Editing Genius

{{Short description|Exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or originality}}
{{about|a higher level of intellectual ability possessed by certain individuals|mythological spirit|Genius (mythology)|other uses|Genius (disambiguation)|the taxonomic level|genus}}
{{wiktionary | genius}}

'''Genius''' is a characteristic of [[originality|original]] and exceptional [[insight]] in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for the future, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabilities of competitors.<ref name="Cox 1926">{{harvnb|Cox|1926}}</ref>  Genius is associated with [[Intelligence|intellectual]] ability and [[Creativity|creative]] productivity. The term ''genius'' can also be used to refer to people characterised by genius, and/or to [[polymath]]s who excel across many subjects.<ref name="Time">{{Cite magazine|title=What Makes a Genius? The World's Greatest Minds Have One Thing in or in other words Scott j simpkin Common|url=https://time.com/5027069/what-makes-a-genius/|access-date=2021-01-08|magazine=Time}}</ref>

There is no scientifically precise definition of genius.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Robinson|first1=Andrew|title=Can We Define Genius?|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/sudden-genius/201011/can-we-define-genius|website=Psychology Today|publisher=Sussex Publishers, LLC|access-date=25 May 2017}}</ref> When used to refer to the characteristic, genius is associated with [[Aptitude|talent]], but several authors such as [[Cesare Lombroso]] and [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] systematically distinguish these terms.<ref name="Schopenhauer">{{cite book | author = Schopenhauer, Arthur | translator = Haldane, R. B. | orig-date=1818 |  year = 1909 | title =The World as Will and Idea Volume 3| page = 158 | location = London | publisher = Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co}}</ref> [[Walter Isaacson]], biographer of many well-known geniuses, explains that although high [[intelligence]] may be a prerequisite, the most common trait that actually defines a genius may be the extraordinary ability to apply [[creativity]] and [[Imagination|imaginative]] thinking to almost any situation.<ref name="Time"/>

In the early-19th century [[Carl von Clausewitz]], who had a particular interest in what he called "[[military genius]]", defined "the essence of Genius" ({{langx |de| der Genius}}) in terms of "a very high mental capacity for certain employments".<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = von Clausewitz
 |first1               = Carl
 |author-link1         = Carl von Clausewitz
 |translator-last1     = Graham
 |translator-first1    = J.J. 
 |year                 = 1874
 |orig-date            = 1832
 |chapter              = Book 1, chapter 3: The Genius for War
 |title                = On War
 |url                  = https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1946/1946-h/1946-h.htm#chap03
 |publisher            = Project Gutenberg
 |access-date          = 15 July 2024
 |quote                = [...] it is a very difficult task to define the essence of Genius; but as we neither profess to be philosopher nor grammarian, we must be allowed to keep to the meaning usual in ordinary language, and to understand by 'genius' a very high mental capacity for certain employments.
}} 
</ref>

==Etymology==
{{Main|Genius (mythology)}}
[[Image:Srinivasa Ramanujan - OPC - 2 (cleaned).jpg|thumb|upright| [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]], a [[mathematician]] who is widely regarded as a genius. He made substantial contributions to mathematics despite little formal training.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21628904-200-mathematical-proof-reveals-magic-of-ramanujans-genius/|title= Mathematical proof reveals magic of Ramanujan's genius |website=[[New Scientist]]}}</ref>]]
[[Image:Confucius Tang Dynasty.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Confucius]], one of the most influential thinkers of the [[ancient history|ancient world]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b066d0v5|title=Genius of the Ancient World|website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref name="Confucius4">{{cite book | author = Frank N. Magill | year = 1998 | title = The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1 | quote = That education regime remained the heart of learning in China until the early twentieh century. The flourishing of his pedagogical approach is a testimony to Confucius' genius. | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=_CMl8ziTbKYC&dq=confucius+was+a+genius&pg=PA299 299]| publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn Readers}}</ref><ref name="Confucius">{{cite book | year = 2016 | title = The Ancient World's Most Influential Philosophers: The Lives and Works of Confucius, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero | publisher = Charles Rivers Editors}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Confucius/|title=Confucius|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}</ref><ref name="Confucius2">{{cite book | author = Roger T. Ames | year = 1998 | title = The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation | quote = Confucius is probably the most influential thinker in human history, if influence is determined by the sheer number of people who have lived their lives, and died, in accordance with the thinker's vision of how people ought to live, and die. Like many other epochal figures of the ancient world ... | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ulEnpjoqwTwC&dq=Confucius+influential+thinkers+ancient+world&pg=PA1]| publisher = Ballantine Books}}</ref><ref name="Confucius3">{{cite book | author = Shona Grimbly | year = 2000 | title = Encyclopedia of the Ancient World | quote = The teachings of Confucius proved to be remarkably enduring and had a huge influence on Chinese society for much of the following 2,500 years | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=CRZu51yv1X4C&dq=confucius+influential+thinkers+ancient+world&pg=PA130 1]| publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn Readers}}</ref> and the most famous [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosopher]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Confucius|title=Confucius|website=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]|date=16 February 2024 }}</ref> is often considered a genius.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b066d0v5|title=Genius of the Ancient World|website=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Charlente Tan | year = 2016 | title = Creativity and Confucius | journal = Journal of Genius and Eminence | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.18536/jge.2016.01.1.1.10 | quote = Confucius qualifies as a creative genius | page = 79}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Steve C. Wang | year = 2000 | title = In Search of Einstein's Genius | journal = Science | volume = 289 | issue = 5844 | doi = 10.18536/jge.2016.01.1.1.10 | quote = Ask people who they associate with the word 'genius' and they will invariably respond 'Einstein.' One could argue that Newton, Archimedes, Shakespeare, and Confucius displayed genius of the same order}}</ref><ref name="Confucius5">{{cite book | author = Frank N. Magill | year = 1998 | title = The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1 | quote = That education regime remained the heart of learning in China until the early twentieh century. The flourishing of his pedagogical approach is a testimony to Confucius's genius. | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=_CMl8ziTbKYC&dq=confucius+was+a+genius&pg=PA299 299]| publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn Readers}}</ref><ref name="Confucius6">{{cite book | author = Raymond Bernard | year = 1970 | title = Prenatal Origin of Genius| page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=NLFVDEgKgowC&dq=confucius+was+a+genius&pg=PA48 48]| publisher = Health Research}}</ref>]]

