Editing Gallo language

{{short description|Regional language of France}}
{{distinguish|Gallong language}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Expand French|Gallo|fa=yes|date=May 2013}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2008}}
}}

{{Infobox language
| name          = Gallo
| altname       = Western Armorican
| nativename    = {{lang|fr|galo}} <!-- -gallo -->
| pronunciation = 
| region        = [[Upper Brittany]]
| states        = [[France]]
| speakers      = 191,000
| date          = 2012
| ref           = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/prod_435654/fr/enquete-socio-linguistique-qui-parle-les-langues-de-bretagne-aujourd-hui?lg=fr|title=Enquête socio-linguistique : qui parle les langues de Bretagne aujourd'hui ?|date=8 October 2018|website=Région Bretagne|language=fr|trans-title=Socio-linguistic survey: who speaks the languages of Brittany today?|access-date=6 October 2018|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006235402/http://www.bretagne.bzh/jcms/prod_435654/fr/enquete-socio-linguistique-qui-parle-les-langues-de-bretagne-aujourd-hui?lg=fr|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3          = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| fam4          = [[Latin]]ic
| fam5          = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam6          = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam7          = [[Western Romance languages|Western]]
| fam8          = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo]]-[[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]]<ref name="glottoGI">{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/shif1234 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Shifted Western Romance |date=2022-05-24 |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231127113834/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/shif1234 |archive-date=2023-11-27 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>
| fam9          = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]
| fam10         = Gallo-Rhaetian?<ref name="glottoGI"/>
| fam11         = [[Franco-Provençal|Arpitan]]–[[Langues d'oïl|Oïl]]
| fam12         = [[Langues d'oïl|Oïl]]
| fam13         = [[Langues d'oïl#Armorican zone (zone armoricaine)|Armorican zone]]
| ancestor      = [[Old Latin]]
| ancestor2     = [[Vulgar Latin]]
| ancestor3     = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]
| ancestor4     = [[Old Gallo-Romance language|Old Gallo-Romance]]
| ancestor5     = [[Old French]]
| minority      = [[France]]
*[[Brittany (administrative region)|Brittany]]
*[[Loire-Atlantique]], [[Pays de la Loire]]
| glotto        = gall1275
| glottorefname = Gallo
| lingua        = 51-AAA-hb
| ietf          = fr-gallo
| map           = Pays Gallo.svg
| mapcaption    = The historical Gallo language area of [[Upper Brittany]]
| map2          = Lang Status 40-SE.svg
| mapcaption2   = {{center|Gallo is classified as Severely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''<ref>{{cite UNESCO Atlas}}</ref>}}
}}

'''Gallo''' ([[endonym]]: ''Galo''; {{Langx|fr|langue gallèse}}) is a [[languages of France|regional language]] of eastern [[Brittany]]. It is one of the [[langues d'oïl]], a [[Romance language|Romance]] sub-family that includes [[French language|French]]. Today it is spoken only by a minority of the population, as the standard form of French now predominates in this area.

Gallo was originally spoken in the [[Marches of Neustria]], an area now corresponding to the border lands between Brittany, [[Normandy]], and [[Maine (province)|Maine]]. Gallo was a shared spoken language among many of those who took part in the [[Norman conquest of England]], most of whom originated in [[Upper Brittany|Upper (i.e. eastern) Brittany]] and [[Lower Normandy|Lower (i.e. western) Normandy]], and thus had its part, together with the much bigger role played by the [[Norman language]], in the development of the [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] variety of French which would have such a strong influence on English.

Gallo continued as the everyday language of Upper Brittany, Maine, and some neighbouring portions of Normandy until the introduction of universal education across France, but is spoken today by only a small (and aging) minority of the population, having been almost entirely superseded by standard French.

As a ''langue d'oïl'', Gallo forms part of a [[dialect continuum]] which includes Norman, [[Picard language|Picard]], and the [[Poitevin dialect]] among others. One of the features that distinguish it from Norman is the absence of [[Old Norse]] influence. There is some limited [[mutual intelligibility]] with adjacent varieties of the Norman language along the linguistic frontier and with [[Guernésiais]] and [[Jèrriais]]. However, as the dialect continuum shades towards [[Mayenne|Mayennais]], there is a less clear [[isogloss]]. The clearest linguistic border is that distinguishing Gallo from [[Breton language|Breton]], a [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic Celtic language]] traditionally spoken in the western territory of Brittany.

In the west, the vocabulary of Gallo has been influenced by contact with Breton, but remains overwhelmingly Latinate. The influence of Breton decreases eastwards across Gallo-speaking territory.

{{as of|1980}}, Gallo's western extent stretches from [[Plouha]] (''Plóha''), in [[Côtes-d'Armor]], south of [[Paimpol]], passing through [[Châtelaudren]] (''Châtié''), [[Corlay]] (''Corlaè''), [[Loudéac]] (''Loudia''), east of [[Pontivy]], [[Locminé]] (''Lominoec''), [[Vannes]], and ending in the south, east of the Rhuys peninsula, in [[Morbihan]].

