Editing Genital modification and mutilation

{{short description|Permanent or temporary changes to human sex organs}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}

'''Genital modifications''' are forms of [[body modification]]s applied to the [[human sex organs|human sexual organs]], including invasive modifications performed through '''genital cutting''' or [[surgery]].<ref name=Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023/> The term '''genital enhancement''' seem to be generally used for genital modifications that modify the external aspect, the way the patient wants it.<ref name=Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023>{{Cite journal |last1=Danino |first1=Michel Alain |last2=Trouilloud |first2=Pierre |last3=Benkhadra |first3=Mehdi |last4=Danino |first4=Arthur |last5=Laurent |first5=Romain |date=26 October 2023 |title=Cosmetic male genital surgery: a narrative review |journal=Annals of Translational Medicine |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.21037/atm-23-351 |doi-access=free |issn=2305-5839 |pmid=38304911|pmc=10777246}}</ref> The term '''genital mutilation''' is used for genital modifications that drastically diminish the recipient's [[quality of life]] and result in [[adverse health outcome]]s, whether [[Health|physical or mental]].<ref name=Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023/>

== Reasons ==
=== Body modification ===
{{main|Body modification}}

==== Voluntary ====

Many types of genital modification are performed at the behest of the individual, for personal, sexual, aesthetic or cultural reasons.<ref name=Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023/>

Social acceptance for male intimate cosmetic surgery seem to have happened around the 2010s, decades after other types of cosmetic surgeries.<ref name=Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023/>

[[Penile subincision]], or splitting of the underside of the penis, is widespread in the traditional cultures of [[Indigenous Australian]]s.<ref name="expressmilwaukee"/> This procedure has taken root in Western [[body modification]] culture, the [[modern primitive]]s.<ref name="expressmilwaukee"/> [[Meatotomy]] is a form that involves splitting of the [[glans penis]] alone, while bisection is a more extreme form that splits the penis entirely in half.<ref name="expressmilwaukee"/>
[[File:Clit piercing and mons pubis tattoo.jpg|thumb|Woman with [[clitoral hood piercing]]  – Taiwan, 2009]]

[[Genital piercing]]s and [[genital tattooing]] may be performed for aesthetic reasons, but piercings can have the benefit of increasing [[sexual pleasure]] for the pierced individual or their [[sex partner]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors = Neluis T, Armstrong ML, Young C, Roberts AE, Hogan L, Rinard K |year = 2014|title = Prevalence and implications of genital tattoos: A site not forgotten|journal = British Journal of Medical Practitioners|volume = 7|issue = 4 }}</ref><ref name="expressmilwaukee">{{cite web|url=http://www.expressmilwaukee.com/article-7386-penises-piercings-and-pleasure.html|title=Penises, Piercings and Pleasure|date=2009-07-23|access-date=2010-01-17|archive-date=2015-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709222053/http://expressmilwaukee.com/article-7386-penises-piercings-and-pleasure.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Similarly, [[Pearling (body modification)|pearling]] involves surgical insertion of small, inert spheres under the skin along the shaft of the penis for the purpose of providing sexual stimulation to the walls of the vagina.<ref name="expressmilwaukee"/> Similar to tattooing, [[scarification|genital scarification]] is primarily done for aesthetic reasons by adding decorative scars to the skin.<ref name = "piercing and tattoos"/> The genital decoration by scars is an ancient tradition in many cultures, both for men and women.<ref name = "piercing and tattoos">{{cite journal|vauthors=Angulo JC, García-Díez M, Martínez M |year = 2011|title = Phallic decoration in paleolithic art: genital scarification, piercing and tattoos|journal = The Journal of Urology|volume = 186|issue = 6|pages = 2498–2503|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.07.077|pmid = 22019163 }}</ref>

[[Clitoris enlargement]] may be achieved temporarily through the use of a [[clitoral pump]], or it may be achieved permanently through the [[Testosterone (medication)|application or injection of testosterone]].<ref name = "piercing and tattoos"/> [[Penis enlargement]] is a term for various techniques used to attempt to increase the size of the penis, though the safety and efficacy of these techniques are debated.<ref name = "piercing and tattoos"/>

=====Gender-affirming surgery=====
{{main|Gender-affirming surgery}}
People who are [[transgender]] may undergo [[gender-affirming surgery]] to alter their genitals to match their [[gender identity]]. Not all transgender people elect to have these surgeries.<ref name = "Neither Man nor Woman"/>

Some of the surgical procedures are [[vaginoplasty]] (creation of a vagina) and [[vulvoplasty]] (creation of a vulva) for [[trans women]] and [[metoidioplasty]] (elongation of the clitoris), [[phalloplasty]] (creation of a penis), and [[scrotoplasty]] (creation of a scrotum) for [[trans men]].<ref name = "Neither Man nor Woman"/> Trans women may also benefit from [[hair removal]] and [[facial feminization surgery]], while some trans men may have [[liposuction]] to remove fat deposits around their hips and thighs.<ref name = "Neither Man nor Woman"/> [[Hijra (South Asia)|Hijra]], a [[third gender]] found in the [[Indian subcontinent]], may opt to undergo [[castration]].<ref name = "Neither Man nor Woman">{{cite book|first=Serena|last=Nanda|author-link=Serena Nanda|title=Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India|year=1999|publisher=Wadsworth Publishing|place=Belmont, CA|edition=2nd|isbn=9780534509033 }}</ref> In some cases, a child's gender may be reassigned without their consent due to [[genital injury]], including [[David Reimer]], who was the subject of [[John Money]]'s John/Joan case.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gearhart JP, Rock JA |year=1989 |title=Total ablation of the penis after circumcision with electrocautery: a method of management and long-term followup |journal=J Urol |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=799–801 |doi=10.1016/s0022-5347(17)38893-6 |pmid=2769863}}</ref>