In [[ancient Rome]], the ''[[Genius (mythology)|genius]]'' (plural in Latin ''genii'') was the guiding spirit or [[tutelary deity]] of a [[person]], family (''[[gens]]''), or place (''[[genius loci]]'').<ref>genius. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved May 17, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/genius</ref> Connotations of the word in Latin have a lineal relationship with the Greek word ''[[Daimon|daemon]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laertius |first=Diogenes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbwUAAAAQAAJ |title=Diogenis Laertii De clarorum philosophorum vitis, dogmatibus et apophthegmatibus libri decem: Ex Italicis codicibus nunc primum excussis recensuit C. Gabr. Cobet; Accedunt Olympiodori, Ammonii, Iamblichi, Porphyrii et aliorum vitae Platonis, Aristotelis, Pythagorae, Platoni et Isiodori Ant. Westermano et Marini vita Procli J.F. Boissonadio edentibus |publisher=Didot |year=1862 |pages=152 |language=el}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=daemon {{!}} Etymology, origin and meaning of daemon by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/daemon |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=genius {{!}} Etymology, origin and meaning of genius by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/genius |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref> in classical and medieval texts'','' and also share a relationship with the Arabic word ''al-ghul'' (as in the star ''Algol''; its literal meaning being "the Demon").<ref>{{Cite web |title=algol {{!}} Etymology, origin and meaning of algol by etymonline |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/Algol |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.etymonline.com |language=en}}</ref>

The noun is related to the [[Latin conjugation|Latin verb]]s "gignere" (to beget, to give birth to) and "generare" (to beget, to generate, to procreate), and derives directly from the Indo-European stem thereof: "ǵenh" (to produce, to beget, to give birth). Because the achievements of exceptional individuals seemed to indicate the presence of a particularly powerful ''genius'', by the time of [[Augustus]], the word began to acquire its secondary meaning of "inspiration, talent".<ref>''[[Oxford Latin Dictionary]]'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), entries on ''genius'', p. 759, and ''gigno'', p. 764.</ref> The term ''genius'' acquired its modern sense in the eighteenth century, and is a conflation of two Latin terms: ''genius'', as above, and ''Ingenium'', a related noun referring to our innate dispositions, talents, and inborn nature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last = Shaw|first = Tamsin |year = 2014 |title = Wonder Boys? |url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/oct/09/wonder-boys-genius/ |journal = [[The New York Review of Books]] |volume = 61 |number = 15 |access-date = 5 October 2014 }}</ref> Beginning to blend the concepts of the divine and the talented, the ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' article on genius (génie) describes such a person as "he whose soul is more expansive and struck by the feelings of all others; interested by all that is in nature never to receive an idea unless it evokes a feeling; everything excites him and on which nothing is lost."<ref>Saint-Lambert, Jean-François de (ascribed). "Genius". ''The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project''. Translated by John S.D. Glaus Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2007. Web. 1 Apr. 2015. <http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0000.819>. Trans. of "Génie", ''Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'', vol. 7. Paris, 1757.</ref>

==Historical development==

===Galton===
[[Image:Cervantes Jáuregui.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Miguel de Cervantes]], novelist who is acknowledged as a [[literature|literary]] genius]]
The assessment of intelligence was initiated by [[Francis Galton]] (1822–1911) and [[James McKeen Cattell]]. They had advocated the analysis of reaction time and sensory acuity as measures of "neurophysiological efficiency" and the analysis of sensory acuity as a measure of intelligence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fancher |first=Raymond E |title=Alfred Binet, General Psychologist |pages=67–84 |series=Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology |volume=III |editor-first=Gregory A |editor-last=Kimble |editor2-first=Michael |editor2-last=Wertheimer |location=Hillsdale, NJ |year=1998 |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-1-55798-479-1}}</ref>