==Nomenclature==
{{see also|Linguistic boundary of Brittany}}
While most often spelled ''Gallo'', the name of the language is sometimes written as ''Galo'' or ''Gallot''.<ref name="Chevalier">{{Citation |last=Chevalier |first=Gwendal |title=Gallo et Breton, complémentarité ou concurrence? |date=2008 |url=https://hal-univ-lyon3.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00369542 |journal=Cahiers de sociolinguistique |issue=12 |pages=75–109 |doi=10.3917/csl.0701.0075 |s2cid=194256991 |trans-title=Gallo and Breton, complementarity or competition? |language=fr |access-date=2018-10-09|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is also referred to as {{lang|fr|langue gallèse}} or {{lang|fr|britto-roman}} in [[Brittany]].<ref name="Chevalier" /> In south [[Lower Normandy]] and in the west of {{lang|fr|[[Pays de la Loire]]|italic=no}} it is often referred to as [[patois]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/gallo.htm |title=Gallo language, alphabet and pronunciation |website=Omniglot.com |access-date=2018-10-09}}</ref> though this is a matter of some contention.<ref name=":2">Leray, Christian and Lorand, Ernestine. Dynamique interculturelle et autoformation: une histoire de vie en Pays gallo. L'Harmattan. 1995.</ref> ''Gallo'' comes from the [[Breton language|Breton]] word {{lang|br|gall}}, meaning 'foreigner', 'French' or 'non-Breton'.<ref name="Chevalier" /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Walter|first1=Henriette|title=Les langues régionales de France : le gallo, pris comme dans un étau (17/20)|url=http://www.canalacademie.com/ida6813-Les-langues-regionales-de-France-le-gallo-pris-comme-dans-un-etau.html|website=www.canalacademie.com|date=9 October 2011 |publisher=Canal Académie}}</ref> The term was first used by Breton speakers, which may explain why it is used rarely by Gallo speakers themselves. [[Henriette Walter]] conducted a survey in 1986 which showed that just over 4% of Gallo speakers in {{lang|fr|Côtes-d'Armor|italic=no}} had ever used the term, and a third of them found it "had quite a pejorative connotation". According to the survey, the term {{lang|fr|patois}} was the most common way of referring to the language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Walker|first=Henriette|title=Le français d'ici, de là, de là-bas|publisher=Le Livre de Poche|year=2000|isbn=978-2253149293|pages=113}}</ref>

The term {{lang|fr|britto-roman}} was coined by the linguist Alan-Joseph Raude in 1978 to highlight the fact that Gallo is "a Romance variety spoken by Bretons".<ref name=":2" /> Gallo should not be confused with ''Gallo-Roman'', a term that refers to the Romance varieties of ancient Gaul.

== Linguistic classification ==
Gallo is one of the ''langues d'oïl'', a dialect continuum covering the northern half of France. This group includes a wide variety of more or less well-defined and differentiated languages and dialects, which share a Latin origin and some Germanic influence from [[Frankish language|Frankish]], the language spoken by the [[Franks]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abalain|first=Hervé|title=Le français et les langues historiques de la France|publisher=Jean-Paul Gisserot|year=2007|pages=57}}</ref>

Gallo, like the other ''langues d'oïl'', is neither ancient French nor a distortion of modern French.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Machonis|first=Peter A.|title=Histoire de la langue : Du latin à l'ancien français|publisher=University Press of America|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8191-7874-9|pages=149}}</ref> The ''langues d'oïl'' are [[Gallo-Romance languages]], which also includes [[Franco-Provençal]], spoken around [[Savoy]]. These are in turn [[Romance languages]], a group which also includes, among others, [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]].

Gallo has not just borrowed words from Breton, but also aspects of grammar; the use of the preposition ''pour'' as an auxiliary verb is said to be of Celtic origin. The relationship between the two is comparable to that of the two languages of Scotland: [[Scots language|Scots]], an [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglic]] language closely related to English, and [[Scottish Gaelic]], a Celtic language descended from Old Irish.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=DeKeyser|first1=Robert|last2=Walter|first2=Henriette|date=September 1995|title=L'aventure des langues en Occident: Leur origine, leur histoire, leur géographie|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/416271|journal=Language|volume=71|issue=3|pages=659|doi=10.2307/416271|jstor=416271|issn=0097-8507|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Gallo is typically not mutually intelligible with French, primarily due to its differing [[phonology]] and vocabulary. This is in spite of what [[Paul Sébillot]] wrote in 1878: "[Gallo] is a dialect of French (...): it contains a considerable quantity of old words, a very small amount of words borrowed from Breton, and is, except for several local expressions (...) very easy to understand."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sébillot |first=Paul |date=1878 |title=Sur les limites du breton et du français, et les limites des dialectes bretons |journal=Bulletins de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris |volume=1 |pages=241}}</ref> The study of language has evolved considerably since the 19th century, however, and there is no longer any universally accepted criterion to distinguish decisively between language and dialect.

==Celtic, Latin and Germanic roots==
The [[Celts]] settled in [[Armorica]] toward the 8th century BCE. Some of early groups mentioned in the written records of the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] were the [[Redones]] and the [[Namnetes]]. They spoke dialects of the [[Gaulish language]]<ref>[http://www.celticcountries.com/society/18-gallo-language Celtic Countries], "Gallo Language" 04 March 2014</ref> and maintained important economic ties with the [[British Isles]].<ref name="ict.griffith.edu.au">[http://www.ict.griffith.edu.au/wiseman/DECB/DECBps.html] "The Ruin and Conquest of Britain 400 A.D. - 600 A.D" 04 March 2014</ref>  [[Julius Caesar]]'s invasion of Armorica in 56 BC led to a sort of  [[Romanization]] of the population.<ref>[http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Places/Place/781091 Ancient Worlds] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106060909/http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Places/Place/781091 |date=2012-01-06 }} "Armorica" 04 March 2014</ref>  Gaulish continued to be spoken in this region until the 6th century CE,<ref>[http://indoeuro.bizland.com/tree/selt/gaulish.html]{{dead link|date=December 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} "Gaulish Language" 04 March 2014</ref>{{dubious|date=April 2025}} especially in less populated, rural areas. When the [[Bretons]] emigrated to Armorica around this time, they might have found remnants of a people who had retained their Celtic language and culture.<ref>[http://www.bretagne.fr/internet/jcms/prod_192282/languages Bretagne.fr] "An Overview of the Languages Used in Brittany" 04 March 2014</ref>{{dubious|date=April 2025}}

