Editing Gabriel Tarde

{{Short description|French sociologist}}
{{redirect|Tarde}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Gabriel Tarde
| image             = M. Tarde, membre de l'Institut, professeur au Collège de France CIPB0463.jpg
| caption           = Portrait by [[Eugène Pirou]]
| birth_name        = Jean-Gabriel Tarde
| birth_date        = 12 March 1843
| birth_place       = [[Sarlat-la-Canéda]], [[Dordogne]], France
| death_date        = 13 May 1904
| death_place       = Paris, France
| field             = [[Sociology|Sociologist]], [[Criminology|criminologist]], [[Social psychology|social psychologist]]
| work_institutions = [[Collège de France]]
| alma_mater        = [[University of Toulouse]]<br>[[University of Paris]]
| doctoral_advisor  =
| doctoral_students = 
| known_for         =  
}}

'''Jean-Gabriel''' ('''de''') '''Tarde''' ({{IPAc-en|t|ɑr|d}}; {{IPA|fr|taʁd|lang}}; 12 March 1843&nbsp;– 13 May 1904) was a French [[Sociology|sociologist]], [[Criminology|criminologist]] and [[Social psychology|social psychologist]] who conceived sociology as based on small [[psychological]] interactions among individuals (much as if it were [[chemistry]]), the fundamental forces being [[imitation]] and [[innovation]].

==Life==
Tarde was born and raised in [[Sarlat-la-Canéda|Sarlat]] in the province of [[Dordogne]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tosti|first=Gustavo|date=1897|title=The Sociological Theories of Gabriel Tarde|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2139668|journal=Political Science Quarterly|volume=12|issue=3|pages=490–511|doi=10.2307/2139668|jstor=2139668|url-access=subscription}}</ref> He studied law at [[University of Toulouse|Toulouse]] and [[University of Paris|Paris]]. From 1869 to 1894 he worked as a magistrate and [[investigating judge (France)|investigating judge]] in the province. In the 1880s he corresponded with representatives of the newly formed criminal anthropology, most notably the Italians [[Enrico Ferri (criminologist)|Enrico Ferri]] and [[Cesare Lombroso]] and the French psychiatrist [[Alexandre Lacassagne]]. With the latter, Tarde came to be the leading representative for a "French school" in criminology.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01568914|title=The Anthem Companion to Gabriel Tarde|first=Marc|last=Renneville|chapter=Gabriel Tarde, the Swallow of French Criminology|editor-first=Robert|editor-last=Leroux|date=1 August 2018|publisher=Anthem Press|via=HAL Archives Ouvertes}}</ref> In 1900 he was appointed professor in modern philosophy at the [[Collège de France]]. As such he was the most prominent contemporary critic of Durkheim's sociology.

== Work ==
Among the concepts that Tarde initiated were the [[Collective consciousness|group mind]] (taken up and developed by [[Gustave Le Bon]], and sometimes advanced to explain so-called [[herd behaviour]] or [[crowd psychology]]), and [[economic psychology]], where he anticipated a number of modern developments. Tarde was very critical of [[Émile Durkheim]]'s work at the level of both methodology and theory<ref>Thomassen, p. 231-249</ref> such as during the [[Tarde-Durkheim debate]] in 1903. However, Tarde's insights were ridiculed as "metaphysics" and hastily dismissed by Durkheim and his followers who went on to largely establish the "science" of sociology, and it was not until U.S. scholars, such as the [[Chicago school (sociology)|Chicago school]], took up his theories that they became famous.<ref>Armand Mattelart, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kOduCi83O5QC&dq= ''Invention of Communication''], University of Minnesota Press, 1996, p. 257.</ref>

===Criminology===
Tarde took an interest in criminology and the psychological basis of criminal behavior while working as a [[magistrate]] in public service. He was critical of the concept of the [[atavistic criminal]] as developed by [[Cesare Lombroso]]. Tarde's criminological studies served as the [[underpinning]] of his later sociology.<ref>Pietro Semeraro, ''Il sistema penale di Gabriel Tarde'', Padova 1984.</ref>

Tarde also emphasized the tendency of the criminal to return to the scene of the crime and to repeat it, which he saw as part of a wider process of [[repetition compulsion]].<ref>Henri Ellenberger, ''The Discovery of the Unconscious'' (1970) p. 514</ref>