=====Nontherapeutic=====
The following types of unvoluntary genital cutting or surgery can be done on children, for nontherapeutic (medically unncessary) reasons:<ref name=BCBI2024>{{cite journal|last1=Abdulcadir|first1=Jasmine|last2=Adler|first2=Peter W.|last3=Almonte|first3=Melanie T.|last4=Anderson|first4=Frank W. J.|last5=Arguedas-Ramírez|first5=Gabriela|last6=Aulisio|first6=Mark P.|last7=Bader|first7=Dina|last8=Balashinsky|first8=David|last9=Baratz|first9=Arlene B.|last10=Bariş|first10=Maide|last11=Bauer|first11=Greta|last12=Behrensen|first12=Maren|last13=Ben-Yami|first13=Hanoch|last14=Boddy|first14=Janice|last15=Bootwala|first15=Yasmin|last16=Bowman-Smart|first16=Hilary|last17=Bruce|first17=Lori|last18=Buckler|first18=Max|last19=Cabral Grinspan|first19=Mauro|last20=Cannoot|first20=Pieter|last21=Carpenter|first21=Morgan|last22=Catto|first22=Marie-Xavière|last23=Catalán|first23=Moisés|last24=Chambers|first24=Clare|last25=Chapin|first25=Georganne|last26=Chegwidden|first26=James|last27=Christian Ghattas|first27=Dan|last28=Clough|first28=Sharyn|last29=Conroy|first29=Ronán M.|last30=Dabbagh|first30=Hossein|last31=Dalke|first31=Katharine B.|last32=Dallière|first32=Sophie|last33=Danon|first33=Limor Meoded|last34=Davis|first34=Dena S.|last35=Davis|first35=Georgiann|last36=Dawson|first36=Angela J.|last37=DeLaet|first37=Debra L.|last38=Dranseika|first38=Vilius|last39=DuBoff|first39=Max|last40=Dwyer|first40=James G.|last41=Earp|first41=Brian D.|last42=Esho|first42=Tammary|last43=Essén|first43=Birgitta|last44=Fahmy|first44=Mohamed A. Baky|last45=Feder|first45=Ellen K.|last46=Ferreira|first46=Nuno|last47=Fillod|first47=Odile|last48=Florquin|first48=Stéphanie|last49=Foldès|first49=Pierre|last50=Fox|first50=Marie|last51=Frisch|first51=Morten|last52=Fusaschi|first52=Michela|last53=Garland|first53=Fae|last54=Geisheker|first54=John|last55=Gheaus|first55=Anca|last56=Giménez Barbat|first56=Teresa|last57=Levin Freifrau von Gleichen|first57=Tobe|last58=Godwin|first58=Samantha|last59=Goldman|first59=Ronald|last60=Gonzalez-Polledo|first60=E. J.|last61=Goodman|first61=Jenny|last62=Gradilla|first62=Alexandro José|last63=Gruenbaum|first63=Ellen|last64=Gwaambuka|first64=Tatenda|last65=Hatem-Gantzer|first65=Ghada|last66=Hakim|first66=M.|last67=Hammond|first67=Tim|last68=Hannikainen|first68=Ivar R.|last69=van der Have|first69=Miriam|last70=Herbenick|first70=Debby|last71=Higashi|first71=Yuko|last72=Hill|first72=B. Jessie|last73=Johansen|first73=R. Elise B.|last74=Johari|first74=Aarefa|last75=Johnson-Agbakwu|first75=Crista|last76=Johnson|first76=Matthew T.|last77=Kimani|first77=Samue|last78=Komba|first78=Eva|last79=Kolak|first79=Julia|last80=Koukoui|first80=Sophia|last81=Kraus|first81=Cynthia|last82=Latham|first82=Stephen R.|last83=Laurent|first83=Bo|last84=Learner|first84=Hazel|last85=Lempert|first85=Antony|last86=Lenta|first86=Patrick|last87=Lesslar|first87=Olivia|last88=Lewis|first88=Jonathan|last89=Liao|first89=Lih-Mei|last90=Lorshbough|first90=Erika|last91=Lurenbaum|first91=Jean-Christophe|last92=MacDonald|first92=Noni E.|last93=McAllister|first93=Ryan|last94=Meddings|first94=Jonathan|last95=Merli|first95=Claudia|last96=Mertens|first96=Mayli|last97=Milos|first97=Marilyn|last98=Mishori|first98=Ranit|last99=Monro|first99=Surya|last100=Moss|first100=Lisa Braver|last101=Munzer|first101=Stephen R.|last102=Nazri|first102=Hannah M.|last103=Ncayiyana|first103=Daniel|last104=Neiders|first104=Ivars|last105=Ngosso|first105=Londé|last106=Nguena|first106=Marianne|last107=van Niekerk|first107=Anton A.|last108=Nobis|first108=Nathan|last109=Oduor|first109=Alphonce Odhiambo|last110=O’Neill|first110=Sarah|last111=Ottenheimer|first111=Deborah|last112=Paalanen|first112=Panda|last113=Palacios-González|first113=César|last114=Qing|first114=Xin|last115=Radcliffe Richards|first115=Janet|last116=Ramus|first116=Franck|last117=Rashid Khan|first117=Abdul|last118=Ray|first118=Saarrah|last119=Reis|first119=Elizabeth|last120=Reis-Dennis|first120=Samuel|last121=Remennick|first121=Larissa|last122=Richard|first122=Fabienne|last123=Roen|first123=Katrina|last124=Rubashkyn|first124=Eliana|last125=Sarajlic|first125=Eldar|last126=Sardi|first126=Lauren|last127=Schuklenk|first127=Udo|last128=Shahvisi|first128=Arianne|last129=Shaw|first129=David|last130=Sinden|first130=Guy|last131=Sidler|first131=Daniel|last132=Skitka|first132=Linda|last133=Somerville|first133=Margaret A.|last134=Sterckx|first134=Sigrid|last135=Svoboda|first135=J. Steven|last136=Taher|first136=Mariya|last137=Tangwa|first137=Godfrey B.|last138=Thomson|first138=Michael|last139=Townsend|first139=Kate Goldie|last140=Travis|first140=Mitchell|last141=Van Howe|first141=Robert S.|last142=Vash-Margita|first142=Alla|last143=Verhagen|first143=Emmanuelle|last144=Vilponen|first144=Tiina|last145=Villani|first145=Michela|last146=Viloria|first146=Hida|last147=Vintiadis|first147=Elly|last148=Virgili|first148=Tommaso|last149=Vissandjée|first149=Bilkis|last150=Ungar-Sargon|first150=Eliyahu|last151=Wahlberg|first151=Anna|last152=Wald|first152=Rebecca|last153=Walsh|first153=Reubs J.|last154=Weisenberg|first154=Desmond|last155=Wenger|first155=Hannah|last156=Wisdom|first156=Travis|last157=Zelayandia|first157=Ernesto|last158=Ziemińska|first158=Renata|last159=Zieselman|first159=Kimberly|last160=Ziyada|first160=Mai Mahgoub|date=17 July 2024|title=Genital Modifications in Prepubescent Minors: When May Clinicians Ethically Proceed?|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/15265161.2024.2353823|journal=The American Journal of Bioethics|volume=|issue=|pages=50|doi=10.1080/15265161.2024.2353823|pmid=39018160 |access-date=22 October 2024|hdl=11590/474747|hdl-access=free}}</ref> clitoral reduction surgeries on children with CAH,<ref name=BCBI2024/>{{rp|p=24}} hypospadias surgeries,<ref name=BCBI2024/>{{rp|p=24}} removal of internal gonads<ref name=BCBI2024/>{{rp|p=24}} and penile circumcision.<ref name=BCBI2024/>{{rp|p=24}} In some societies, other types of [[endosex]] girl genital cutting happen.<ref name=BCBI2024/>{{rp|p=22}}
They can be done for [[psychosocial]], [[cultural]], [[Plastic surgery|subjective-aesthetic]], or [[Prophylactic surgery|prophylactic]] perceived benefits, as judged by doctors or parents.<ref name=BCBI2024/>{{rp|p=1}}{{rp|p=17}}{{rp|p=22}}