In contrast to Armorica's western countryside, [[Nantes]] and [[Rennes]] were Roman cultural centres. Following the [[Migration Period]],<ref name="ict.griffith.edu.au"/> these two cities, as well as regions to the east of the [[Vilaine]], including the town [[Vannes]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/623076/Vannes Encyclopædia Britannica], "Vannes" 13 April 2014</ref> fell under [[Franks|Frankish]] rule.<ref name="ict.griffith.edu.au"/>  Thus, during the [[Merovingian dynasty]], the population of Armorica was diverse, consisting of Gaulish tribes with assimilated Bretons, as well as Romanized cities and Germanic tribes.<ref>[http://sitemaker.umich.edu/mladjov/files/french_rulers.pdf]{{Dead link|date=December 2019|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} "France" 04 March 2014</ref>  War between the Frank and Breton kingdoms was constant between the 6th and 9th centuries,<ref name="ict.griffith.edu.au"/> which made the border between the two difficult to define.  Before the 10th century, Breton was spoken by at least one third of the population<ref>[http://www.sorosoro.org/en/breton Sorosoro] "Breton" 04 March 2014</ref> up to the cities of [[Pornic]] and [[Avranches]].{{dubious|date=April 2025}}

== Decline of Gallo ==
Historically, France has been a nation with a high degree of linguistic diversity matched with relative tolerance, that is until the [[French Revolution]].<ref name=":0" /> Gallo's status as a tolerated regional language of France suffered as a direct consequence of the Revolution. During this time, the [[Jacobins]] viewed regional languages as a way in which the structural inequalities of France were perpetuated.<ref name=":0" /> Accordingly, they sought to eradicate the regional languages to free their speakers of unconstitutional inequalities.

Under the [[Third French Republic|Third Republic]], public education became universal and mandatory in France, and was conducted exclusively in French; students who spoke other languages were punished. Well into the 20th century, government policy focused exclusively on French. In 1962, [[Charles de Gaulle]] established the ''Haut Comité pour la défense et l'expansion de la langue française''; this committee's purpose was to enforce the use of French, to the detriment of minority languages.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last=Radford |first=Gavin |title=French language law: The attempted ruination of France's linguistic diversity |date=2015-03-04 |url=http://trinitycollegelawreview.org/french-language-law-the-attempted-ruination-of-frances-linguistic-diversity/ |work=Trinity College Law Review (TCLR) online |language=en-GB |access-date=2016-11-07}}</ref> Furthermore, in 1994, the [[Loi Toubon]] declared that any governmental publications and advertisements must be in French.<ref name=":1" /> Gallo did not gain national recognition until the [[Constitution of France]] was amended in 2008. Article 75-1 asserts that "regional languages are part of the French heritage". Moreover, Gallo is the only langue d'oïl to be recognized as a regional language by the [[French Ministry of Education]]. Nevertheless, like all of the other regional languages of France, the use of Gallo has declined since the 19th century.

Similar to speakers of other regional languages, Gallo speakers began to perceive French as the language of intellectuals and social promotion, and Gallo as an impediment to their success.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/676254/filename/article_marges_linguistiques_enseignement_du_gallo.pdf|title=Le Gallo dans l'enseignement, l'enseignement du gallo|last=Hervé|first=Gildas d'|publisher=Marges linguistiques|access-date=November 11, 2016}}</ref> As a result, the rate of children learning the language has diminished, since parents struggle to see the benefit of Gallo in their children's future.

== Gallo and education ==
Within recent history, the presence of Gallo has fluctuated in Brittany's school system. Shortly before World War II, the Regional Federation of Bretagne introduced the idea of rejuvenating Gallo's presences in schools.<ref name="Le-Coq">{{Cite journal |last=Le-Coq |first=André |date=2009-09-01 |title=L'enseignement du gallo |url=https://trema.revues.org/942 |journal=Tréma |language=fr |issue=31 |pages=39–45 |doi=10.4000/trema.942 |issn=1167-315X|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> They were primarily motivated in increasing the linguistic competence of children.<ref name="Le-Coq" />

In 1982, Gallo was officially adopted as an optional subject in secondary schools in Brittany, even appearing on France's secondary school-exit exam, the [[Baccalauréat]].<ref name="Le-Coq" /> It took years for the Gallo language to actually be incorporated into the curriculum, but by the 1990s, the main focus of the curriculum was cultural awareness of the Gallo language and identity.<ref name="Le-Coq" /> However, in 2002, Gallo's optional-subject status in secondary schools was withdrawn.<ref name="Le-Coq" />

In reaction to the 2002 decision, an effective and committed network of Gallo activists advanced Gallo's status in Brittany schools.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Nolan |first=John Shaun |date=2008 |title=The Role of Gallo in the Identity of Upper-Breton School Pupils of the Language Variety and their Parents |url=https://www.academia.edu/5648128 |journal=Sociolinguistic Studies |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=131–153 |doi=10.1558/sols.v2i1.131 |access-date=2016-11-07}}</ref> Gallo is now taught in Upper Brittany's state schools, though the number of students enrolled in Gallo courses remains low. In the 2003–04 academic year, there were 569 students learning Gallo at secondary school or university.<ref name=":4" /> For comparison, in the same year, 3,791 students were learning Breton at the same levels of schooling.<ref name=":4" />

==Status==
[[Image:Loudéac bilingual sign Gallo.jpg|left|thumb|The town of [[Loudéac]] displays its Gallo name, ''Loudia'', on signage]]
On December 17, 2004, the [[Regional Council of Brittany]] officially recognized Breton and Gallo as "the official languages of Brittany, alongside the French language."

One of the metro stations of the Breton capital, [[Rennes]], has bilingual signage in [[French language|French]] and Gallo, but generally the Gallo language is not as visibly high-profile as the Breton language, even in its traditional heartland of the {{lang|fr|Pays Gallo}}, which includes the two historical capitals of [[Rennes]] (Gallo ''Renn'', Breton {{lang|br|Roazhon}}) and [[Nantes]] (Gallo ''Nauntt'', Breton {{lang|br|Naoned}}).

Different dialects of Gallo are distinguished, although there is a movement for standardisation on the model of the dialect of [[Upper Brittany]].

