Editing Gaston Bachelard

{{Short description|French philosopher}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era    = [[20th-century philosophy]]
| image  = Gaston Bachelard.jpg
| caption = 
| name             = Gaston Bachelard
| birth_date       = {{birth date|df=y|1884|6|27}}
| birth_place      = [[Bar-sur-Aube]], France
| death_date       = {{death date and age|df=y|1962|10|16|1884|6|27}}
| death_place      = [[Paris]], France
| education        = [[University of Paris]]<br>([[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]], 1920;<ref>Chimisso, Cristina (2013) ''Gaston Bachelard: Critic of Science and the Imagination''. Routledge. p. 51. {{ISBN|9781136453885}}</ref> [[Doctorat ès lettres|Dr. ès L.]], 1927)
| institutions     = [[University of Burgundy|University of Dijon]]<ref>''[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' (1998): "Bachelard, Gaston (1884-1962)".</ref><br>[[University of Paris]]
| school_tradition = [[Continental philosophy]]<ref>Mullarkey, John and Lord, Beth eds. (2009). ''The Continuum Companion to Continental Philosophy''. London: Continuum. p. 211. {{ISBN|0826498302}}</ref><br>[[French historical epistemology]]<ref>Reck, E. ed. (2016) ''The Historical Turn in Analytic Philosophy''. Springer. Ch. 2.1. {{ISBN|978-0230201538}}</ref>
| doctoral_advisor = [[Abel Rey]]<br>[[Léon Brunschvicg]]
| main_interests   = [[Historical epistemology]]<br>[[constructivist epistemology]], [[history and philosophy of science]], [[philosophy of art]], [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[psychoanalysis]], [[literary theory]], [[education]]
| notable_ideas    = [[Epistemological rupture|Epistemological break]], the poetics of space, rational [[materialism]],<ref>Mary Tiles, ''Bachelard: Science and Objectivity'', Cambridge University Press, 1984, p. 173.</ref> [[technoscience]]<br>(''techno-science'')<ref>A term for the combination of technology and science as disciplines coined in 1953 by Bachelard; see: Bachelard, Gaston (1953) ''La materialisme rationel''. Paris: PUF</ref><ref>Ihde, Don (1999) ''Expanding Hermeneutics: Visualism in Science'', Northwestern University Press. p. 8. {{ISBN|0810116065}}</ref>
| signature = SignatureGastonBachelard.png
| signature_size = 100px
}}

'''Gaston Bachelard''' ({{IPAc-en|b|æ|ʃ|ə|ˈ|l|ɑr}}; {{IPA|fr|baʃlaʁ|lang}}; 27 June 1884 – 16 October 1962) was a French [[philosopher]].<ref name="BioDict20CPhil">{{cite book | title=Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Philosophers | year=1996 | publisher=Routledge | location=London | pages=41–42 | isbn=0-415-06043-5}}</ref> He made contributions in the fields of [[poetics]] and the [[philosophy of science]]. To the latter, he introduced the concepts of ''epistemological obstacle'' and ''[[Epistemological rupture|epistemological break]]'' (''obstacle épistémologique'' and ''rupture épistémologique''). He influenced many subsequent French philosophers, among them [[Michel Foucault]], [[Louis Althusser]], [[Dominique Lecourt]] and [[Jacques Derrida]], as well as the sociologists [[Pierre Bourdieu]] and [[Bruno Latour]].

For Bachelard, the [[Objectivity (science)|scientific object]] should be constructed and therefore different from the [[Positivism|positivist sciences]]; in other words, [[information]] is in continuous construction. [[Empiricism]] and [[rationalism]] are not regarded as [[Direct and indirect realism|dualism]] or opposition but complementary, therefore studies of [[a priori and a posteriori#A priori|a priori]] and [[a priori and a posteriori#A posteriori|a posteriori]], or in other words [[reason]] and [[dialectic]], are part of [[Scientific method|scientific research.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lima|first1=Marcos Antonio Martins|last2=Marinelli|first2=Marcos|date=2011-07-13|title=A epistemologia de Gaston Bachelard: uma ruptura com as filosofias do imobilismo|journal=Revista de Ciências Humanas|volume=45|issue=2|doi=10.5007/2178-4582.2011v45n2p393|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
[[File:Bar sur Aube Gaston Bachelard.JPG|thumb|Facade painted in homage to Gaston Bachelard, in Bar-sur-Aube, his birthplace]]
Bachelard was born in [[Bar-sur-Aube]], France in 1884.