======Opposition======
{{See also|Children's rights|Bodily integrity|Intersex human rights|Female genital mutilation|Circumcision controversies|Ethics of circumcision|Circumcision and law|Compulsory sterilization}}
{{expand section|date=February 2025}}

====== Intersex ======
{{Main|Sex assignment|Intersex surgery|History of intersex surgery|Intersex human rights}}
[[Intersex]] children and children with ambiguous genitalia may be subjected to surgeries to "normalize" the appearance of their genitalia.<ref name=":0"/>

These surgeries are usually performed for cosmetic benefit rather than for therapeutic reasons.<ref name=":0">"David Reimer, 38, Subject of the John/Joan Case" [[New York Times|The New York Times]], New York, US, Published May 12, 2004</ref> Most surgeries involving children with ambiguous genitalia are sexually damaging and may render them [[infertile]].<ref name = "Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery">[http://www.isna.org/node/97 ISNA's Amicus Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery] [[Intersex Society of North America|The Intersex Society of North America]], Dated February 7, 1998</ref> For example, in cases involving male children with [[micropenis]], doctors may recommend the child be reassigned as female.<ref>Karen S Vogt, MD, Michael J Bourgeois, MD, Arlan L Rosenbloom, MD, Mary L Windle, PharmD, George. P Chrousos, MD, FAAP, MACP, MACE, FRCP, Merrily P M Poth, MD, Stephen Kemp, MD, PhD [http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/923178-overview#a0199 Microphallus: Epidemiology] [[Medscape]], Updated August 3, 2011</ref> The [[Intersex Society of North America]] objects to [[elective surgery|elective surgeries]] performed on people without their [[informed consent]] on grounds that such surgeries subject patients to unnecessary harm and risk.<ref>{{cite web |title=What's ISNA's position on surgery? |url=http://www.isna.org/faq/surgery |work=Intersex Society of North America}}</ref>

====As sexual violence====

Genital mutilation is common in some situations of war or armed conflict, with perpetrators using violence against the genitals of men, women, and non-binary people.<ref name = "Homosexualization">{{cite journal |last1= Eichert |first1= David|date= 2019|title= 'Homosexualization' Revisited: An Audience-Focused Theorization of Wartime Male Sexual Violence|journal= International Feminist Journal of Politics|volume= 21|issue= 3|pages= 409–433|doi= 10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264|s2cid= 150313647}}</ref> These different forms of [[sexual violence]] can terrorize targeted individuals and communities, prevent individuals from reproducing, and cause tremendous pain and psychological anguish for victims.<ref name = "Homosexualization"/>

===As treatment===
If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed.<ref name = "Pediatric surgery: diagnosis and management"/> Females may undergo [[vaginectomy]] or [[vulvectomy]] (to the vagina and vulva, respectively), while males may undergo [[penectomy]] or [[orchiectomy]] (removal of the penis and testicles, respectively).<ref name = "Pediatric surgery: diagnosis and management"/> [[Reconstructive surgery]] may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in [[gender-affirming surgery]].<ref name = "A Practical Guide to Office Gynecologic Procedures"/>

During [[childbirth]], an [[episiotomy]] (cutting part of the tissue between the vagina and the anus) is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge.<ref name = "Pediatric surgery: diagnosis and management"/>

[[Hymenotomy]] is the surgical perforation of an [[imperforate hymen]].<ref name = "Pediatric surgery: diagnosis and management"/> It may be performed to allow [[menstruation]] to occur.<ref name = "A Practical Guide to Office Gynecologic Procedures"/> An adult individual may opt for increasing the size of her hymenal opening, or removal of the hymen altogether, to facilitate [[sexual penetration]] of her vagina.<ref name = "Pediatric surgery: diagnosis and management">{{Cite book |last1=Puri |first1=Prem |title=Pediatric surgery: diagnosis and management |last2=Höllwarth |first2=Michael E. |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-69560-8 |location=Berlin New York |pages=963}}</ref><ref name = "A Practical Guide to Office Gynecologic Procedures">{{Cite book |last1=Blumenthal |first1=Paul D. |title=A Practical Guide to Office Gynecologic Procedures |last2=Berek |first2=Jonathan S. |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health |year=2013 |isbn=9781451153897 |pages=49}}</ref>

===Self-inflicted===
{{main|Self-mutilation}}
A person may engage in self-inflicted genital injury or mutilation such as [[castration]], [[penectomy]], or [[clitoridectomy]].<ref name=Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023/> The motivation behind such actions vary widely; it may be done due personal crisis related to [[gender identity]], [[mental illness]], [[self-mutilation]], [[body dysmorphia]], or social reasons.<ref name=Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023/>