It is difficult to record the exact number of Gallo speakers today. Gallo and vernacular French form a sort of continuum, so speakers may have difficulty determining exactly which language they are speaking.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Nolan |first=John Shaun |date=2011 |title=Reassessing Gallo as a regional language in France: language emancipation vs. monolingual language ideology |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269406884 |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=209 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.2011.023|s2cid=147587111 }}</ref> Many people speak Gallo while using a considerable amount of French words and phrases, thus confounding the language question further. Moreover, Gallo speakers may have a tendency to underestimate their competence and choose thus to not report speaking it. This makes estimates of the number of speakers vary widely.<ref name=":0" />

==Literature==
Although a written literary tradition exists, Gallo is more noted for extemporised story-telling and theatrical presentations. Given Brittany's rich musical heritage, contemporary performers produce a range of music sung in Gallo (see [[Music of Brittany]]).

The roots of written Gallo literature are traced back to ''Le Livre des Manières'' written in 1178 by Étienne de Fougères, a poetical text of 336 quatrains and the earliest known Romance text from Brittany, and to ''Le Roman d'Aquin'', an anonymous 12th century chanson de geste transcribed in the 15th century but which nevertheless retains features typical of the mediaeval Romance of Brittany.

Gallo is a language of oral tradition, whose history is rich with stories, fables, and legends. Gallese legends frequently address recurring characters, such as [[Gargantua and Pantagruel|Gargantua]] and [[Morgan le Fay]], or questions of how the countryside was created. In the 19th century, oral literature was collected by researchers and folklorists such as Paul Sébillot, Adolphe Orain, Amand Dagnet and Georges Dottin. However, these authors frequently rewrote this literature in French. [[Paul Féval, père|Paul Féval]] wrote certain dialogues in Gallo in his novel ''Châteaupauvre'' (1876). Amand Dagnet (1857–1933) wrote a number of original works in Gallo, including a play ''La fille de la Brunelas'' (1901).<ref>{{cite book|last=Bourel|first=Claude|title=Contes et récits du Pays Gallo du XIIe siècle à nos jours|year=2001|publisher=Astoure|location=Fréhel|isbn=2845830262}}</ref> In the 1920's, [[Jeanne Malivel]] wrote ''Les Sept Frères'', a story which was inspired by her grand-mother and was written in Gallo. This, in part, inspired the creation of the artistic movement ''[[Seiz Breur]]''.

It was in the 1970s that a concerted effort to promote Gallo literature started. In 1979 Alan J. Raude published a proposed standardised [[orthography]] for Gallo.<ref>{{cite book|title=Paroles d'oïl|year=1994|publisher=Geste|location=Mougon|isbn=2905061952}}</ref>

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===
The [[consonant]]s in Gallo are almost the same as in French, but there are many local variants, such as the [[Voice (phonetics)|voicing]] of [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]] into [<nowiki/>[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]] in [[Pays de Retz]] and that of [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]]] into [<nowiki/>[[Voiced dental and alveolar plosives|d]]] in [[Pays de la Mée]]. Certain consonant combinations are also characteristic of certain regions, such as the [[plosive]]s [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless palatal plosive|c]]] and [<nowiki/>[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]], which can be compared to [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]] or [<nowiki/>[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]] followed by a light [<nowiki/>[[Voiced palatal approximant|j]]] sound. The [[affricate]]s [<nowiki/>[[Voiced postalveolar affricate|dʒ]]] and [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|tʃ]]] appear in the western part of [[Upper Brittany|Haute-Bretagne]], where, for example, the word ''curë'' [kyʁe] is pronounced as [tʃyʁə], and the word ''ghepe'' as [dʒep]. Elsewhere, [cyʁə] and [ɟəp] can be heard. ''Qhi'', meanwhile, can be pronounced [ki], [tʃi] or [ci]. These modifications result from an advancement of the [[place of articulation]] of the [[palatal consonant]]s. The [[Semivowel|semi-consonant]] [j] is used extensively to [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalize]] other consonants, notably [fj], [tj], [sj] and [pj]. However, this is not done in all regions, and [j] is often replaced by [l]. The word ''pllée'', for example, can be pronounced [pje] or [ple].<ref name=":2" />

[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin, [<nowiki/>[[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]] generally hasn’t been pronounced since the 13th century, but it is still used in Mené, a small region around [[Merdrignac]] and [[Plémet]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jouin |first=Serge |date=1983 |title=Communauté et diversité en Pays Gallo |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/annor.1983.3902 |journal=Cahier des Annales de Normandie |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=165–182 |doi=10.3406/annor.1983.3902 |issn=0570-1600|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan=2| !! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] !! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] !! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] !! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]/[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]] !! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} || {{IPA link|n̪}} || {{IPA link|ɲ}} ||  ||
|-
! rowspan=2|[[Plosive]]
! voiceless
| {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|t̪}} || {{IPA link|c}} || {{IPA link|k}} ||
|-
! voiced
| {{IPA link|b}} || {{IPA link|d̪}} ||  {{IPA link|ɟ}} || {{IPA link|g}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2|[[Fricative]]
! voiceless
| {{IPA link|f}} || {{IPA link|s}} || {{IPA link|ʃ}} ||  || {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! voiced 
| {{IPA link|v}} || {{IPA link|z}} || {{IPA link|ʒ}} || {{IPA link|ʁ}} ||  
|-
! rowspan=2|[[Approximant]]
! plain
|  || {{IPA link|l}} || {{IPA link|j}} ||  ||
|-
! labial
|  ||  || {{IPA link|ɥ}} || {{IPA link|w}} ||
|}

* {{IPA|/m, p, b/}} are [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]], whereas {{IPA|/f, v/}} are [[labiodental consonant|labiodental]].
* {{IPA|/n̪, t̪, d̪/}} are [[dental consonant|dental]], whereas {{IPA|/s, z, l/}} are [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]].
* {{IPA|/ɲ, c, ɟ, j/}} are [[palatal consonant|palatal]], {{IPA|/ʃ, ʒ/}} are [[post-alveolar consonant|post-alveolar]], and {{IPA|/ɥ/}} is [[labial-palatal consonant|labial-palatal]].
* {{IPA|/k, g/}} are [[velar consonant|velar]], {{IPA|/ʁ/}} is [[uvular consonant|uvular]], and {{IPA|/w/}} is [[labial-velar consonant|labial-velar]].