He was a [[postmaster|postal clerk]] in Bar-sur-Aube, and then studied [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] before finally becoming interested in [[philosophy]]. To obtain his doctorate (''[[doctorat ès lettres]]'') in 1927, he wrote two theses: the main one, ''Essai sur la connaissance approchée'', under the direction of [[Abel Rey]], and the complementary one, ''Étude sur l'évolution d'un problème de physique: la propagation thermique dans les solides'', supervised by [[Léon Brunschvicg]].

==Career==
[[File:Logement de Bachelard à Remiremont de 1903 à 1905 rue de la Xavée..jpg|thumb|The building in rue de la Xavée in Remiremont, where Bachelard lived from 1903 to 1905]]
He first taught from 1902 to 1903 at the college of [[Sézanne]], but turned away from teaching to consider a career in [[telegraphy]]. Literary by training, he took the technological path before moving towards science and [[mathematics]]. In particular, he was fascinated by the great discoveries of the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century ([[radioactivity]], [[quantum mechanics|quantum]] and [[Mechanical wave|wave mechanics]], [[Theory of relativity|relativity]], [[electromagnetism]] and [[wireless telegraphy]]).<ref>[https://www.babelio.com/auteur/Gaston-Bachelard/2662 Gaston Bachelard]. babelio.com</ref>

Discharged in March 1919 and unemployed, Bachelard searched and obtained a job in October as a professor of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] at the college of [[Bar-sur-Aube]].

At the age of thirty-six he began a completely unexpected philosophical career. Starting decisively in 1922, he acquired the title of [[Doctor of Letters]] at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] in 1927. His theses, supported by [[Abel Rey]] and [[Léon Brunschvicg]], were published.<ref>Étude sur l'évolution d'un problème de physique : la propagation thermique dans les solides</ref> He became a [[lecturer]] at the Faculty of Letters of [[Dijon]] from October 1927, but remained at the college of Bar-sur-Aube until 1930. He even participated in the municipal elections of 1929 to defend the project of a college for all.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kaplan | first=Edward K. | title=Gaston Bachelard's Philosophy of Imagination: An Introduction | journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research | volume=33 | issue=1 | year=1972 | pages=1–24 | jstor=2106717| doi=10.2307/2106717 }}</ref> He nevertheless accepted a professorship at the [[University of Burgundy]] when his daughter Suzanne entered the second degree.

From 1930 to 1940 he was a professor at the [[University of Burgundy|University of Dijon]]  and then was appointed chair in the [[history of science|history]] and [[philosophy of science]] at the [[University of Paris]]. On 25 August 1937 he was made a Knight of the [[Legion of Honor]]. He became a professor at the Sorbonne from 1940 to 1954. He held the chair of the history and philosophy of science, where he succeeded Abel Rey, director of the Institute of History and [[Philosophy of Science]] and Technology (IHST), which in 1992 became IHPST.<ref>{{cite book | last=Tiles | first=Mary | title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy | chapter=Bachelard, Gaston (1884–1962) | year=2016 | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=London | doi=10.4324/9780415249126-dd007-1 | isbn=9780415250696 | url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/biographical/bachelard-gaston-1884-1962/v-1}}</ref><ref name=r1/>
When he was appointed to the [[Sorbonne University|Sorbonne]] as a university professor and director of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology in 1940, he accompanied his daughter in her higher educations.<ref>Chimisso, Cristina (2013) ''Gaston Bachelard: Critic of Science and the Imagination''. Routledge. p. 133. {{ISBN|9781136453885}}</ref>

In 1958, he became a member of the [[Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium]].<ref>Alain, Dierkens (1987) [https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_1987_num_65_2_5624_t1_0416_0000_1 ''Index biographique des membres, correspondants et associés de 1769 à 1984'']. Académie Royale de Belgique. p. 19.</ref>

==Personal life and death==
Bachelard married Jeanne Rossi, a schoolteacher, in 1914. She was transferred to [[Voigny]]. His daughter Suzanne was born on 18 October. He travelled the six kilometers to Bar-sur-Aube on foot every day, was provided a very useful education, and enrolled for a [[philosophy]] degree. Jeanne died in June 1920, and Bachelard raised his daughter alone.<ref>Jean-Michel Wavelet, ''Gaston Bachelard, l'inattendu'', op. cit., p. 120 et Daniel Giroux, ''Gaston Bachelard, travailleur solitaire'', op. cit., p. 55.</ref> Despite the gender role expectations at the time, Bachelard showed great concern in supporting his daughter's development into an academic career.<ref>{{cite book | last=Wavelet | first=Jean-Michel | title=Gaston Bachelard, l'inattendu : les chemins d'une volonté | publication-place=Paris | date= 2019 | isbn=978-2-343-18246-9 | oclc=1127647176 | language=fr | page=}}</ref> Counter to stereotypes, he wanted to make his daughter, Suzanne, a scholar. Suzanne became a [[mathematician]] and philosopher involved in [[Empirical research|phenomenological]] and [[epistemological]] research of high standing.<ref>[https://en.public-welfare.com/4181380-gaston-bachelard-biography-activities-main-ideas Gaston Bachelard: biography, activities, main ideas]. public-welfare.com</ref>

In 1962, he died in [[Paris]].