{{Discrimination sidebar}}

==Female==
{{category see also|Female genital modification}}

===Female genital mutilation===
[[File:FGM prevalence UNICEF 2016.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=map|FGM in Africa, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen, as of 2015 ([[Special:Filepath/AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|map of Africa]])<ref name=UNICEF2016>[[#UNICEF2016|UNICEF 2016]].</ref>]]
{{Main|Female genital mutilation}}
[[Female genital mutilation]] (FGM), also known as female genital cutting (FGC), female circumcision, or female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), refers to "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the [[Vulva|external female genitalia]] or other surgery of the female [[sex organ|genital organs]] whether for cultural, religious or other non-therapeutic reasons."<ref name = "Definition ">Definition of the [[World Health Organization]]</ref> It is not the same as the procedures used in [[gender-affirming surgery]] or the [[genital modification]] of [[intersex]] persons.<ref name = "Definition "/>

It is practised in several parts of the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa, parts of the Middle East, and some other parts of Asia.<ref name="125million"/> Over 125 million women and girls have experienced FGM in the 29 countries in which it is concentrated.<ref name="125million">[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |date=2015-04-05 }}, p.&nbsp;22: "More than 125 million girls and women alive today have been cut in the 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East where FGM/C is concentrated.<p>
[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013], p.&nbsp;121, n.&nbsp;62: "This estimate [125 million] is derived from weighted averages of FGM/C prevalence among girls aged 0 to 14 and girls and women aged 15 to 49, using the most recently available DHS, MICS and SHHS data (1997–2012) for the 29 countries where FGM/C is concentrated. The number of girls and women who have been cut was calculated using 2011 demographic figures produced by the UN Population Division&nbsp;... The number of cut women aged 50 and older is based on FGM/C prevalence in women aged 45 to 49."</p></ref> Over eight million have been [[infibulation|infibulated]], a practice found largely in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia and Sudan.<ref name=Yoder2008p13>P.&nbsp;Stanley Yoder, Shane Khan, [http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/WP39/WP39.pdf "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total"], USAID, DHS Working Papers, No. 39, March 2008, pp.&nbsp;13–14: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. Survey data are available for Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti. Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women.&nbsp;... [T]he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in [Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, northern Sudan, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon and Tanzania, for women 15–49 years old] comes to 8,245,449, or just over eight million women." Also see Appendix B, Table 2 ("Types of FGC"), p.&nbsp;19.<p>
[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |date=2015-04-05 }}, p.&nbsp;182, identifies "sewn closed" as most common in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia for 15–49 age group (survey in 2000 for Sudan was not included), and for daughters, Djibouti, Eritrea, Niger and Somalia.
UNICEF statistical profiles on FGM, showing type of FGM: [http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_DJI.pdf Djibouti] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030110609/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_DJI.pdf |date=2014-10-30 }} (December 2013), [http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_ERI.pdf Eritrea] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030113629/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_ERI.pdf |date=2014-10-30 }} (July 2014), [http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_SOM.pdf Somalia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030114149/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_SOM.pdf |date=October 30, 2014 }} (December 2013).</p><p>
[[Gerry Mackie]], [http://pages.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/MackieASR.pdf "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720061010/http://pages.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/MackieASR.pdf |date=2019-07-20 }}, ''American Sociological Review'', 61(6), December 1996 (pp.&nbsp;999–1017), p.&nbsp;1002: "Infibulation, the harshest practice, occurs contiguously in Egyptian Nubia, the Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia, also known as Islamic Northeast Africa."</p></ref> Infibulation, the most extreme form of FGM (known as Type III), consists of the removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva, while a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood; afterwards the vagina will be opened after the wedding for sexual intercourse and childbirth (see [[episiotomy]]).<ref name = "Full list"/> In the past several decades, efforts have been made by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice.<ref name = "Full list"/> FGM is condemned by international human rights organizations.<ref name = "Full list"/> The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] prohibits FGM (Article 38).<ref name = "Full list">{{cite web|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/090000168008482e|title=Full list|website=Treaty Office}}</ref>

FGM is considered a form of [[violence against women]] by the [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]], which was adopted by the [[United Nations]] in 1993; it states: "Article Two: Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following: (a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including ... female genital mutilation ...".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm|title=A/RES/48/104 – Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements|author=United Nations General Assembly|website=www.un-documents.net}}</ref> However, because of its importance in traditional life, it continues to be practised in many societies.<ref>{{cite web|author=nthWORD Magazine|url=http://www.nthword.com/issue5/Interview_Liz_Canner_Orgasm_Inc.php|title=nthWORD Magazine Interview with Liz Canner, filmmaker of Orgasm, Inc|publisher=Nthword.com|access-date=2010-11-07|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714011000/http://www.nthword.com/issue5/Interview_Liz_Canner_Orgasm_Inc.php|archive-date=2010-07-14 }}</ref>

===Hymenorrhaphy===
{{Main|Hymenorrhaphy}}
Hymenorrhaphy refers to the practice of thickening the hymen, or, in some cases, implanting a capsule of red liquid within the newly created vaginal tissue.<ref name = "Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery"/> This new hymen is created to cause physical resistance, blood, or the appearance of blood, at the time that the individual's new husband inserts his penis into her vagina.<ref name = "Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery"/> This is done in cultures where a high value is placed on female [[virginity]] at the time of marriage.<ref name = "Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery"/> In these cultures, a woman may be punished, perhaps violently, if the community leaders deem that she was not a virgin when her marriage was [[consummate]]d.<ref name = "Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery"/> Individuals who are victims of [[rape]], who were virginal at the time of their rape, may elect for hymenorrhaphy.<ref name = "Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery"/>