=== Vowels ===
The vowel system of Gallo is close to French, but they diverged as they evolved, and Gallo has a number of phenomena not found in French, such as the pervasive use of [[schwa]] and [[diphthong]]s.

In Gallo, as in French, the [<nowiki/>[[Open front unrounded vowel|a]]] of [[Latin]] in [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]] syllables has evolved into [<nowiki/>[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]] or [<nowiki/>[[Length (phonetics)|eː]]]. Thus, ''adsátis'' became ''assé'' [ase]. However, while French has combined [e] and [eː] into just [e], a distinction was preserved in Gallo. For example, when [a] was followed by [s], the [eː] became either an [e] or a diphthong, most often [ej]. The [e] became a schwa ([<nowiki/>[[Schwa|ə]]]) in most regions. This distinction between [e] and [eː] makes it possible to differentiate [[past participles]] by [[Grammatical gender|gender]] and number. While in standard French, ''chassé'', ''chassée,'' and ''chassés'' are all pronounced the same, most Gallo speakers make a [[Phoneme|phonemic]] distinction between the masculine ''chassé'' [ʃasə] and the feminine ''chassée'' or plural ''chassés'' [ʃase]. In this example, the pronunciation of ''é'' was changed when the silent feminine or plural endings were added to the word.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Chauveau |first=Jean-Paul |title=Evolutions phonétiques en gallo |date=1989 |publisher=Ed. du Centre national de la recherche scientifique |isbn=978-2-222-04281-5 |series=Sciences du langage |location=Paris}}</ref>

Latin verbs with infinitives ending in -''are'' followed the same evolutionary pattern as in French. ''Captiáre'' became ''chasser'' [ʃasə] in Gallo and ''chasser'' [ʃase] in French. This evolution of the [a] in stressed syllables varies from region to region. While in central [[Upper Brittany]], schwa has replaced [e]. In some outlying regions, it is replaced by [<nowiki/>[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]] or remains [e]. Some words do not obey the rule, such as ''pátre'' and ''mátre'', which have become ''pere'' [peʁ] and ''mere'' [meʁ] in practically all of Upper Brittany, while [pəʁ] and [məʁ] are only heard in the center-west. The [a] in open stressed syllables before [<nowiki/>[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|l]]] doesn't follow the [e]/[eː] pattern either, and has evolved very differently in different regions. ''Sále'' has thus become ''sèl'', ''sél'', ''sé'' or ''seu''.<ref name=":3" /> Schwa is also used to make a [[Syllabic consonant|syllabic]] [l] and [ʁ], as in ''berton'' [bʁˌtɔ̃].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Angoujard |first=Jean-Pierre |date=2006 |title=Natures de schwa en gallo (ou " il y a schwa, schwa et schwa ") |url=http://jep2006.irisa.fr/openconf/author/final/final-64.pdf |journal=Laboratoire de Linguistique de Nante}}</ref>

Like all [[langues d'oïl]], Gallo underwent the [[vowel shift]] known as [[Bartsch's law]], according to which the Latin [a] in open stressed syllables, when preceded by a palatal consonant, became ''ie'', as in ''cápra'', which became ''chieuvr''. As in French, the sound [j] represented by the letter i disappeared around the Renaissance, giving ''chèvre'' and ''cheuv'', though this sound can still be observed in [[Côtes-d'Armor]]. In eastern Brittany, the disappearance of the sound was even more dramatic than in French, and some speakers say ''chen'' (dog), while the French word remains ''chien'' (from Latin ''cáne'').<ref name=":3" />

The Latin [e] in open stressed syllables has also evolved into ''ie'' in both Gallo and French, with ''hĕri'' becoming ''yere'', for example. In Gallo, the vowel following the y differs from region to region. In most of Upper Brittany, it's a schwa, and elsewhere it's a [ɛ] or an [e] (the geographical distribution is the same as for [e]/[eː]). The Latin [o] in open stressed syllables became a ''ue'', then [[Monophthongization|monophthonged]] in both French and Gallo around the 12th century, becoming [<nowiki/>[[Open-mid front rounded vowel|œ]]] in French, [ə] in Gallo. ''Cór'' thus became ''qheur''. The evolution of the Latin [e] in closed stressed syllables is much more diverse, and the original diphthong ''éi'' has been replaced by a large number of phonemes varying from word to word and region to region. The many pronunciations of ''mai'', from the Latin ''mé'', illustrate this diversity: [maj], [ma], [me], [mɛ], etc. The pronunciation of Latin [o]/[u] in closed stressed syllables is more authentic in Gallo than in other langues d’oïl. ''Gùla'', for example, is pronounced [gul] in Gallo, but [gœl] in French. Some terms, however, are influenced by neighboring langues d'oïl, and ''astour'' [astuʁ] ("now", from Latin ''hóra'') is becoming [astœʁ] in eastern Upper Brittany. In the south of [[Loire-Atlantique]], thanks to contact with [[Poitevin dialect|Poitevin]], [ɔ] is common, and guernol [gɛʁnɔl] and parto [paʁtɔ] are heard instead of guernouille [gɛʁnuj] and partout [paʁtu].<ref name=":3" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]] !! rowspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]] !! rowspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! unrounded || rounded
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|y}} ||  || {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}} || {{IPA link|ø}} ||  || {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|  ||  || {{IPA link|ə}} || 
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}} {{IPA link|ɛː}} {{IPA link|ɛ̃}}  || {{IPA link|œ}} {{IPA link|œ̃}} ||  || {{IPA link|ɔ}} {{IPA link|ɔ̃}} 
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|a}} ||  ||  || {{IPA link|ɑ}} {{IPA link|ɑ̃}}
|}