Galton is regarded as the founder of [[psychometrics|psychometry]]. He studied the work of his older half-cousin [[Charles Darwin]] about biological evolution. Hypothesizing that eminence is inherited from ancestors, Galton did a study of families of eminent people in Britain, publishing it in 1869 as ''[[Hereditary Genius]]''.<ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Galton|1869}}</ref> Galton's ideas were elaborated from the work of two early 19th-century pioneers in [[statistics]]: [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] and [[Adolphe Quetelet]]. Gauss discovered the [[normal distribution]] (bell-shaped curve): given a large number of measurements of the same variable under the same conditions, they vary at [[Randomness|random]] from a most frequent value, the "average", to two least frequent values at maximum differences greater and lower than the most frequent value. Quetelet discovered that the bell-shaped curve applied to social statistics gathered by the French government in the course of its normal processes on large numbers of people passing through the courts and the military. His initial work in criminology led him to observe "the greater the number of individuals observed the more do peculiarities become effaced...". This ideal from which the peculiarities were effaced became "the average man".<ref>{{cite book|page= [https://archive.org/details/againstgodsremar00pete_0/page/160 160]|title=Against the gods|first=Peter L.|last=Bernstein|publisher=Wiley|year=1998|isbn=0-471-12104-5|url=https://archive.org/details/againstgodsremar00pete_0/page/160 }}</ref>

Galton was inspired by Quetelet to define the average man as "an entire normal scheme"; that is, if one combines the normal curves of every measurable human characteristic, one will, in theory, perceive a syndrome straddled by "the average man" and flanked by persons that are different. In contrast to Quetelet, Galton's average man was not statistical but was theoretical only. There was no measure of general averageness, only a large number of very specific averages. Setting out to discover a general measure of the average, Galton looked at educational statistics and found bell-curves in test results of all sorts; initially in mathematics grades for the final honors examination and in entrance examination scores for [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Sandhurst]].

Galton's method in ''Hereditary Genius'' was to count and assess the eminent relatives of eminent men. He found that the number of eminent relatives was greater with a closer degree of kinship. This work is considered the first example of [[historiometry]], an analytical study of historical human progress. The work is controversial and has been criticized for several reasons. Galton then departed from Gauss in a way that became crucial to the history of the 20th century AD. The bell-shaped curve was not random, he concluded. The differences between the average and the upper end were due to a non-random factor, "natural ability", which he defined as "those qualities of intellect and disposition, which urge and qualify men to perform acts that lead to reputation…a nature which, when left to itself, will, urged by an inherent stimulus, climb the path that leads to eminence."<ref>Bernstein (1998), page 163.</ref> The apparent randomness of the scores was due to the randomness of this natural ability in the population as a whole, in theory.

Criticisms include that Galton's study fails to account for the impact of social status and the associated availability of resources in the form of economic inheritance, meaning that inherited "eminence" or "genius" can be gained through the enriched environment provided by wealthy families. Galton went on to develop the field of [[eugenics]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gillham |first1=Nicholas W. |title=Sir Francis Galton and the birth of eugenics |journal=Annual Review of Genetics |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=83–101 |date=2001 |pmid=11700278 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.090055}}</ref> Galton attempted to control for economic inheritance by comparing the adopted nephews of popes, who would have the advantage of wealth without being as closely related to popes as sons are to their fathers, to the biological children of eminent individuals.<ref name=":0" />

==Psychology==
{{see also|Creativity and mental illness}}
[[Image:Kubrick on the set of Barry Lyndon (1975 publicity photo).jpg|thumb|upright| [[Stanley Kubrick]], deemed a [[filmmaking]] genius]]
[[Image:Marie Curie c1920.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Marie Curie]], [[physicist]] and [[chemist]] cited as a genius]]

Genius is expressed in a variety of forms (e.g., mathematical, literary, musical performance). Persons with genius tend to have strong intuitions about their domains, and they build on these insights with tremendous energy.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} [[Carl Rogers]], a founder of the [[Humanistic psychology|humanistic approach to psychology]], expands on the idea of a genius trusting his or her intuition in a given field, writing: "[[El Greco]], for example, must have realized as he looked at some of his early work, that 'good artists do not paint like that.' But somehow he trusted his own experiencing of life, the process of himself, sufficiently that he could go on expressing his own unique perceptions. It was as though he could say, 'Good artists don't paint like this, but ''I'' paint like this.' Or to move to another field, Ernest Hemingway was surely aware that 'good writers do not write like this.' But fortunately he moved toward being Hemingway, being himself, rather than toward someone else's conception of a good writer."<ref>{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Carl|title=On Becoming a Person|url=https://archive.org/details/onbecomingperson00roge_969|url-access=limited|date=1995|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=0-395-75531-X|page=[https://archive.org/details/onbecomingperson00roge_969/page/n190 175]}}</ref>

It has been suggested that there exists a connection between mental illness, in particular [[schizophrenia]] and [[bipolar disorder]], and genius.<ref>''[[Vladimir Pavlovich Efroimson|Efroimson, V. P.]]'' The Genetics of Genius. 2002</ref> Individuals with bipolar disorder and [[schizotypal personality disorder]], the latter of which being more common amongst relatives of schizophrenics, tend to show elevated creativity.<ref>{{harvnb|Thys|2014|p=146}}.</ref> Several people who have been regarded as geniuses were diagnosed with [[mental disorder]]s; examples include [[Vincent van Gogh]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Van Gogh's Mental and Physical Health |url=http://www.vangoghgallery.com/misc/mental.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206110353/http://www.vangoghgallery.com/misc/mental.html |archive-date=2013-12-06 |access-date=2013-12-16}}</ref> [[Virginia Woolf]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2022 |title=Virginia Woolf |url=http://www.biography.com/people/virginia-woolf-9536773}}</ref> [[John Forbes Nash Jr.]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=John F. Nash Jr. - The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1994 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1994/nash/biographical/ |website=NobelPrize.org}}</ref> and [[Ernest Hemingway]].<ref>[http://www.biblio.com/ernest-hemingway/author/140 Ernest Hemingway]</ref>