===Labia stretching===
{{Main|Labia stretching}}

Labia stretching is the act of elongating the ''[[labia minora]]'' through manual manipulation (pulling) or physical equipment (such as weights).<ref name=Rwanda>{{cite web |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/97388.php |title=Rwandan Women View The Elongation Of Their Labia As Positive |date=February 15, 2008 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218124634/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/97388.php |archive-date=February 18, 2008}}</ref><ref name=enlargement>{{cite web |url=http://www.sexylabia.com/labia-enlargement1.htm |title=Enlarging Your Labia |website=Sexy Labia |access-date=April 25, 2021}}</ref> It is a familial [[cultural practice]] in Rwanda,<ref name=Rwanda/> common in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]],<ref name=who>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/reproductive-health/hrp/progress/67.pdf |title=Sexual health—a new focus for WHO |page=6 |date=2004 |publisher=WHO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316071919/https://www.who.int/reproductive-health/hrp/progress/67.pdf |archive-date=March 16, 2008}}</ref> and a [[body modification]] practice elsewhere.<ref name=enlargement/> It is performed for sexual enhancement of both partners, aesthetics, symmetry and gratification.<ref name=Rwanda/><ref name=enlargement/>

===Vulvoplasty and vaginoplasty===
{{Main|vulvoplasty|vaginoplasty|}}
[[File:Nach der Entfernung der inneren Schamlippen 1.jpg|thumb|Vulva with ''labia minora'' surgically removed]]

[[Cosmetic surgery]] of female genitalia, known as ''elective genitoplasty'', has become pejoratively known as ''"designer vagina"''. In May 2007, an article published in the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' strongly criticised this craze, citing its popularity being rooted in commercial and media influences.<ref name="bb">{{cite news|last=Bourke|first=Emily|title = Designer vagina craze worries doctors|publisher = Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date = 2009-11-12|url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/11/12/2741446.htm?site=local|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121112002110/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/11/12/2741446.htm?site=local|url-status = dead|archive-date = November 12, 2012|access-date = 2007-05-29}}</ref><ref name="bmj">{{cite journal|last = Liao|first = Lih Mei|author2=Sarah M Creighton|title = Requests for cosmetic genitoplasty: how should healthcare providers respond?|journal = BMJ|volume = 334|issue = 7603|pages = 1090–1092|date = 2007-05-26|doi = 10.1136/bmj.39206.422269.BE|pmid = 17525451|pmc = 1877941}}</ref> Similar concerns have been expressed in Australia.<ref name="bb"/>

Some women undergo vaginoplasty or vulvoplasty procedures to alter the shape of their [[vulva]]s to meet personal or societal [[aesthetic]] standards.<ref name="The Perfect Vagina Documentary">{{cite web |title=The Perfect Vagina Documentary |url=https://documentaryheaven.com/the-perfect-vagina/ |website=Documentary Heaven |access-date=October 12, 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The surgery itself is controversial, and critics refer to the procedures as "designer vagina".<ref>{{cite journal|author = Green Fiona|year = 2005|title = From clitoridectomies to 'designer vaginas': The medical construction of heteronormative female bodies and sexuality through female genital cutting|journal = Sexualities, Evolution & Gender|volume = 7|issue = 2|pages = 153–187|doi=10.1080/14616660500200223}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1-last=Essen |author1-first=Birgitta |author2-last=Johnsdotter |author2-first=Sara |year=2004 |title=Female Genital Mutilation in the West: Traditional Circumcision versus Genital Cosmetic Surgery |url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/127139 |journal=[[Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica]] |volume = 83 |issue = 7 |pages = 611–613 |doi=10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x |pmid = 15225183 |s2cid = 44583626 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414232252/http://www.hmb.utoronto.ca/HMB303H/Case_Studies/Kenya-FGM/FGM_%26_Cosmetic_Surgery.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2013 |access-date=11 October 2022|doi-access=free }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author = Braun Virginia|year = 2005|title = In search of (better) sexual pleasure: female genital 'cosmetic' surgery|journal = Sexualities|volume = 8|issue = 4|pages = 407–424|doi=10.1177/1363460705056625|s2cid = 145795666}}</ref>

In the article Designer Vaginas by Simone Weil Davis, she talks about the modification of woman's vagina and the outside influences women are pressured with, which can cause them to feel shame towards their [[labia minora]]. She states that the media, such as pornography, creates an unhealthy view of what a "good looking vagina" is and how women feel that their privates are inferior and are therefore pressured to act upon that mindset. These insecurities are forced upon women by their partners and other women as well.<ref>Davis, Simone Weil. "Designer Vaginas." Women's Voices, Feminist Visions. Ed. Susan Shaw and Janet Lee. New York: McGraw Hill (2012): 270–77.</ref> Also leading to a surge of these types of procedures is increased interest in non-surgical genital alterations, such as Brazilian waxing, that make the vulva more visible to judgment. The incentive to participate in vulvo- and vaginoplasty may also come about in an effort to manage women's physical attributes and their sexual behavior, treating their vagina as something needing to be managed or controlled and ultimately deemed "acceptable".<ref>{{cite journal|author = Rodrigues Sara|s2cid = 145095068|year = 2012|title = From Vaginal Exception to Exceptional Vagina: The Biopolitics of Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery|doi = 10.1177/1363460712454073|journal = Sexualities|volume = 15|issue = 7|pages = 778–94 }}</ref>

=== Clitoral enlargement methods ===
{{Main|Clitoral enlargement methods}}

=== Clitoral hood reduction ===
{{Main|Clitoral hood reduction}}
[[File:Clitoral hood reduction in adult caucasian female.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Clitoral hood reduction]]]]
Clitoral hood reduction is a form of hoodplasty. When performed with the consent of the adult individual, it can be considered an [[Elective surgery|elective]] [[plastic surgery]] procedure for reducing the size and the area of the [[clitoral hood]] (prepuce) in order to further expose the [[Clitoris#Glans|glans]] of the [[clitoris]]; the therapeutic goal is thought to improve the sexual functioning of the woman, and the aesthetic appeal of her [[vulva]]. The reduction of the clitoral prepuce tissues usually is a sub-ordinate surgery within a [[labiaplasty]] procedure for reducing the [[labia minora]]; and occasionally within a [[vaginoplasty]] procedure. When these procedures are performed on individuals without their consent, they are considered a form of [[female genital mutilation]].