===Imitation===
Tarde considered imitation, conscious and unconscious, as a fundamental interpersonal trait, with the imitation of fathers by sons as the primal situation, resting on prestige.<ref>Ellenberger, p. 528</ref>

Tarde highlighted the importance of the creative exemplar in society, arguing that "genius is the capacity to engender one's own progeny".<ref>Quoted in Ellenberger, p. 891</ref>

== Science fiction ==
Tarde also wrote a [[science-fiction]] novel entitled ''Underground Man'' (''Fragment d'histoire future'', 1896). The plot is a [[post-apocalyptic]] story of an Earth destroyed by a new Ice Age. Humanity must rebuild a new civilization underground. The choice is made to lay the foundation of their utopia on music and art.

== Influence ==
* Tarde is mentioned as a prominent influence in [[Scipio Sighele]]'s pioneering book ''[[La Folla delinquente]]'' on mass psychology.
* [[Gustave le Bon]]'s book [[The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind]] also refers to Tarde as a source.
* [[Henri Bergson]]<ref name=":0" />
* [[Sigmund Freud]] built on Tarde's ideas of imitation and suggestion for his work on the theory of the crowd, published as [[Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego]].<ref>Sigmund Freud, ''Civilization, Religion and Society'' (PFL 12) p. 116.</ref>
* [[Everett Rogers]] furthered Tarde's "laws of imitation" in the 1962 book ''[[Diffusion of innovations]]''.
* From the late 1990s and continuing today, Tarde's work has been experiencing a renaissance.<ref>David Toews, "The Renaissance of philosophie Tardienne", in Pli: the Warwick Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 8, 1999.</ref> Spurred by the re-release of his essay ''Monadologie et Sociologie'' by [[Institut Synthelabo]] under the guidance of [[Gilles Deleuze]]'s student {{ill|Eric Alliez|fr}}, Tarde's work is being re-discovered as a harbinger of postmodern French theory, particularly as influenced by the social philosophers Gilles Deleuze and [[Félix Guattari]].
* It has been argued that Tarde should be recognized as a founding figure of [[political anthropology]], in an article authored by [[Arpad Szakolczai]] and [[Bjørn Thomassen|Bjorn Thomassen]] in 2011.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Szakolczai |first=Arpad |author-link=Arpad Szakolczai |last2=Thomassen |first2=Bjorn |title=Gabriel Tarde as Political Anthropologist |url=https://www.politicalanthropology.org/images/PDF/2011_1/6Szakolczai_Thomassen.pdf |journal=[[International Political Anthropology]] |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=43–62}}</ref>

For example, in ''Difference and Repetition'', Deleuze's milestone book which affected his transition to a more socially-aware brand of philosophy and his writing partnership with Guattari, Deleuze in fact re-centered his philosophical orientation around Tarde's thesis that repetition serves difference rather than vice versa.<ref>David Toews (2003) "The New Tarde: Sociology after the End of the Social" Theory Culture & Society Vol. 20 No. 5., 81-98.</ref> Also on the heels of the re-release of Tarde's works has come an important development in which French sociologist [[Bruno Latour]] has referred to Tarde as a possible predecessor to [[actor–network theory]] in part because of Tarde's criticisms of Durkheim's conceptions of the Social.<ref>Bruno Latour (2005). ''Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press).</ref>

A book, ''The Social after Gabriel Tarde: Debates and Assessments'', edited by Matei Candea, was published by Routledge in 2010. It provides a set of mature critiques of the recent renaissance of Tarde as well as suggesting models for scholars to use Tarde's thought in their scholarship. This book includes contributions that philosophically reflect the [[Bruno Latour|Latour]]ian (including a contribution from Latour himself) as well as Deleuzian approaches to Tarde, and also highlight a number of new ways Tarde is being adapted in terms of methods in contemporary sociology, particularly in the area of [[ethnography]], and the study of online communities. Additionally, in 2010, [[Bruno Latour]] and [[Vincent Antonin Lepinay]] released a short book called ''The Science of Passionate Interests: An Introduction to Gabriel Tarde's Economic Anthropology'', in which they show how Tarde's work offers a strong critique of the foundations of the economics discipline and economic methodology.