In a 2010 study conducted by the [[Karolinska Institute]], it was observed that highly creative individuals and schizophrenics have a lower density of [[thalamus|thalamic]] [[Dopamine receptor D2|dopamine D<sub>2</sub> receptors]].<ref name=deManzano2010>{{Cite journal|last1=de Manzano|first1=Örjan|last2=Cervenka|first2=Simon|last3=Karabanov|first3=Anke|last4=Farde|first4=Lars|last5=Ullén|first5=Fredrik|date=2010-05-17|title=Thinking Outside a Less Intact Box: Thalamic Dopamine D2 Receptor Densities Are Negatively Related to Psychometric Creativity in Healthy Individuals|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5|issue=5|pages=e10670|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0010670|issn=1932-6203|pmc=2871784|pmid=20498850|bibcode=2010PLoSO...510670D|doi-access=free}}</ref> One of the investigators explained that "Fewer D<sub>2</sub> receptors in the thalamus probably means a lower degree of signal filtering, and thus a higher flow of information from the thalamus." This could be a possible mechanism behind the ability of healthy highly creative people to see numerous uncommon connections in a problem-solving situation and the bizarre associations found in schizophrenics.<ref name=deManzano2010/>

=== IQ and genius ===
[[Image:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Albert Einstein]], [[theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] who is considered a genius]]
[[Image:Ibn al-Haytham crop.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Ibn al-Haytham]], a scientist and polymath who is considered a genius<ref>{{cite web |author1=Jim Al-Khalili |title=The 'first true scientist' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |website=BBC |publisher=BBC News |access-date=19 November 2022 |date=January 4, 2009}}</ref>]]

Galton was a pioneer in investigating both eminent human achievement and mental testing. In his book ''Hereditary Genius'', written before the development of IQ testing, he proposed that hereditary influences on eminent achievement are strong, and that eminence is rare in the general population. Lewis Terman chose "'near' genius or genius" as the classification label for the highest classification on his 1916 version of the Stanford–Binet test.<ref name="Terman1916p79" /> By 1926, Terman began publishing about a longitudinal study of California schoolchildren who were referred for IQ testing by their schoolteachers, called [[Genetic Studies of Genius]], which he conducted for the rest of his life. Catherine M. Cox, a colleague of Terman's, wrote a whole book, ''The Early Mental Traits of 300 Geniuses'',<ref name="Cox 1926"/> published as volume 2 of The Genetic Studies of Genius book series, in which she analyzed biographical data about historic geniuses. Although her estimates of childhood IQ scores of historical figures who never took IQ tests have been criticized on methodological grounds,<ref name="PintneronCox" /><ref name="Shurkin1992pp70–71" /><ref name="EysenckonCox" /> Cox's study was thorough in finding out what else matters besides IQ in becoming a genius.<ref name="Cox1926pp215–219" /> By the 1937 second revision of the Stanford–Binet test, Terman no longer used the term "genius" as an IQ classification, nor has any subsequent IQ test.<ref name="TermanMerrill1960p18" /><ref name="Kaufman2009p117" /> In 1939, [[David Wechsler]] specifically commented that "we are rather hesitant about calling a person a genius on the basis of a single intelligence test score".<ref name="Wechsler1939p45" />

The Terman longitudinal study in California eventually provided historical evidence regarding how genius is related to IQ scores.<ref name="Eysenck1998pp127–128" /> Many California pupils were recommended for the study by schoolteachers. Two pupils who were tested but rejected for inclusion in the study (because their IQ scores were too low) grew up to be [[Nobel Prize]] winners in physics, [[William Shockley]],<ref name="Simonton1999p4" /><ref name="Shurkin2006p13" /> and [[Luis Walter Alvarez]].<ref name="Leslie2000" /><ref name="ParkLubinskiBenbow2010" /> Based on the historical findings of the Terman study and on biographical examples such as [[Richard Feynman]], who had a self-reported IQ of 125 and went on to win the Nobel Prize in physics and become widely known as a genius,<ref name="Gleick2011p32" /><ref name="Robinson2011p47" /> the current view of psychologists and other scholars of genius is that a minimum level of IQ (approximately 125) is necessary for genius but not sufficient, and must be combined with personality characteristics such as drive and persistence, plus the necessary opportunities for talent development.<ref name="Jensen1998p577" /><ref name="Eysenck1998p127a" /><ref name="Pickover1998p224"/> For instance, in a chapter in an edited volume on achievement, IQ researcher [[Arthur Jensen]] proposed a multiplicative model of genius consisting of high ability, high productivity, and high creativity.<ref>Jensen, A. R. (1996). "Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences". In C. P. Benbow and D. Lubinski (Eds.), ''Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Pp. 393—411.</ref> Jensen's model was motivated by the finding that eminent achievement is highly positively skewed, a finding known as [[Derek J. de Solla Price#Scientific contributions|Price's law]], and related to [[Lotka's law]].