==Work==
=== Psychology of Science ===
Bachelard's studies of the history and philosophy of science in such works as ''Le nouvel esprit scientifique'' ("The New Scientific Spirit", 1934) and ''La formation de l'esprit scientifique'' ("The Formation of the Scientific Mind", 1938) were based on his vision of historical [[epistemology]] as a kind of [[psychoanalysis]] of the scientific mind.

In the [[English-speaking world]], the connection Bachelard made between [[psychology]] and the history of science has been little understood.{{cn|date=February 2023}} Bachelard demonstrated how the progress of science could be blocked by certain types of mental patterns, creating the concept of ''obstacle épistémologique'' ("epistemological obstacle"). One task of epistemology is to make clear the mental patterns at use in science, in order to help scientists overcome the obstacles to knowledge. Another goal is to “give back to human reason its function of agitation and aggressiveness” as Bachelard put it in ‘L'engagement rationaliste’ (1972).<ref>{{Cite web|title=L'invention technique et théorique : la philosophie des sciences de G. Bachelard|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01336345/document|last=Grange|first=Juliette|date=2015|website=HAL-SHS- Archives ouvertes|access-date=3 May 2020}}</ref>

=== Epistemological breaks: the discontinuity of scientific progress ===
Bachelard was critical of [[Auguste Comte]]'s [[positivism]], which considered science as a continual [[Progress (history)|progress]]. To Bachelard, scientific developments such as Einstein's [[theory of relativity]] demonstrated the discontinuous nature of the [[history of sciences]]. Thus models that framed scientific development as continuous, such as that of Comte and [[Émile Meyerson]], seemed simplistic and erroneous to Bachelard.

Through his concept of "epistemological break", Bachelard underlined the discontinuity at work in the history of sciences. However the term "epistemological break" itself is almost never used by Bachelard but became famous through [[Louis Althusser]].

He showed that new theories integrated old theories in new [[Paradigm shift|paradigms]], changing the sense of concepts (for instance, the concept of [[mass (physics)|mass]], used by [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] in two different senses). Thus, [[non-Euclidean geometry]] did not contradict [[Euclidean geometry]], but integrated it into a larger framework.

=== Shifts in scientific perspective ===
Bachelard never saw how seemingly irrational theories often simply represented a drastic shift in scientific perspective. For instance, he never claimed that the [[theory of probabilities]] was just another way of complexifying reality through a deepening of rationality (even though critics like [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] found this theory irrational).<ref>''The New Scientific Mind'', V (p. 120 French ed., 1934).</ref>

One of his main theses in ''The New Scientific Mind'' was that modern sciences had replaced the classical [[ontology]] of the [[Substance theory|substance]] with an "ontology of relations", which could be assimilated to something like a [[process philosophy]]. For instance, the physical concepts of matter and rays correspond, according to him, to the metaphysical concepts of the thing and of movement; but whereas classical philosophy considered both as distinct, and the thing as [[Ontology|ontologically]] real, modern science can not distinguish matter from rays. It is thus impossible to examine an immobile thing, which was precisely the condition for knowledge according to the classical [[theory of knowledge]] (Becoming being impossible to be known, in accordance with [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]]'s [[theory of knowledge|theories of knowledge]]).

In non-Cartesian epistemology, there is no "simple substance" as in [[Cartesianism]], but only complex objects built by theories and experiments and continuously improved (VI, 4). [[Intuition (philosophy)|Intuition]] is therefore not primitive, but built (VI, 2). These themes led Bachelard to support a sort of [[constructivist epistemology]].