=== Diphthongs ===
Gallo has diphthongs, just like Latin itself, other langues d’oïl, and other Romance languages. Diphthongs in Gallo generally use the semi-vowels [w] and [j], more rarely [ɥ]: [wa], [wə], [wi], [aw], [ja], [ju], [aj], [ej], [ɛ̃i], [ɥi], [ɥɛ̃], [ɥə], etc.<ref name=":2" /> The triphthong [jaw] is also used.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Tréhel-Tas |first=Nathalie |title=Parlons gallo: langue et culture |date=2007 |publisher=l'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-296-03247-7 |location=Paris}}</ref>

The very common diphthong [aw] most often is the result of the disappearance of a consonant that existed in Latin. For example, ''fagu'' ("beech") became ''fao'', and what once was two consecutive, separately pronounced vowels, [fau], has become a diphthong: [faw]. In some words, such as ''talpa'', the [l] became a vowel, [u], and then [w], so [al] thus became [aw]: [tawp], while in French, the [al] merged into [o]: taupe [top]. In northern Upper Brittany, diphthongs are used to express plurals: un martè [maʁtə], des martiaos [maʁtjaw]. In Loire-Atlantique, only the plural form is used.<ref name=":2" />

The nasal diphthong [ɛ̃ɔ̃], heard for example in ''grand'' ([gʁɛ̃ɔ̃] "great") is typical of western langues d’oïl and is also found in [[Norman language|Norman]], [[Poitevin–Saintongeais|Poitevin-Saintongeais]] and [[Angevin dialect|Angevin]], sometimes in slightly different forms ([aɔ̃] in Saintongeais, [ɛ̃ɑ̃] in Norman).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Langues d'oïl |url=http://corpusdelaparole.huma-num.fr/spip.php?article39 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183918/http://corpusdelaparole.huma-num.fr/spip.php?article39#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-date=3 March 2016 |website=Corpus de la parole |access-date=9 December 2023 }}</ref>

== Orthography ==

=== Overview ===
There is not yet a single writing system that is unanimously agreed upon, mainly due to regional pronunciation differences. The word for “me” could be pronounced any of the following ways: [maj], [mεj], [mej], [ma], [mε] or [me]. This large variance makes it difficult to pick a single written form that would be most suitable. If the orthography of French was used, the word could be written in countless ways: ''maï, maye, maille, mèï, mey, meille, ma, mé, mè'', etc.

However, the creation of a common writing system is important for ensuring comprehensibility of text across regions and making a dictionary. There are two main strategies that have been employed in past attempts at a writing system. One strategy proposes a single written form for words that will be pronounced differently according to the region. The other strategy proposes allowing a word to be written in multiple different ways, with different letters or letter combinations, to allow for speakers of Gallo to write according to their pronunciation. Another difference separating the proposed systems is their usage of silent letters and non-phonetic spelling. Some systems try to maintain a one-to-one correspondency between letters and sounds, whereas some choose to add silent letters or diagraphs in an attempt to better represent the sounds of Gallo.<ref name=":6">Ôbrée, Bèrtran (2008). Lire et écrire en gallo avec le Moga (in French) (2nd ed.). Retiers, France. Archived at https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chubri.org%2Fdocs%2FBani%2FMoga-le-livre.pdf%2Findex.html#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url</ref><ref name=":7">Association of Gallo Teachers (''Association des Enseignants de Gallo)'' (2009)''. [http://gallo-es-ecole.net/_media/ens/ecriture_abcd.pdf L'écriture ABCD]'' (in French). Rennes, France.</ref>

The first effort to codify Gallo spelling was undertaken by the Friends of the Gallo Language (''Association des Amis du parler gallo'') in 1977. It proposed using French spelling as a baseline and adjusting it to fit Gallo’s unique phonetic features, such as using ''lh'' to indicate palatalization and ''ë'' to represent schwa. Since then, other systems have emerged, such as ELG, MOGA, ABCD, and BAP.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison of various writing systems using an example sentence:<ref name=":5" />
!ELG
!Aneit
!Vantyé
!MOGA
!ABCD
!French translation
!English translation
|-
|Il faut qe j'auj le veir anoet.
|I faùt qe j'aùge le vair aneit.
|I faw ke j'awj le vèy ane.
|I fao qe j'aoje le vaer aneit.
|Faot qe j'aoje le vaer anet.
|Il faut que j'aille le voir aujourd'hui.
|I have to go see him today.
|}

=== ELG ===
The ELG system (short for "''écrire le gallo''", French for “write the Gallo [language]”), the oldest system, was proposed in 1978 by Alan-Joseph Raude and completely eschews French orthography. Raude based his writing system on medieval texts written in Gallo, therefore creating a system authentic to the language without reference to other modern writing systems. Regional differences were less pronounced during the Medieval era, meaning ELG’s spelling choices are based on a more standardized form.<ref name=":2" />[[Image:Signalétique gallo, métro de Rennes.jpg|thumb|A Gallo sign in the [[Rennes]] [[rapid transit|metro]]]]In the words for finger, evening, and me (in French: doigt, soir, moi), which display regional pronunciation differences, the “oi” found in French is written as “ei”, giving the forms: deit, seir, mei, though [ei] will not be the pronunciation everywhere.<ref name=":2" />

Ruczèu ("stream", in French: ruisseau) is pronounced [ʁysəw] in eastern Upper Brittany and [ʁyzəw] in the west. The ''ae'' in Bertaeyn ("Brittany"), can be pronounced [ae], [aɛ], [aə], or other possibilities. The diagraphs oe, cz, and tz are notable distinguishing elements of ELG.<ref name=":8">Raude, Alan. ''Écrire le gallo''. Rennes, France. 1993.</ref>

Word-final ''e'' ceased to be pronounced as early as the twelfth century in Gallo, several centuries before French, so Raude proposes to not write them. On the other hand, word-final silent consonants are retained to preserve the continuity between derived forms: fauc (false) (the final c is not pronounced) is related to fauchae (to mow), where the consonant is pronounced. In French, word-final e often serves to indicate an otherwise silent consonant should be pronounced, such as in grand [grɑ̃] and grande [grɑ̃d]. ELG indicates this with a doubled consonant: graund and graundd.<ref name=":2" />