Some high IQ individuals join a [[High IQ society]]. The most famous and largest is [[Mensa International]], but many other more selective organizations exist.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/when-high-iqs-hang-out1/ | title=When High IQs Hang Out | author=Sandy Rovner | website=Scientific American | date=2015-01-01 | access-date=2024-10-06 }}</ref>

==Philosophy==
[[Image:Leonardo da Vinci - presumed self-portrait - WGA12798.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Leonardo da Vinci]] is widely acknowledged as having been a genius and a [[polymath]].]]
[[File:Croce-Mozart-Detail.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], considered a [[Child prodigy|prodigy]] and [[music]]al genius]]

Various [[philosopher]]s have proposed definitions of what genius is and what that implies in the context of their [[Philosophy|philosophical]] theories.

In the philosophy of [[David Hume]], the way society perceives genius is similar to the way society perceives the ignorant. Hume states that a person with the characteristics of a genius is looked at as a person disconnected from society, as well as a person who works remotely, at a distance, away from the rest of the world. <blockquote>On the other hand, the mere ignorant is still more despised; nor is any thing deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments. The most perfect character is supposed to lie between those extremes; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, company, and business; preserving in conversation that discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; and in business, that probity and accuracy which are the natural result of a just philosophy.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hume|first=David|title=An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. — "Of the different Species of Philosophy"|url=http://www.bartleby.com/37/3/|publisher=Bartleby.com|location=New York|date=2001|access-date=2 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019195333/http://www.bartleby.com/37/3/1.html|archive-date=19 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote>

In the philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]], genius is the ability to independently arrive at and understand concepts that would normally have to be taught by another person. For Kant, originality was the essential character of genius.<ref>[[Howard Caygill]], Kant Dictionary ({{ISBN|0-631-17535-0}}).</ref> The artworks of the Kantian genius are also characterized by their exemplarity which is imitated by other artists and serve as a rule for other aesthetical judgements.<ref name="oclc_7626030498">{{cite journal|author=Emine Hande Thuna|url=https://academic.oup.com/jaac/article/76/2/163/5997988?searchresult=1|title=Kant on Informed Pure Judgments of Taste|journal=The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism|volume= 76|issue =2|date= April 1, 2018|pages= 163–174|doi=10.1111/jaac.12455|issn=0021-8529|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=May 20, 2021|oclc=7626030498}} (KU 5:308, cited in the section III-Products of Genius)</ref> This genius is a talent for producing ideas which can be described as non-imitative. Kant's discussion of the characteristics of genius is largely contained within the ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' and was well received by the [[romanticism|Romantics]] of the early 19th century. In addition, much of Schopenhauer's theory of genius, particularly regarding talent and freedom from constraint, is directly derived from paragraphs of Part I of Kant's ''Critique of Judgment''.
{{Blockquote|Genius is a talent for producing something for which no determinate rule can be given, not a predisposition consisting of a skill for something that can be learned by following some rule or other.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kant |first1=Immanuel |title=Kritik der Urteilskraft |trans-title=The Critique of Judgment |year=1790 |at=§46–§49}} E.g. §46 (trans. W.S. Pluhar).</ref>}}

In the philosophy of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], a genius is someone in whom intellect predominates over "[[will (philosophy)|will]]" much more than within the average person. In [[Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics|Schopenhauer's aesthetics]], this predominance of the intellect over the will allows the genius to create artistic or academic works that are objects of pure, disinterested contemplation, the chief criterion of the aesthetic experience for Schopenhauer. Their remoteness from mundane concerns means that Schopenhauer's geniuses often display [[Maladaptation|maladaptive]] traits in more mundane concerns; in Schopenhauer's words, they fall into the mire while gazing at the stars, an allusion to Plato's dialogue ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theætetus]]'', in which Socrates tells of [[Thales]] (the first philosopher) being ridiculed for falling in such circumstances. As he says in Volume 2 of ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'':

{{Blockquote|Talent hits a target no one else can hit; Genius hits a target no one else can see.|author=Arthur Schopenhauer<ref name="Schopenhauer"/>}}

In the philosophy of [[Thomas Carlyle]], genius is called (in ''[[Past and Present (book)|Past and Present]]'') "the inspired gift of God"; the "Man of Genius" possesses "the presence of God Most High in a man".<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of Collected Works, Volume XIII. Past and Present, by Thomas Carlyle. |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/26159/26159-h/26159-h.htm |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref> The actions of the "Man of Genius" can manifest this in various ways: in his "transcendent capacity of taking trouble" (often misquoted as "an infinite capacity for taking pains"),<ref>Paul F. Boller, Jr., and John George, ''They Never Said It: A Book of Fake Quotes, Misquotes, & Misleading Attributions'' (1989), p. 12.</ref> in that he can "recognise how every object has a divine beauty in it" as a poet or painter does, or in that he has "an original power of thinking".<ref>{{Cite web |title=On Heroes, Hero-worship, and the Heroic in History, by Thomas Carlyle |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1091/1091-h/1091-h.htm |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref> In accordance with his [[Great Man theory]], Carlyle considered such individuals as [[Odin]], [[William the Conqueror]] and [[Frederick the Great]] to be "Men of Genius".<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Friedrich II. Of Prussia, Volume IV. by Thomas Carlyle |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2104/2104-h/2104-h.htm |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref>