==Male==
{{category see also|Male genital modification}}

===Castration===
{{Main|Castration}}
Castration in the genital modification and mutilation context is the removal of the [[testicles]]. Occasionally the term is also used to refer to [[#penectomy|penis removal]], but that is less common. Castration has been performed in many cultures throughout history, but is now rare. It should not be confused with [[chemical castration]].

The removal of one testicle (sometimes referred to as ''unilateral castration'') is usually done in the modern world only for medical reasons.<!-- I'm pretty sure Ford and Beech refer to an initiation right which includes this -->

===Circumcision===
{{Main|Circumcision|Circumcision surgical procedure|Circumcision controversies}}
[[File:Adult circumcision before and after.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Penis before and after circumcision]]Circumcision is the removal of the [[foreskin]], the double-layered fold of skin, mucosal and muscular tissue at the distal end of the human penis.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last1=Yosha |first1=Assaf |title=Surgical Guide to Circumcision |last2=Bolnick |first2=David |last3=Koyle |first3=Martin |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |year=2012 |isbn=9781447128588 |pages=256–257 |quote=It seems likely that in the near future revised recommendations, taking a more positive attitude to circumcision, are likely in many English-speaking countries. What of the future? Current medical advice and public health projects now underway seem to point to a worldwide increase in circumcision rates in the first half of the twenty-first century.}}</ref> Around half of all circumcisions worldwide are performed for reasons of [[preventive healthcare]]; half for religious or cultural reasons.<ref name="hay_2012">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8lMJniWK_QC |title=Current Diagnosis and Treatment Pediatrics 21/E |vauthors=Hay W, Levin M |date=25 June 2012 |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-177971-5 |pages=18–19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118224324/https://books.google.com/books?id=V8lMJniWK_QC |archive-date=18 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":73">{{Cite book |last1=Alan Glasper |first1=Edward |title=A Textbook of Children's and Young People's Nursing |last2=Richardson |first2=James |last3=Randall |first3=Duncan |publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]] |year=2021 |isbn=9780702065033 |pages=382 |chapter=Promote, Restore, and Stabilise Health Status in Children}}</ref> Circumcision involves either a conventional "cut and stitch" [[surgical procedure]] or use of a circumcision [[Surgical instrument|instrument]] or [[Medical device|device]]. Complications are rare.<ref>About 0.13% in American neonates; Krill AJ, Palmer LS, Palmer JS (2011). "Complications of circumcision". TheScientificWorldJournal. 11: 2458–2468. doi:10.1100/2011/373829. PMC 3253617. PMID 22235177.</ref><ref name="williams">{{cite journal | vauthors = Williams N, Kapila L | title = Complications of circumcision | journal = The British Journal of Surgery | volume = 80 | issue = 10 | pages = 1231–6 | date = October 1993 | pmid = 8242285 | pmc =  | doi = 10.1002/bjs.1800801005 | s2cid = 27220497 }}</ref><ref name="krill">{{cite journal |vauthors=Krill AJ, Palmer LS, Palmer JS |date=2011 |title=Complications of circumcision |journal=TheScientificWorldJournal |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2458–68 |doi=10.1100/2011/373829 |pmc=3253617 |pmid=22235177 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Modern proponents say that circumcision reduces the risks of a range of infections and diseases and confers sexual benefits.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Society |first=Canadian Paediatric |title=Newborn male circumcision {{!}} Canadian Paediatric Society |url=https://cps.ca/en/documents/position/circumcision |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=cps.ca |language=en}}</ref><ref name="AAP Statement 2012">{{cite web |url=https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/pages/Newborn-Male-Circumcision.aspx |title=Newborn Male Circumcision |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=27 August 2012 |publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics |access-date=11 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107023110/https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/pages/newborn-male-circumcision.aspx |archive-date=7 November 2017 }}</ref> Opponents, particularly of routine neonatal circumcision, question its preventive efficacy and object to subjecting non-consenting newborn males to a procedure that is potentially harmful, in their view, with little to no benefit, as well as violating their human rights and possibly negatively impacting their sex life.<ref name="AAP Critique 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Aigrain |first1=Yves |last2=Barauskas |first2=Vidmantas |last3=Bjarnason |first3=Ragnar |last4=Boddy |first4=Su-Anna |last5=Czauderna |first5=Piotr |last6=de Gier |first6=Robert P.E. |last7=de Jong |first7=Tom P.V.M. |last8=Fasching |first8=Günter |last9=Fetter |first9=Willem |last10=Gahr |first10=Manfred |last11=Graugaard |first11=Christian |last12=Greisen |first12=Gorm |last13=Gunnarsdottir |first13=Anna |last14=Hartmann |first14=Wolfram |last15=Havranek |first15=Petr |date=April 2013 |editor1-last=Frisch |editor1-first=Morten |title=Cultural Bias in the AAP's 2012 Technical Report and Policy Statement on Male Circumcision |journal=[[Pediatrics (journal)|Pediatrics]] |publisher=[[American Academy of Pediatrics]] |volume=131 |issue=4 |pages=796–800 |doi=10.1542/peds.2012-2896 |pmid=23509170 |s2cid=40444911 |editor1-link=Morten Frisch |first16=Rowena |last16=Hitchcock |first17=Simon |last17=Huddart |first18=Staffan |last18=Janson |first19=Poul |last19=Jaszczak |first20=Christoph |last20=Kupferschmid |first21=Tuija |last21=Lahdes-Vasama |first22=Harry |last22=Lindahl |first23=Noni |last23=MacDonald |first24=Trond |last24=Markestad |first25=Matis |last25=Märtson |first26=Solveig Marianne |last26=Nordhov |first27=Heikki |last27=Pälve |first28=Aigars |last28=Petersons |first29=Feargal |last29=Quinn |first30=Niels |last30=Qvist |first31=Thrainn |last31=Rosmundsson |first32=Harri |last32=Saxen |first33=Olle |last33=Söder |first34=Maximilian |last34=Stehr |first35=Volker C.H. |last35=von Loewenich |first36=Johan |last36=Wallander |first37=Rene |last37=Wijnen|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Warren |author-first=John |editor1-last=Denniston |editor1-first=George C. |editor2-last=Hodges |editor2-first=Frederick M. |editor3-last=Milos |editor3-first=Marilyn Fayre |title=Genital Autonomy: Protecting Personal Choice |pages=75–79 |date=2010 |chapter=Physical Effects of Circumcision |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wYabLqzbFEC&pg=PA75 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9446-9_7 |isbn=978-90-481-9446-9 |editor3-link=Marilyn Milos |access-date=19 November 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806031140/https://books.google.com/books?id=2wYabLqzbFEC&pg=PA75 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Svoboda|first=J. Steven|author1-link=J. Steven Svoboda|date=July 2013|title=Circumcision of male infants as a human rights violation|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|volume=39|issue=7|pages=469–474|doi=10.1136/medethics-2012-101229|issn=1473-4257|pmid=23698885|s2cid=7461936}}</ref> There is a consensus among the world's major medical organizations and in the academic literature that circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention in high-risk populations if carried out by medical professionals under safe conditions.<ref name="WHO-PrevHIV">{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Preventing HIV Through Safe Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision For Adolescent Boys And Men In Generalized HIV Epidemics |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-000854-0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122140037/https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-000854-0 |archive-date=22 November 2021 |access-date=24 May 2021 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]]}}</ref><ref name="Chikutsa-2015">For sources on this, see:

*{{cite journal |vauthors=Chikutsa A, Maharaj P |date=July 2015 |title=Social representations of male circumcision as prophylaxis against HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=603 |doi=10.1186/s12889-015-1967-z |issn=1471-2458 |pmc=4489047 |pmid=26133368 |quote=It is now generally accepted in public health spheres that medical male circumcision is efficacious in the prevention of HIV infection. |doi-access=free}}
*{{Cite book |title=Health and Other Unassailable Values: Reconfigurations of Health, Evidence and Ethics |vauthors=Bell K |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-48203-1 |pages=106 |quote=...defending the casual relation between male circumcision and reduced HIV transmission has become essentially hegemonic in the academic literature.}}
*{{Cite book |title=The AIDS Pandemic: Searching for a Global Response |vauthors=Merson M, Inrig S |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-47133-4 |pages=379}}</ref> They hold variant perspectives on the prophylactic efficacy of the elective circumcision of minors in [[Developed country|developed nations]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schoen |first=Edgar J. |date=1997-09-01 |title=Benefits of newborn circumcision: is Europe ignoring medical evidence? |url=https://adc.bmj.com/content/77/3/258 |journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood |language=en |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=258–260 |doi=10.1136/adc.77.3.258 |issn=0003-9888 |pmc=1717326 |pmid=9370910}}</ref>

===Foreskin restoration===
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2025}}
{{Main|Foreskin restoration}}
[[File:Forward and Right View of Foreskin Restoration.png|thumb|Circumcised at birth, the foreskin has been restored over years of foreskin restoration.]]
Foreskin restoration or reconstruction is the recreation of the [[foreskin]] after its removal by [[circumcision]] or injury.

Surgical restoration often involves grafting skin taken from the [[scrotum]] onto a portion of the penile shaft. Nonsurgical methods involve [[tissue expansion]] by stretching the penile skin forward over the [[glans penis]] with the aid of [[tension (physics)|tension]]. Nonsurgical restoration is the preferred method{{According to whom|date=April 2025}} as it is less costly and typically yields better results than surgical restoration. A foreskin restoration device may be of help to men pursuing nonsurgical foreskin restoration. While restoration cannot recreate the nerves or tissues lost to circumcision, it can recreate the appearance and some of the function of a natural foreskin.

===Infibulation===
{{Main|Infibulation}}
[[File:Anacreon infibulated.jpg|thumb|The Greek poet [[Anacreon]] (582–485 BC), showing {{transliteration|grc|[[kynodesme|kynodesmē]]}}]]
''Infibulation'' literally means "to close with a clasp or a pin.” The word is used to include [[Surgical suture|suturing]] of the foreskin over the [[glans penis|head of the penis]].

Early Greek infibulation consisted of tying the most distal portion of the foreskin with {{transliteration|grc|[[kynodesme]]}} to conceal the glans. The kynodesme was also used by the Etruscans and Romans (ligatura praeputii), but the Romans preferred to apply a gold, silver, or bronze ring (''annulus''), a metal clasp (''fibula'') or pin.<ref name="Schultheiss">{{Cite journal|author1=D. Schultheiss|author2=J.J. Mattelaer|author3=F.M. Hodges|date=2003|title=Preputial infibulation: from ancient medicine to modern genital piercing|journal=BJU International|volume=92|issue=7|pages=758–763|doi=10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04490.x|pmid=14616462|s2cid=8855134|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In modern times, male infibulation may be performed for personal preferences or as part of [[BDSM]].

===Emasculation===
{{Main|Emasculation}}

Emasculation is the removal of both the [[penis]] and the [[testicle]]s, the external [[Male reproductive system|male sex organs]]. It differs from [[castration]], which is the removal of the testicles only, although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably.

Genital nullification is a procedure practiced in a [[body modification]] subculture made up mostly of men who have had their genitals surgically removed. Those undergoing the procedure often go by the name of nullos, and  are not necessarily [[transgender]] or [[Non-binary gender|nonbinary]]; some identify as [[eunuch]]s.<ref name="DeMello2007">{{cite book|author=Margo DeMello|title=Encyclopedia of Body Adornment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0122BsqrZwC&pg=PA57|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-33695-9|pages=57–}}</ref>  The term ''nullo'' is short for ''genital nullification''.<ref name="gizm_TheM">{{Cite web| title = The Most Extreme Body Hacks That Actually Change Your Physical Abilities| last = Knibbs | first = Kate| work = Gizmodo| date = 2015-05-14| access-date = 2017-08-23| url = https://gizmodo.com/the-most-extreme-body-hacks-that-actually-change-your-p-1704056851}}</ref> Though the procedure is mostly sought by men, female genital mutilation may be referred to as clitoral nullification.<ref name="Harrington2016">{{cite book|author=Lee Harrington|title=Traversing Gender: Understanding Transgender Realities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PBMHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT23|date=1 May 2016|publisher=Mystic Productions Press|isbn=978-1-942733-83-6|pages=23–}}</ref>