Bachelard was a [[rationalist]] in the [[Descartes|Cartesian]] sense, although he recommended his "non-Cartesian epistemology" as a replacement for the more standard Cartesian epistemology.<ref>''The New Scientific Mind'', conclusion.</ref> He compared "scientific knowledge" to ordinary knowledge in the way we deal with it, and saw error as only illusion: "Scientifically, one thinks truth as the historical rectification of a persistent error, and experiments as correctives for an initial, common illusion (''illusion première'')."<ref>''The New Scientific Mind'', VI, 6.</ref>

The role of [[epistemology]] is to show the history of the (scientific) production of [[concepts]]. Those concepts are not just theoretical propositions: they are simultaneously abstract and [[concrete (philosophy)|concrete]], pervading technical and [[pedagogic]]al activity. This explains why "The electric bulb is an object of scientific thought… an example of an abstract-concrete object."<ref>in ''Le Rationalisme appliqué'' (1949, 2nd ed. of 1962, p. 104ff).</ref> To understand the way it works, one has to take the detour of scientific knowledge. Epistemology is thus not a general philosophy that aims at justifying scientific reasoning. Instead, it produces regional [[history of science|histories of science]].

In addition to epistemology, Bachelard's work deals with many other topics, including poetry, dreams, [[psychoanalysis]], and the [[imagination]]. ''The Psychoanalysis of Fire'' (1938) and ''[[The Poetics of Space]]'' (1958) are among the most popular of his works: [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] cites the former and Bachelard's ''Water and Dreams'' in his ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'' (1943), and the latter had a wide reception in [[architectural theory]] circles, and continues to be influential in literary theory and creative writing. In philosophy, this nocturnal side of his work is developed by his student [[Gilbert Durand]].

==Bibliography==
His works include:
* ''Essai sur la connaissance approchée'' (1928)
* ''Étude sur l'évolution d'un problème de physique: la propagation thermique dans les solides'' (1928)
* ''La valeur inductive de la relativité'' (1929)
* ''La pluralisme cohérent de la chimie moderne'' (1932)
* ''L'Intuition de l'instant'' (1932)
* ''Les intuitions atomistiques: essai de classification'' (1933)
* ''Le nouvel esprit scientifique'' (1934)
* ''La dialectique de la durée'' (1936)
* ''L'expérience de l'espace dans la physique contemporaine'' (1937)
* ''La formation de l'esprit scientifique: contribution à une psychanalyse de la connaissance objective'' (1938)
* ''La psychanalyse du feu'' (1938) (''The Psychoanalysis of Fire'', 1964)
* ''La philosophie du non: essai d'une philosophie du nouvel esprit scientifique'' (1940), publisher Pellicanolibri, 1978
* ''L'eau et les rêves'' (1942) (''Water and Dreams'', 1983)
* ''L'air et les songes'' (1943) (''Air and Dreams'', 1988)
* ''La terre et les rêveries de la volonté'' (1948) (''Earth and Reveries of Will'', 2002)
* ''La terre et les rêveries du repos'' (1948) (''Earth and Reveries of Repose'', 2011)
* ''Le Rationalisme appliqué'' (1949)
* ''L'activité rationaliste de la physique contemporaine'' (1951)
* ''Le matérialisme rationnel'' (1953)
* ''[[The Poetics of Space|La poétique de l'espace]]'' (1957) (''The Poetics of Space'', 1964 and 2014)
* ''La poétique de la rêverie'' (1960) (''The Poetics of Reverie: Childhood, Language, and the Cosmos'', 1969)
* ''La flamme d'une chandelle'' (1961)
* ''L'engagement rationaliste'' (1972)

===English translations===
Though most of Bachelard's major works on poetics have been translated into English, only about half of his works on the philosophy of science have been translated.
*''The Poetics of Space.'' Orion Press, New York, 1964. Translation by Maria Jolas. (''La poétique de l'espace'')
*''The Psychoanalysis of Fire''. Beacon Press, Boston, 1964. Translation by Alan C. M. Ross. Preface by Northrop Frye. (''La Psychanalyse du Feu'')
*''The Philosophy of No: A Philosophy of the New Scientific Mind.'' Orion Press, New York, 1968. Translation by G.C. Waterston. (''La philosophie du non'')
*''The New Scientific Spirit.'' Beacon Press, Boston, 1985. Translation by A. Goldhammer. (''Le nouvel esprit scientifique'')
*''Dialectic of Duration.'' Clinamen, Bolton, 2000. Translation by M. McAllester Jones. (''La dialectique de la durée'')
*''The Formation of the Scientific Mind.'' Clinamen, Bolton, 2002. Translation by M. McAllester Jones. (''La formation de l'esprit scientifique'')
* ''Intuition of the Instant. ''Northwestern University Press, 2013. Translation by Eileen Rizo-Patron (''L'intuition de l'instant'')
*''Atomistic Intuitions''. State University of New York Press, 2018. Translation by Roch C. Smith (''Intuitions atomistiques'')