In the philosophy of [[Bertrand Russell]], genius entails that an individual possesses [[Quality (philosophy)|unique qualities]] and [[Aptitude|talents]] that make the genius especially valuable to the society in which he or she operates, once given the chance to contribute to society. Russell's philosophy further maintains, however, that it is possible for such geniuses to be crushed in their youth and lost forever when the environment around them is unsympathetic to their potential maladaptive traits. Russell rejected the notion he believed was popular during his lifetime that, "genius will out".<ref>Page 91, ''The Conquest of Happiness'', {{ISBN|0-415-37847-8}}</ref>

In his classic work ''The Limitations of Science'',<ref name="sullivan">{{cite book | author = Sullivan, JWN | year = 1933 | title = The Limitations of Science | pages = 167–168 | location = NY | publisher = Viking Press}}</ref> [[J. W. N. Sullivan]] discussed a utilitarian philosophy on the retrospective classification of genius. Namely, scholarship that is so original that, were it not for that particular contributor, would not have emerged until much later (if ever) is characteristic of genius. Conversely, scholarship that was ripe for development, no matter how profound or prominent, is not necessarily indicative of genius.

==Literature and pop culture==
[[File:Google Ngram for "genius".jpg|thumb|upright 1.5|The [[Google Books Ngram Viewer]] indicating a marked decline in use of the word "genius" from 1700 to 2022]]
Geniuses are variously portrayed in literature and film as both [[protagonist]]s and [[antagonist]]s, and may be the [[hero]] or [[villain]] of the story. In [[Popular culture|pop culture]], the genius is often stereotypically depicted as either the wisecracking whiz or the tortured genius.<ref name="highability.org">{{Cite web|date=2020-12-26|title=Pop Culture Stereotypes and the Self-Concept of Gifted People|url=http://highability.org/511/how-pop-culture-stereotypes-impact-the-self-concept-of-highly-gifted-people/|access-date=2021-01-08|website=High Ability|language=en-US}}</ref>

Throughout both literature and movies, the tortured genius character is often seen as an imperfect or [[tragic hero]] who wrestles with the burden of superior intelligence, arrogance, eccentricities, addiction, awkwardness, mental health issues, a lack of social skills, isolation, or other insecurities.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-12-10|title=10 Best Movies About Tortured Geniuses, Ranked|url=https://screenrant.com/movies-tortured-geniuses-ranked/|access-date=2021-01-08|website=ScreenRant|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Wolf|first=Elizabeth R.|date=2018|title=The trope of the tortured genius : an examination of 19th century British and American poetry|url=https://wlu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay/alma991010460729004161/01WLU_INST:01WLU|access-date=2021-01-08|website=wlu.primo.exlibrisgroup.com|language=en}}</ref> They regularly experience existential crises, struggling to overcome personal challenges to employ their special abilities for good or succumbing to their own tragic flaws and vices. This common motif repeated throughout fiction is notably present in the characters of Dr. Bruce Banner in the ''[[Hulk]]'' and [[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (character)|Dr. Henry Jekyll]] in ''[[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde|The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'', among others.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Incredible Hulk turns 30|url=https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/03/06/incredible-hulk-turns-30/|access-date=2021-01-08|website=Tampa Bay Times|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Mills|first=Ryan|date=2019-10-11|title=Using the Incredible Hulk to Teach Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde|url=https://classroom.popcultureclassroom.org/blog/using-the-incredible-hulk-to-teach-dr-jekyll-and-mr-hyde/|access-date=2021-01-08|website=Pop Culture Classroom|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111072553/https://classroom.popcultureclassroom.org/blog/using-the-incredible-hulk-to-teach-dr-jekyll-and-mr-hyde/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Although not as extreme, other examples of literary and filmic characterizations of the tortured genius stereotype, to varying degrees, include: [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] in ''[[Amadeus (film)|Amadeus]]'', [[John Forbes Nash Jr.|Dr. John Nash]] in ''[[A Beautiful Mind (film)|A Beautiful Mind]]'', [[Leonardo da Vinci]] in ''[[Da Vinci's Demons]]'', [[Gregory House|Dr. Gregory House]] in ''[[House (TV series)|House]]'', [[Will Hunting]] in ''[[Good Will Hunting]]'', and [[Sheldon Cooper|Dr. Sheldon Cooper]] in ''[[The Big Bang Theory]].''

One of the most famous genius-level rivalries to occur in literary fiction is between Sherlock Holmes and his nemesis [[Professor Moriarty]]; the latter character also identified as the modern archetype of an [[Mad scientist|evil genius]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Case of the Evil Genius|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/were-only-human/the-case-of-the-evil-genius.html|access-date=2021-01-08|website=Association for Psychological Science - APS|language=en-US}}</ref>

== See also ==
<!--Wikipedia does not have a list of geniuses, the following is provided to help users find articles on highly intelligent people.-->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Chess prodigy]]
* [[Eccentricity (behavior)]]
* [[Intellectual giftedness]]
* [[Gifted education]]
* [[List of Nobel laureates]]
* [[MacArthur Fellows Program]]
* [[Savant syndrome]]
{{div col end}}

