, but no liquid or solid material.<ref name=MacdonaldEtal1983>{{cite book |last1=Macdonald |first1=Gordon A. |last2=Abbott |first2=Agatin T. |last3=Peterson |first3=Frank L. |title=Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii |date=1983 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location=Honolulu |isbn=0824808320 |edition=2nd |pages=53–55}}</ref> The temperature of the gases leaving the vent ranges from about {{convert|100 to 1000|C|sigfig=2|sp=us}}.<ref name=Allaby2012fumarole>{{cite book |last1=Allaby |first1=Michael |title=A dictionary of geology and earth sciences |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199653065 |edition=Fourth}}</ref> The steam forms when groundwater is superheated by hot rock, then flashes (boils due to depressurization) as it approaches the surface.<ref name=PhilpottsAgue2009>{{cite book |last1=Philpotts |first1=Anthony R. |last2=Ague |first2=Jay J. |title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9780521880060 |edition=2nd |page=70}}</ref>

In addition to steam, gases released by fumaroles include [[carbon dioxide]], [[sulfur oxides]], [[hydrogen sulfide]], [[hydrogen chloride]], and [[hydrogen fluoride]]. These have their origin in magma cooling underground. Not all these gases are present in all fumaroles; for example, fumaroles of [[Kilauea]] in Hawaii, US, contain almost no hydrogen chloride or hydrogen fluoride.<ref name=MacdonaldEtal1983/> The gases may also include traces of [[carbonyl sulfide]], [[carbon disulfide]], [[hydrogen]], [[methane]], or [[carbon monoxide]].<ref name = hansulrich>{{cite book|last =Schmincke|date =2004|page=47|publisher= Springer Science & Business Media|isbn = 9783540436508|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XHlJrFAhth4C&pg=PA47|first = Hans-Ulrich|title = Volcanism}}</ref> A fumarole that emits [[sulfur]]ous gases can be referred to as a ''solfatara'' (from old [[Italian language|Italian]] ''solfo'', "sulfur"<ref>{{oed|solfatara}}</ref><ref name="Merriam-Webster1">{{cite web | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/solfatara | title=Solfatara | publisher= Merriam-Webster | work=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary | access-date=20 February 2020}}</ref>). Acid-sulfate [[hot spring]]s can be formed by fumaroles when some of the steam condenses at the surface. Rising acidic vapors from below, such as CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>S, will then dissolve, creating steam-heated low-pH hot springs.<ref name=WhiteEtal1971>{{cite journal|last1=White |first1=D.E. |last2=Muffler |first2=L.J.P. |last3=Truesdell |first3=A.H. |title= Vapor-dominated hydrothermal systems compared with hot-water systems |journal=Economic Geology |date=1971 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=75–97|doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.66.1.75 |bibcode=1971EcGeo..66...75W }}</ref>

Fumaroles are normally associated with the late stages of volcanic activity,<ref name=Jackson1997fumarole>{{cite book |editor1-last=Jackson |editor1-first=Julia A. |title=Glossary of geology. |date=1997 |publisher=American Geological Institute |location=Alexandria, Virginia |isbn=0922152349 |edition=Fourth |chapter=fumarole}}</ref> although they may also precede volcanic activity<ref name=Allaby2012fumarole/> and have been used to predict volcanic eruptions.<ref name=PhilpottsAgue2009/> In particular, changes in the composition and temperature of fumarole gases may point to an imminent eruption.<ref name=MacdonaldEtal1983/> An increase in sulfur oxide emissions is a particularly robust indication that new magma is rising from the depths, and may be detectable months to years before the eruption. Continued sulfur oxide emissions after an eruption is an indication that magma is continuing to rise towards the surface.<ref name = hansulrich/>

Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks, along long fissures, or in chaotic clusters or fields. They also occur on the surface of [[lava]] flows and [[Pyroclastic flow|pyroclastic]] flows.<ref name=usgs>{{USGS|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/fumarole.php|work=USGS Photo Glossary|title=Fumarole|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref> A ''fumarole field'' is an area of [[Hot springs|thermal spring]]s and gas vents where shallow [[magma]] or hot [[igneous rock]]s release gases or interact with [[groundwater]].<ref>{{cite book
| last1                 = Neuendorf
| first1                = Klaus K. E.
| editor1-last          = Jackson
| editor1-first         = Julia A.
| editor2-last          = Mehl
| editor2-first         = James P.
| editor3-last          = Neuendorf
| editor3-first         = Klaus K. E.
| title                 = Glossary of Geology
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=SfnSesBc-RgC
| publisher             = Springer Science & Business Media
| date      = 2005
| page                  = 257 
| isbn                  = 9780922152766
| access-date            = 2015-06-06
| quote                 = fumarole field[:] A group of cool fumaroles.
}}
</ref>  When they occur in freezing environments, fumaroles may cause [[fumarolic ice tower]]s.