ELG’s choices create a visually distinct system for Gallo, but it requires learning and is not immediately intuitive for Gallo speakers, who may not even recognize it as Gallo upon first seeing it.<ref name=":8" />

ELG is used in some public places, such as for bilingual signage in the [[Rennes]] metro system.<ref>Villard, Laurence. ''Langues dominantes, langues dominées''. Publications of the universities of Rouen and Le Havre (modern name: University Press of Rouen and Le Havre). 2008.</ref>

=== Aneit ===
[[Image:Bilingual signage-Gallo2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bilingual signage in the [[Rennes metro]]]]The Aneit system was introduced in 1984 by the Bertègn Galèzz Association, successor to the organization Friends of the Gallo Language. The system is the result of five years' research throughout Upper Brittany, and takes its name from the brochure presenting it to the public: ''Nostre lenghe aneit'' ("our language today"). Also called "unified spelling", it follows in the footsteps of ELG in terms of its basis on [[etymology]] for its spelling.

The Aneit system differs from ELG on a number of points, however. For example, every letter must have a purpose, which means that the silent h and double consonants are eliminated, except in certain specific cases (ll to indicate palatalization, etc.).<ref name=":2" /> Aneit has the same difficulties as ELG, since a speaker with a different pronunciation needs to know the standardized spelling to be able to decipher the written system. Another problem faced by Aneit is its use of [[diacritic]]s not easily accessible on a French keyboard (ó, ú and r̃).<ref name=":6" />

=== Vantyé ===
The Vantyé spelling system was developed again by the Bertègn Galèzz association in the early 1980s, and is notable for its attempt to be closer to  [[Breton language|Breton]]. The letters ''k'' and ''w'' are not native to French, which prefers ''q'' and ''o'' plus a vowel to represent [k] and [w], respectively. Breton, however, uses ''k'' and ''w'' regularly, so the Vantyé system does as well. For example, ''ke'' ("that') and ''wézyaw'' ("bird"), compared to the French ''que'' and ''oiseau''. Silent letters are also avoided in the Vantyé system.<ref name=":2" />

Unlike ELG and Aneit, Vantyé is more of a practical tool than a codified orthography, and is therefore much easier to master. However, it was primarily designed for speakers in the Mitau region, and does not account for the phonemes that exist in other regions, making it less useful as a universal standard.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michel |first=Jean-M. |title=Pihern Revue Vantyé |year=1981 |location=Guémené-Penfao, France |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":6" />

=== MOGA ===
The MOGA system was introduced in 2007 by Bèrtran Ôbrée and the Chubri Association. Unlike ELG and Aneit, which are based on etymology, it is a phonetic script. It is also intentionally close to French, making it easier for speakers of French to learn. For example, [<nowiki/>[[Voiced palatal nasal|ɲ]]] is written with the French diagraph ''gn'' instead of less familiar propositions from previous systems such as ''ny'' or ''nh''. Similarly, the diphthong [aw] is written ''ao'', instead of the ''aù'' and ''au'' of previous systems, which could create confusion, because ''au'' is a diagraph in French corresponding to a single vowel, [o]. Each MOGA letter or diagraph corresponds to a single sound.

Regional varieties are taken into account, and letter combinations are used to represent all Gallo phonemes, even if they are only used by a few speakers. The diagraph ''lh'' signifies [<nowiki/>[[Voiced palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]]], a rare phoneme that is confined to central Côtes-d'Armor.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Chubri Association |date=May 2016 |title=Règles orthographiques pour le gallo (Orthographic rules for Gallo) |url=https://www.chubri-galo.bzh/docs/files/z-ortograf/Regles-orthograph-gallo-moga-05-2016.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209033447/https://www.chubri-galo.bzh/docs/files/z-ortograf/Regles-orthograph-gallo-moga-05-2016.pdf#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-date=9 December 2023 |access-date=8 December 2023 |website=Chubri }}</ref>

The same word can be written in different ways according to local usage, such as the city of Rennes, which could be written ''Renn, Rènn, Rein-n'' or ''Rin-n''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chubri Association |date=2023 |title=ChubEndret — Dictionnaire de noms de lieux en gallo (Dictionary of place names in Gallo) |url=https://www.chubri-galo.bzh/chubri-galo_dictionnaire-gallo-francais_ChubEndret-toponymie__fr.htm }}</ref> There is therefore not one MOGA spelling, but many MOGA spellings.

=== ABCD ===
The ABCD system (from the initials of its inventors: Régis Auffray, André Bienvenu, André Le Coq, and Patrice Dréano) is used by the Association of Gallo Teachers and also the [[University of Rennes]]. It was created in 2009 and preserves the main principles of MOGA: similarity to French and phonetic spelling. Whereas MOGA allows only one sound per letter or group of letters, ABCD allows several, enabling users to make a choice. This covers regional variants, and a text in ABCD will not be read in the same way by all Gallo speakers. ABCD also mirrors the French trait of silent letters, such as the plural s, and is therefore easier to read without prior learning.<ref name=":7" />

=== Spelling equivalencies between ELG, MOGA and ABCD ===

Sources:<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=La graphie normalisée du gallo : tableau récapitulatif |url=http://www.maezoe.com/graphie5.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071130165010/http://www.maezoe.com/graphie5.htm|archive-date= 2007-11-30|access-date=30 Nov 2007}}</ref>