==References==

{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Terman1916p79">{{Harvnb |Terman|1916|page=[https://archive.org/details/measurementofint008006mbp/page/n106 79]}}</ref>
<ref name="TermanMerrill1960p18">{{Harvnb |Terman|Merrill|1960|page=18}}</ref>
<ref name="PintneronCox">{{Harvnb |Pintner|1931|pages=356–357 "From a study of these boyhood records, estimates of the probable I.Q.s of these men in childhood have been made…. It is of course obvious that much error may creep into an experiment of this sort, and the I.Q. assigned to any one individual is merely a rough estimate, depending to some extent upon how much information about his boyhood years has come down to us." }}</ref>
<ref name="Shurkin1992pp70–71">{{Harvnb |Shurkin|1992|pages=70–71 "She, of course, was not measuring IQ; she was measuring the length of biographies in a book. Generally, the more information, the higher the IQ. Subjects were dragged down if there was little information about their early lives."}}</ref>
<ref name="EysenckonCox">{{Harvnb |Eysenck|1998|page=126 "Cox found that the more was known about a person's youthful accomplishments, that is, what he had done ''before'' he was engaged in doing the things that made him known as a genius, the higher was his IQ…. So she proceeded to make a statistical correction in each case for lack of knowledge; this bumped up the figure considerably for the geniuses about whom little was in fact known…. I am rather doubtful about the justification for making the correction. To do so assumes that the geniuses about whom least is known were precocious but their previous activities were not recorded. This may be true, but it is also possible to argue that perhaps there was nothing much to record! I feel uneasy about making such assumptions; doing so may be very misleading." }}</ref>
<ref name="Cox1926pp215–219">{{Harvnb |Cox|1926|pages=215–219, 218 (Chapter XIII: Conclusions) "3. That all equally intelligent children do not as adults achieve equal eminence is in part accounted for by our last conclusion: ''youths who achieve eminence are characterized not only by high intellectual traits, but also by persistence of motive and effort, confidence in their abilities, and great strength or force of character.''{{-"}} (emphasis in original).}}</ref>
<ref name="Kaufman2009p117">{{Harvnb |Kaufman|2009|page=117 "Terman (1916), as I indicated, used ''near genius or genius'' for IQs above 140, but mostly ''very superior'' has been the label of choice" (emphasis in original) }}</ref>
<ref name="Wechsler1939p45">{{Harvnb |Wechsler|1939|page=45}}</ref>
<ref name="Eysenck1998pp127–128">{{Harvnb |Eysenck|1998|pages=127–128 |quote=Terman, who originated those 'Genetics Studies of Genius,' as he called them, selected… children on the basis of their high IQs; the mean was 151 for both sexes. Seventy–seven who were tested with the newly translated and standardized Binet test had IQs of 170 or higher–well at or above the level of Cox's geniuses. What happened to these potential geniuses–did they revolutionize society?… The answer in brief is that they did very well in terms of achievement, but none reached the Nobel Prize level, let alone that of genius…. It seems clear that these data powerfully confirm the suspicion that intelligence is not a sufficient trait for truly creative achievement of the highest grade.}}</ref>
<ref name="Simonton1999p4">{{Harvnb |Simonton|1999|page=[https://archive.org/details/originsofgeniusd00simo/page/4 4] "When Terman first used the IQ test to select a sample of child geniuses, he unknowingly excluded a special child whose IQ did not make the grade. Yet a few decades later that talent received the Nobel Prize in physics: William Shockley, the cocreator of the transistor. Ironically, not one of the more than 1,500 children who qualified according to his IQ criterion received so high an honor as adults." }}</ref>
<ref name="Shurkin2006p13">{{Harvnb |Shurkin|2006|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cRb_qzEwWWAC&pg=PA13 13]; see also "[http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/200909/the-truth-about-the-termites The Truth About the 'Termites']" (Kaufman, S. B. 2009) }}</ref>
<ref name="Leslie2000">{{Harvnb |Leslie|2000|loc="[http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40678 We also know that two children who were tested but ''didn't'' make the cut -- William Shockley and Luis Alvarez -- went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. According to Hastorf, none of the Terman kids ever won a Nobel or Pulitzer.]" }}</ref>
<ref name="ParkLubinskiBenbow2010">{{Harvnb |Park|Lubinski|Benbow|2010|loc="[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=recognizing-spatial-intel There were two young boys, Luis Alvarez and William Shockley, who were among the many who took Terman's tests but missed the cutoff score. Despite their exclusion from a study of young 'geniuses,' both went on to study physics, earn PhDs, and win the Nobel prize.]" }}</ref>
<ref name="Gleick2011p32">{{Harvnb |Gleick|2011|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=j42RD66g72oC&pg=PT32 32] "Still, his score on the school IQ test was a merely respectable 125." }}</ref>
<ref name="Robinson2011p47">{{Harvnb |Robinson|2011|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UFoAiCR58YcC&pg=PA47 47] "After all, the American physicist Richard Feynman is generally considered an almost archetypal late 20th-century genius, not just in the United States but wherever physics is studied. Yet, Feynman's school-measured IQ, reported by him as 125, was not especially high" }}</ref>