Fumaroles may persist for decades or centuries if located above a persistent heat source; or they may disappear within weeks to months if they occur atop a fresh volcanic deposit that quickly cools.<ref name=usgs/>  The [[Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes]], for example, was formed during the 1912 eruption of [[Novarupta]] in [[Alaska]].  Initially, thousands of fumaroles occurred in the cooling [[Volcanic ash|ash]] from the eruption, but over time most of them have become extinct.<ref name="USGS2">{{cite book |last1=Hildreth |first1=W. |title=The Novarupta-Katmai eruption of 1912– largest eruption of the twentieth century; centennial perspectives |last2=Fierstein |first2=J. |date=2012 |publisher=USGS Professional Paper 1791 |location=Reston |page=135 |author-link=Wes Hildreth |author-link2=Judy Fierstein}}</ref> Persistent fumaroles are found at Sulfur Bank on the northern edge of the [[Kilauea]] [[caldera]], but most fumaroles in Hawaii last no more than a few months.<ref name=MacdonaldEtal1983/> There are still numerous active fumaroles at [[Yellowstone National Park]], US,<ref name="YellowstoneFumarole">{{cite web |title=Fumaroles |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/fumaroles.htm |website=Volcanic Features and Landforms |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=1 March 2022}}</ref> some 70,000 years after the most recent eruption.<ref name="USGSYellowstoneEruptionHistory">{{cite web |title=Summary of Eruption History |url=https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/summary-eruption-history |website=Yellowstone Geology and History |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=1 March 2022}}</ref>

== Economic resources and hazards ==
[[File:Bergelut dengan asap nan beracun.jpg|thumb|upright|Traditional [[sulfur mining]] at [[Kawah Ijen]].]]

The acidic fumes from fumaroles can break down the rock around the vents, producing brightly colored ''alteration haloes''.<ref name=PhilpottsAgue2009/> At Sulphur Banks near [[Kīlauea|Kilauea]] in Hawaii, mild alteration reduces the rock to gray to white [[opal]] and [[kaolinite]] with the original [[Texture (geology)|texture]] of the rock still discernible. Alteration begins along [[Joint (geology)|joints]] in the rock and works inwards until the entire joint block is altered. More extreme alteration (at lower [[pH]]) reduces the material to [[clay mineral]]s and [[iron oxides]] to produce red to reddish-brown [[clay]].{{sfn|Macdonald|Abbott|Peterson|1983|p=134}} The same process can produce valuable [[hydrothermal mineral deposit|hydrothermal ore deposits]] at depth.<ref name=PhilpottsAgue2009/>

Fumaroles emitting sulfurous vapors form surface deposits of sulfur-rich minerals and of [[fumarole mineral]]s. Sulfur crystals at Sulfur Banks near Kilauea can grow to {{convert|2|cm|sigfig=1|sp=us}} in length, and considerable sulfur has been deposited at Sulfur Cone within [[Mauna Loa]] caldera.<ref name=MacdonaldEtal1983/> Places in which these deposits have been mined include:

* [[Kawah Ijen]]<ref name=JakartaPost>{{cite news  |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/12/19/kawah-ijen-between-potential-threat.html |title=Kawah Ijen: Between potential & threat |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=19 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Dukehart |first1=Coburn |title=The Struggle and Strain of Mining "Devil's Gold" |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/the-struggle-and-strain-of-mining-devils-gold |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210409213710/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/the-struggle-and-strain-of-mining-devils-gold |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 April 2021 |access-date=1 March 2022 |agency=National Geographic |date=17 November 2015}}</ref> and [[Arjuno-Welirang]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=Tom |title=Welirang volcano photos |url=http://www.decadevolcano.net/photos/welirang_volcano_photos.htm |website=Volcano Discovery |access-date=1 March 2022 |date=2006}}</ref> Indonesia
* [[Purico Complex]]<ref>[http://www.volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=355094 Global Volcanism Program, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution]</ref> near [[San Pedro de Atacama]] in Chile
* [[Mount Tongariro]] in the central [[North Island]], New Zealand (mined by [[Māori people|Māori]] until 1950)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Mark P. |last2=Bignall |first2=Greg |title=Undeveloped high-enthalpy geothermal fields of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand |journal=Geothermics |date=January 2016 |volume=59 |pages=325–346 |doi=10.1016/j.geothermics.2015.08.006|bibcode=2016Geoth..59..325S }}</ref>
* [[Whakaari / White Island]] in the [[Bay of Plenty]], New Zealand (mined from the 1880s to the 1930s)<ref>{{cite web |title=Eruption on Whakaari White Island kills 10 people |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/eruption-whakaari-white-island-kills-10-people |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |access-date=26 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Disaster at White Island |url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/disaster-at-white-island/ |website=New Zealand Geographic |access-date=26 October 2021 |language=en-NZ}}</ref>
* [[Sicily]], which had a near-monopoly on sulfur prior to development of the [[Frasch process]] for mining sulfur from salt domes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ferrara |first1=Vincenzo |title=Essays on the History of Mechanical Engineering |chapter=The Sulphur Mining Industry in Sicily |series=History of Mechanism and Machine Science |date=2016 |volume=31 |pages=111–130 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-22680-4_8|isbn=978-3-319-22679-8 }}</ref>

Sulfur mining in Indonesia is sometimes done for low pay, by hand, without respirators or other protective equipment.<ref name=JakartaPost/>