In modern-day [[South Asia]], some members of [[Hijra (South Asia)|hijra]] communities reportedly undergo emasculation. It is called ''nirwaan'' and seen as a [[rite of passage]].<ref>Nanda, S. "Hijras: An Alternative Sex and Gender Role in India (in Herdt, G. (1996) Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History. Zone Books.)</ref>

It was part of the eunuch-making of the [[Chinese court]], and it was widespread in the [[Arab slave trade]]. A castrated slave was worth more, and this offset the losses from death.<ref name="Gordon 1989">{{Cite book|author=Murray Gordon|title=Slavery in the Arab World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l81hwFPvzYC|date=1989|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-941533-30-0}}</ref>

===Pearling===
{{Main|Pearling (body modification)}}
Pearling or genital beading is a form of body modification, the practice of permanently inserting small beads made of various materials beneath the skin of the genitals—of the labia, or of the shaft or foreskin of the penis. As well as being an aesthetic practice, this is usually intended to enhance the sexual pleasure of the receptive partner(s) during vaginal or anal intercourse.

===Penectomy===
{{Main|Penectomy|Penis removal}}
Penectomy involves the partial or total amputation of the penis. Sometimes, the removal of the entire penis was done in conjunction with castration, or incorrectly referred to as castration. Removing the penis was often performed on [[eunuchs]] and high ranking men who would frequently be in contact with women, such as those belonging to a [[harem]]. The hijra of India may remove their penis as an expression of their [[gender identity]]. In the medical field, removal of the penis may be performed for reasons of [[gangrene]] or [[cancer]].

In the [[ulwaluko]] circumcision ceremony, which is performed by spear, accidental penectomy is a serious risk.<ref>Rijken, D.J. (2014). [http://www.ulwaluko.co.za/Problems.html Description of the problems accompanying the ritual of Ulwaluko] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003000555/http://www.ulwaluko.co.za/Problems.html |date=2021-10-03 }}. Ulwaluko.co.za. Retrieved 2014-03-28.</ref>

In the United States In 1907 [[Bertha Boronda]] sliced off her husband's penis with a straight razor.<ref name="Bobbit">{{cite news|title=Bobbitt's Amputation Case Similar to a 1907 Account|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1993-11-30-9311300561-story.html|access-date=27 November 2019|agency=[[San Jose Mercury News]]|newspaper=[[Orlando Sentinel]]|date=30 November 1993}}</ref> [[John and Lorena Bobbitt|Lorena Bobbit]] infamously removed her husband's penis in 1993. In the latter case, the use of [[microsurgery]] was able to reattach Bobbitt's penis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Bobbitt's surgeons describe the day they reattached his penis: 'It came to us… in a hot dog bag' |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/john-bobbitts-surgeons-describe-day-reattached-penis-us/story?id=60023142 |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=ABC News |language=en|first1=Lauren|last1= Effron |first2=Sean |last2 =Dooley}}</ref>

===Penis enlargement===
{{Main|Penis enlargement}}

===Penis reduction===
{{Main|Penis reduction}}

===Penile subincision/meatotomy===
{{Main|Penile subincision}}
[[File:Meatotomy3.jpg|thumb|Meatotomy [[File:Subincision.png|thumb|Subincision]]]]
Penile subincision is a form of genital modification involves a [[urethrotomy]] and vertically slitting the underside of the penis from the [[Urinary meatus|meatus]] towards to the base. It was performed by people of some cultures, such as the [[Indigenous Australians]], the [[Arrernte people|Arrente]], the [[Luritja]], the [[Samburu people|Samburu]], the [[Samoans]], and the [[Native Hawaiians]]. It may also be performed for personal preference. Penile subincision may leave a man with an increased risk of [[sexually transmitted diseases]], issues with fertility (due to lack of control over what direction the sperm goes after [[ejaculation]]), and may require a man to sit down while [[urination|urinating]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wiki.bme.com/index.php?title=Meatotomy|title=Meatotomy – BME Encyclopedia|website=wiki.bme.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-13}}</ref> When the surgery is not performed in a hospital or by a licensed medical professional, complications such as infection, [[exsanguination]], or permanent damage are major concerns.

=== Penile superincision ===

A rectal slit (also known as superincision) is an incision made along the upper length of the foreskin with the intention to expose the [[glans penis]] without removing skin or tissue.

The practice appears to have occurred in Ancient Egypt, though not commonly:
{{Blockquote|A few examples of [[Old Kingdom]]... statuary present some adult males—usually priests, functionaries, or low-status workers—as having undergone a vertical slit on the dorsal aspect of the prepuce, although no flesh has been removed.<ref name="Hodges">{{cite journal|last = Hodges|first = Frederick M.|year = 2001|title = The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme|journal = [[Bulletin of the History of Medicine|The Bulletin of the History of Medicine]]|volume = 75|issue = Fall 2001|pages = 375–405|url = http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/|format = PDF|access-date = 2018-02-06|doi = 10.1353/bhm.2001.0119|pmid=11568485|s2cid = 29580193|url-access = subscription}} Hodges draws a strong distinction between the kynodesme and infibulation
"
Tethering the ''akroposthion'' with the ''kynodesme'' is frequently confused with preputial infibulation, which had different objectives and was achieved by surgically piercing the prepuce and using the holes so created for the insertion of a metal clasp (fibula) in order to fasten the prepuce shut."</ref>}}

It may be performed as a part of traditional customs, such as those in the [[Pacific Islands]] and the [[Philippines]]. In the medical field, it may be performed for as an alternative to circumcision when circumcision is undesired or impractical. It remains a rare surgery and practice overall.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Genital modification}}
* ''[http://www.noharmm.org/geography.htm The Geography of Genital Mutilations]''
* ''[http://healthsaveblog.com/female-genital-mutilation/ A world without female Genital Mutilation]''

{{Sexual abuse}}
{{Genital procedures}}
{{Reproductive health}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Genital Modification And Mutilation}}
[[Category:Genital modification and mutilation| ]]
[[Category:Mutilation]]

[[fi:Naisten sukupuolielinten silpominen]]
[[sv:Könsstympning]]