Tarde's work has further influenced [[Affect (philosophy)|affect philosophy]]. For example, in 2012 [[Tony D. Sampson|Tony D Sampson]]'s book ''Virality: Contagion Theory in the Age of Networks'' used a Tarde inspired imitation thesis to describe the tendency for emotions, feelings and affects to spread "accidentally" on digital networks.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Virality: Contagion Theory in the Age of Networks|last=Sampson|first=Tony D.|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-8166-7005-5|location=Minneapolis}}</ref>

==Works==
*''[[La criminalité comparée]]'' (1886)
*''La philosophie pénale'' (1890) - Translated by Rapelje Howell and published as ''Penal Philosophy'' in 1968
*''Les lois de l'imitation'' (1890) {{cite book |last= Tarde |first= Gabriel |author-mask = — |translator=  [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] |edition = 2nd |year= 1903 |title= The Laws of Imitation |url= https://archive.org/details/lawsofimitation00tard |place= New York |publisher= Henry Holt & Company |via= [[Internet Archive]] |accessdate= 3 November 2023}}
*''Les transformations du droit. Étude sociologique'' (1891)
*''Monadologie et sociologie'' (1893)
*''La logique sociale'' (1895)
*''Fragment d'histoire future'' (1896) – Translated by [[Cloudesley Brereton]] and published as ''Underground Man'' in 1905
*''L’opposition universelle. Essai d'une théorie des contraires'' (1897)
*''Écrits de psychologie sociale'' (1898)
*''Les lois sociales. Esquisse d'une sociologie'' (1898) – Translated to English by [[Howard C Warren]] and published in 1899 as ''Social Laws - an Outline of Sociology''
*''L'opinion et la foule'' (1901)
*''La psychologie économique'' (1902–3)

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[Diffusion]]
*[[Propaganda]]
*[[Public opinion]], one of Tarde's key concepts
*[[Serge Moscovici]]
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|22em}}

==References==
*{{cite journal|last=Thomassen|first=Bjørn|title=Émile Durkheim between Gabriel Tarde and Arnold van Gennep: founding moments of sociology and anthropology|journal=Social Anthropology|date=1 August 2012|volume=20|issue=3|pages=231–249|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8676.2012.00204.x}}. 

==Further reading==
* Pietro Semeraro, ''Il sistema penale di Gabriel Tarde'', Cedam, Padova 1984.
* Realino Marra, ''Tra pena infamante e utilità del reato. Tarde contro Durkheim, ovvero l'espiazione della colpa a fondamento del diritto criminale'', in «Dei Delitti e delle Pene», III-1, 1985, pp.&nbsp;49–92.
* Massimo Borlandi, '' Tarde et les criminologues italiens de son temps'', in ''Gabriel Tarde et la criminologie au tournant du siècle'',  Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, Villeneuve d'Ascq, 2000.
* Matei Candea, ''The social after Gabriel Tarde : debates and assessments'', Routledge, New York, 2010.
* J. S. McClelland, ''The Crowd and the Mob'' (2010).
* Robert Leroux, ''Gabriel Tarde, vie, oeuvres, concepts'', Paris, Ellipses, 2011.
* [[Jaap van Ginneken]], 'The era of the public – Tarde, social psychology, and interaction', Ch. 5 in JvG, ''Crowds, psychology and politics 1871-1899'', New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
* Tony D Sampson, ''Virality: Contagion Theory in the Age of Networks'', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 2012. {{ISBN|978-0-8166-7005-5}}
* Tony D Sampson: ''The Assemblage Brain: Sense-Making in Neuroculture'', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-5179-0117-2}}

==External links==
* {{Gutenberg author |id=36467| name=Gabriel Tarde}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Gabriel Tarde}}
* {{Librivox author |id=10299}}
* [http://re-press.org/book-files/9780980819724-Monadology_and_Sociology.pdf Open Access translation of ''Monadology and Sociology'']
* [http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/tarde_gabriel/tarde_gabriel.html Downloadable versions of many of Tarde's works (in French)]
* [http://bibliographietarde.blogspot.com/ Bibliography of his works]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tarde, Gabriel}}
[[Category:1843 births]]
[[Category:1904 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Sarlat-la-Canéda]]
[[Category:French psychologists]]
[[Category:French sociologists]]
[[Category:Social psychologists]]
[[Category:Propaganda theorists]]
[[Category:Crowd psychologists]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Collège de France]]
[[Category:French male non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]