In April 2006 fumarole emissions killed three [[Ski patrol|ski-patrol]] workers east of Chair 3 at [[Mammoth Mountain Ski Area]] in California. The workers were overpowered by an accumulation of toxic fumes (a ''[[mazuku]]'') in a crevasse they had fallen into.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-apr-09-me-mammoth9-story.html |title= How Routine Turned to Tragedy at Mammoth |date= 2006-04-09 |first1= Steve |last1= Hymon |first2= Amanda |last2= Covarrubias |access-date= 2011-05-09 |newspaper= Los Angeles Times}}
</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cantrell |first1=Lee |last2=Young |first2=Michael |title=Fatal Fall into a Volcanic Fumarole |journal=Wilderness & Environmental Medicine |date=March 2009 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=77–79 |doi=10.1580/08-WEME-CR-199.1|pmid=19364170 |s2cid=207182190 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Occurrences ==
Fumaroles are found around the world in areas of volcanic activity. A few notable examples include:<!--Do not make this an exhaustive list; include only examples that are particularly well known and illustrate the worldwide distribution.-->
* [[Campi Flegrei]], Italy, known since ancient times and regarded as the entrance to [[Hell]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carrabba |first1=Paola |title=Natural Heritage from East to West |chapter=The Gate of Hades: The Phlegraean Fields |date=2010 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-01577-9_24|isbn=978-3-642-01576-2 }}</ref> which is now closely monitored because of the hazard it poses to nearby urbanization.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Troiano |first1=A. |last2=Isaia |first2=R. |last3=Tramparulo |first3=F. D. A. |last4=Di Giuseppe |first4=M. G. |title=The Pisciarelli main fumarole mechanisms reconstructed by electrical resistivity and induced polarization imaging |journal=Scientific Reports |date=December 2021 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=18639 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-97413-1|pmid=34545113 |pmc=8452721 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1118639T }}</ref>
* [[Central Volcanic Zone]], South America<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tamburello |first1=G. |last2=Hansteen |first2=T. H. |last3=Bredemeyer |first3=S. |last4=Aiuppa |first4=A. |last5=Tassi |first5=F. |title=Gas emissions from five volcanoes in northern Chile and implications for the volatiles budget of the Central Volcanic Zone: Volatiles budget of the CVZ, Chile |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=28 July 2014 |volume=41 |issue=14 |pages=4961–4969 |doi=10.1002/2014GL060653|hdl=10447/99158 |s2cid=55877335 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Corbetti Geothermal Power Station|Corbetti Caldera]], Ethiopia, where a geothermal power station is under construction<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paola |first1=G. M. |title=Geology of the Corbetti Caldera area (Main Ethiopian Rift Valley) |journal=Bulletin Volcanologique |date=June 1971 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=497–506 |doi=10.1007/BF02596970|bibcode=1971BVol...35..497D |s2cid=130428510 }}</ref>
* [[Taupō Volcanic Zone]], New Zealand, where fumaroles support a unique and critically endangered ecosystem<ref>{{cite web |title=Fumaroles |url=https://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/publications/naturally-uncommon-ecosystems/geothermal/fumaroles/ |website=Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research |access-date=1 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Mount Usu]], Japan<ref>{{cite journal |title=Long-term geochemical surveillance of fumaroles at Showa-Shinzan dome, Usu volcano, Japan |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |first1=R.B. |last1=Symonds |first2=Y. |last2=Mizutani |first3=Paul H. |last3=Briggs |year=1996 |volume=73 |number=3–4 |pages=177–211|doi=10.1016/0377-0273(96)00029-7 |bibcode=1996JVGR...73..177S }}</ref>
* Valley of Desolation in [[Morne Trois Pitons National Park]] in [[Dominica]]<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web|year=1997|title=Morne Trois Pitons National Park|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/814|access-date=28 July 2020|website=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref>
* [[Furnas]], São Miguel Island, Azores (Portugal)
* Yellowstone National Park has thousands of fumaroles, including Black Growler at [[Norris Geyser Basin]] and numerous fumaroles dotting [[Roaring Mountain]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hydrothermal Features |url=https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/hydrothermal-features.htm |website=Yellowstone National Park |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |access-date=1 March 2022}}</ref>

=== On Mars ===
The formation known as [[Home Plate (Mars)|Home Plate]] at [[Gusev Crater]] on [[Mars]], which was examined by the [[Mars Exploration Rover]] (MER) [[Spirit (rover)|''Spirit'']], is suspected to be the eroded remains of an ancient and extinct fumarole.<ref>R.V.Morris, S.W.Squyres, et al. "The Hydrothermal System at Home Plate in Gusev Crater, Mars". ''Lunar & Planetary Science'' XXXIX(2008)</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Boiling Lake]]
* [[Cold seep]]
* [[Hydrothermal vent]]
* [[Mofetta]]
* [[Mudpot]]
* [[Mud volcano]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikt}}
{{commons and category|Fumaroles}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1MpKj_yCnk Sulfur Mining on Gunung Welirang Volcano]
*{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Fumarole|volume=11|pages=300–301}}

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[[Category:Fumaroles| ]]