==Influenced==
Bachelard  influenced many subsequent French philosophers, among them [[Michel Foucault]], [[Louis Althusser]], [[Dominique Lecourt]] and [[Jacques Derrida]], as well as the sociologists [[Pierre Bourdieu]] and [[Bruno Latour]].<ref name=r1>{{cite journal |url=http://www.parrhesiajournal.org/parrhesia31/parrhesia31_simons-et-al.pdf|journal=Parrhesia |volume=31 |year=2019 |pages=1–16|last1=Simons|first1= Massimiliano|last2= Rutgeerts|first2= Jonas|last3= Masschelein|first3= Anneleen |last4= Cortois|first4= Paul|title=Gaston Bachelard and Contemporary Philosophy}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[Constructivist epistemology]]
*[[Epistemological psychology]]
*[[Ophelia complex]]
*[[Suzanne Bachelard]]
*[[Thomas S. Kuhn]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Sources ==
* [[Dominique Lecourt]], ''L’épistémologie historique de Gaston Bachelard'' (1969). Vrin, Paris, 11e édition augmentée, 2002.
* Dominique Lecourt, ''Pour une critique de l’épistémologie : Bachelard, Canguilhem, Foucault'' (1972, réed. Maspero, Paris, 5e éd. 1980).
* D. Lecourt, ''Marxism and Epistemology: Bachelard, Canguilhem and Foucault'', New Left Books, London (1975).
* Dominique Lecourt, ''Bachelard, Epistémologie, textes choisis'' (1971). PUF, Paris, 6e édition, 1996.
* Dominique Lecourt, ''Bachelard, le jour et la nuit'', Grasset, Paris, 1974.
* Didier Gil, ''Bachelard et la culture scientifique'', Presses Universitaires de France, 1993.
* Didier Gil, ''Autour de Bachelard – esprit et matière, un siècle français de philosophie des sciences (1867–1962)'', Les Belles Lettres, Encre marine, 2010.
*''Hommage à Gaston Bachelard. Etudes de philosophie et d'histoire des sciences'', by C. Bouligand, [[Georges Canguilhem|G. Canguilhem]], P. Costabel, F. Courtes, [[François Dagognet]], M. Daumas, Gilles Granger, [[Jean Hyppolite|J. Hyppolite]], R. Martin, R. Poirier and R. Taton
*''[http://www.ccic-cerisy.asso.fr/bachelardTM74.html Actes du Colloque sur Bachelard de 1970]'' ([[Colloque de Cerisy]]).
*''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2905654 L'imaginaire du concept: Bachelard, une épistémologie de la pureté]'' by [[Françoise Gaillard]], MLN, Vol. 101, No. 4, French Issue (Sep 1986), pp.&nbsp;895–911.
*''Gaston Bachelard ou le rêve des origines'', by Jean-Luc Pouliquen, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007.

==Further reading==
* {{cite encyclopedia
  | last = Dagognet
  | first = F.
  | title = Bachelard, Gaston
  | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]]
  | volume = 1
  | pages = 365–366
  | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons
  | location = New York
  |year=1970
  | isbn = 0-684-10114-9
 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=James L.|title=New Bachelards?: Reveries, Elements and Twenty-First Century Materialisms|journal=Other Modernities|date=2012|pages=156–167|doi=10.13130/2035-7680/2418|url=http://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/AMonline/article/view/2418}}
*McAllester Jones, ''Gaston Bachelard Subversive Humanist: Texts and Readings,'' University of Wisconsin Press, 1991.
*Eileen Rizo-Patron, Edward S. Casey, and Jason Wirth, eds. ''Adventures in Phenomenology, Gaston Bachelard'', State University of New York Press, 2017
*Roch C. Smith, ''Gaston Bachelard, Philosopher of Science and Imagination'', State University of New York Press, 2016
*Mary Tiles, ''Bachelard: Science and Objectivity'', Cambridge University Press, 1984

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.gastonbachelard.org/ Website of the Association of Friends of Gaston Bachelard] {{in lang|fr}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071107075823/http://www.u-bourgogne.fr/CENTRE-BACHELARD/ Centre Gaston Bachelard de Recherche sur l'Imaginaire et la Rationalité], Université de Bourgogne {{in lang|fr}}
*[http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/bachelard_gaston/bachelard_gaston.html Works of Bachelard on-line] {{in lang|fr}}

{{Continental philosophy}}
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