Most consonants are written identically between the variants, and also the same as in French, and are not included in the table. As the pronunciation of ELG and ABCD letters varies greatly from region to region, this list is not exhaustive.
{| class="wikitable"
!Phoneme
!ELG
!MOGA
!ABCD
|-
|[a]
| colspan="3" |a
|-
|[<nowiki/>[[Open back unrounded vowel|ɑ]]]
|a / au (word-final)
|â
|â / ae
|-
|[ɑ̃]
|aen / an / with labiovelarization: aun
|aun (long) / en (short)
|am / an / en / em
|-
|[ə]
|ae / aé / aeu / aéy / ei / oe
|e
|e / ë
|-
|[ɛ]
|aè / ei / èu / ey (word-final)
|è / e (word-final as a supporting vowel)
|e / è / ae / ai / aï
|-
|[e]
|aé / ey (word-final)
|é / e (word-final as a supporting vowel)
|e / é / ë
|-
|[eː]
|aé / ey (word-final)
|ée
|é
|-
|[ɛ̃]
|aen / en / 
with labiovelarization: aeun /  aun / ein
|ein (long) / in (short) / 
iñ (word-final short) / èn (short after i)
|aen / aim / ain / eim / ein
|-
|[œ] 
|oe / oey
| colspan="2" |eu
|-
|[ø] 
|oe / oey
|eû
|eû / eu
|-
|[i]
|iy (long) / i (short) / iu
|î (long) / i (short)
|i
|-
|[ɔ]
|o
|o
|o
|-
|[o]
|o
| colspan="2" |ô
|-
|[ɔ̃]
|on
|on
|om / on
|-
|[u]
|ó / ou
|ou
|ou / oû
|-
|[y]
|aü / eü / iu / uy (word-final)
|û (long) / u (short)
|û / u
|-
|[œ̃]
|un
|ûn
|um / un / eum / eun
|-
|[aj]
|aè / àè /aéy / ai
|aï
|ae / aï
|-
|[ɑj]
|ei
|âï
|ây
|-
|[aw]
|au
| colspan="2" |ao
|-
|[ɛj]
|aè / ei
|èï
|ae / aï / é
|-
|[ɛw]
|èu
|éw
|iao / éou
|-
|[əɥ]
|aeü
|eù
|eû
|-
|[ɔj]
|oy
|oï
|oy
|-
|[ɔw]
|ou
|ow
|ao
|-
|[ ʃ ]
| colspan="3" |ch
|-
|[ ʒ] 
| colspan="3" |j
|-
|[k]
| colspan="2" |c / q
|c before a, â, o and ô, otherwise: q
|-
|[tʃ ]
[c]
|q
|qh
|q before a, â, o and ô, otherwise: qh
|-
|[dʒ]
[ ɟ]
|g
| colspan="2" |gh
|}
Additionally, MOGA and ABCD use the diagraph ''ll'' in words palatalized by certain Gallo speakers. Thus, ''bllë'' is pronounced [bjə] or [blə] depending on the region.

In ABCD, the combinations mm, nm and nn work differently than in French. When two nasal consonants are written in ABCD, the first consonant nasalizes the preceding vowel, and the second consonant is pronounced as normal. ''Fenme'' is pronounced [fɑ̃m] and not [fenm], as French orthography would dictate, and ''Janne'' is pronounced [ʒɑ̃n] and not [ʒan]. As in French, if the final letter is an e or a consonant, they are generally not pronounced.<ref name=":7" />

In MOGA, [lj] is written ''lh'', and ''ñ'' is used in place of ''n'' when the preceding consonant should not be nasal: ''diñra'' is pronounced [dinʁa].<ref name=":9" />

In the ELG, certain letters and letter groups are only possible in certain positions, such as ''oey'', which only exists at the ends of words. As in ABCD, final consonants in ELG are generally silent. The sound [s] is written as ''cz'', ''c'', ''ç'' or ''s'', depending on its position in the word and the surrounding letters. Silent ''s'' at the end of a word is written ''tz.''<ref name=":10" />

==Examples==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English
! Gallo
! Old French
! French
|-
|afternoon
|''vêpré''
|''vespree''
|''après-midi'' (archaic: ''vêprée'')
|-
|apple tree
|''pommieu''
|''pomier''
|''pommier''
|-
|bee
|''avètt''
|''aveille''
|''abeille''
|-
|cider
|''cit''
|''cidre''
|''cidre''
|-
|chair
|''chaérr''
|''chaiere''
|''chaise''
|-
|cheese
|''fórmaij''
|''formage''
|''fromage''
|-
|exit
|''desort''
|''sortie''
|''sortie''
|-
|to fall
|''cheir''
|''cheoir''
|''tomber'' (archaic: ''choir'')
|-
|goat
|''biq''
|''chievre, bique''
|''chèvre'' (slang: ''bique'')
|-
|him
|''li''
|''lui, li''
|''lui''
|-
|house
|''ostèu''
|''hostel''
|''maison'' (''hôtel'')
|-
|kid
|''garsaille''
|same root as Old French ''gars''
|Same root as ''gars'', ''garçon''
|-
|lip
|''lip''
|''levre''
|''lèvre'' (or ''lippe'')
|-
|maybe
|''vantiet''
|''puet estre''
|''peut-être''
|-
|mouth
|''góll''
|''goule, boche''
|''bouche'' (''gueule'' = mouth of an animal)
|-
|now
|''astour''
|''a ceste heure''
|''maintenant'' (''à cette heure'')
|-
|number
|''limerot''
|''nombre''
|''numéro''
|-
|pear
|''peirr''
|''peire''
|''poire''
|-
|school
|''escoll''
|''escole''
|''école''
|-
|squirrel
|''chat-de-boéz'' (lit. "woods cat")
|''escurueil''
|''écureuil''
|-
|star
|''esteill''
|''esteile, estoile''
|''étoile''
|-
|timetable
|''oryaer''
|''horaire''
|''horaire''
|-
|to smoke
|''betunae''
|''fumer''
|''fumer'' (archaic: ''pétuner'')
|-
|today
|''anoet''
|''hui''
|''aujourd'hui''
|-
|to whistle
|''sublae''
|''sibler, sifler''
|''siffler''
|-
|with
|''ô'' or ''côteu avek''
|''o''/''od'', ''avoec''
|''avec''
|}

==Films==
*''Of Pipers and Wrens'' (1997).  Produced and directed by Gei Zantzinger, in collaboration with Dastum.  Lois V. Kuter, ethnomusicological consultant.  Devault, Pennsylvania:  Constant Spring Productions.

{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Languages of France}}
{{Gallo-Romance languages and dialects}}
{{Romance languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Brittany]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Oïl languages]]
[[Category:Severely endangered languages]]