<ref name="Jensen1998p577">{{Harvnb |Jensen|1998|page=577 "''Creativity'' and ''genius'' are unrelated to ''g'' except that a person's level of ''g'' acts as a threshold variable below which socially significant forms of creativity are highly improbable. This ''g'' threshold is probably at least one standard deviation above the mean level of ''g'' in the general population. Besides the traits that Galton thought necessary for "eminence" (viz., high ability, zeal, and persistence), ''genius'' implies outstanding creativity as well. Though such exceptional creativity is conspicuously lacking in the vast majority of people who have a high IQ, it is probably impossible to find any creative geniuses with low IQs. In other words, high ability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the emergence of socially significant creativity. Genius itself should not be confused with merely high IQ, which is what we generally mean by the term 'gifted'" (emphasis in original) }}</ref>
<ref name="Eysenck1998p127a">{{Harvnb |Eysenck|1998|page=127 "What is obvious is that geniuses have a high degree of intelligence, but not outrageously high—there are many accounts of people in the population with IQs as high who have not achieved anything like the status of genius. Indeed, they may have achieved very little; there are large numbers of Mensa members who are elected on the basis of an IQ test, but whose creative achievements are nil. High achievement seems to be a ''necessary'' qualification for high creativity, but it does not seem to be a ''sufficient'' one." (emphasis in original) }}</ref>
<ref name="Pickover1998p224">Cf. {{Harvnb |Pickover|1998|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P0CSxB2aHMcC&pg=PT243 224] (quoting Syed Jan Abas) "High IQ is not genius. A person with a high IQ may or may not be a genius. A genius may or may not have a high IQ." }}</ref>
}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |title=The Early Mental Traits of 300 Geniuses |last=Cox |first=Catherine M. |date=1926 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford (CA) |series=Genetic Studies of Genius Volume 2 |lccn=25008797 |isbn=0-8047-0010-9 |oclc=248811346}}
* {{Cite book |last=Eysenck |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Eysenck |title=Genius: The Natural History of Creativity |series=Problems in the Behavioural Sciences No. 12 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-5-2148508-1 |year=1995 |url=https://archive.org/details/geniusnaturalhis00eyse }}
* {{Cite book |last=Eysenck |first=Hans |title=Intelligence: A New Look |location=New Brunswick (NJ) |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-7658-0707-6 |year=1998}}
* {{cite book |title=Hereditary Genius |last=Galton |first=Francis |date=1869 |publisher=MacMillan |location=London |url=http://galton.org/books/hereditary-genius/ |access-date=4 April 2014 }}
**{{cite web |author=Robert H. Wozniak |date=1999 |title=Introduction to ''Hereditary Genius'' Francis Galton (1869) |url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Galton/wozniak.htm |website=Classics in the History of Psychology }}
* {{cite book |last=Gleick |first=James |author-link=James Gleick |title=Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman |publisher=Open Road Media |year=2011 |edition=ebook |isbn=9781453210437}}
*{{cite book |author=Howe, Michael J. A. |author-link=Michael Howe (psychologist)|title=Genius Explained  |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-052100849-5 |year=1999 }}
* {{Cite book |title=The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability |last=Jensen |first=Arthur R. |author-link=Arthur Jensen |year=1998 |publisher=Praeger |location=Westport (CT) |isbn=978-0-275-96103-9 |issn=1063-2158 |series=Human Evolution, Behavior, and Intelligence |url=https://archive.org/details/gfactorscienc00jens }}
**{{cite web |author=Charles Locurto |title=A Balance Sheet on Persistence: Book Review of Jensen on Intelligence-g-Factor |url=http://www.cogsci.ecs.soton.ac.uk/cgi/psyc/newpsy?10.059 |website=Psycoloquy }}
* {{cite book |title=IQ Testing 101 |url=https://archive.org/details/iqtestingpsych00phdd |url-access=limited |last=Kaufman |first=Alan S. |author-link=Alan S. Kaufman |year=2009 |publisher=Springer Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8261-0629-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/iqtestingpsych00phdd/page/n165 151]–153 }}
* {{Cite journal |title=The Vexing Legacy of Lewis Terman |last=Leslie |first=Mitchell |date=July–August 2000 |journal=Stanford Magazine |url=http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40678 |access-date=5 June 2013 |archive-date=26 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826224009/https://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40678 |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite journal |title=Recognizing Spatial Intelligence |last1=Park |first1=Gregory |last2=Lubinski |first2=David |author2-link=David Lubinski |last3=Benbow |first3=Camilla P. |author3-link=Camilla Benbow |date=2 November 2010 |journal=Scientific American |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=recognizing-spatial-intel |access-date=5 June 2013 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Pickover |first=Clifford A. |author-link=Clifford A. Pickover |title=Strange Brains and Genius: The Secret Lives of Eccentric Scientists and Madmen |publisher=Plenum Publishing Corporation |year=1998 |isbn=978-0688168940}}
* {{Cite book |title=Intelligence Testing: Methods and Results |last=Pintner |first=Rudolph |year=1931 |publisher=Henry Holt |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/intelligencetest00rudo |access-date=14 July 2013 }}
*{{Cite book |title=Genius: A Very Short Introduction |last=Robinson |first=Andrew |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-959440-5}}
**{{cite news |author=GrrlScientist |date=3 March 2011 |title=Genius: A Very Short Introduction [Book Review] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/punctuated-equilibrium/2011/mar/03/2 |newspaper=The Guardian }}
* {{Cite book |title=Terman's Kids: The Groundbreaking Study of How the Gifted Grow Up |last=Shurkin |first=Joel |year=1992 |publisher=Little, Brown |location=Boston (MA) |isbn=978-0316788908 |url=https://archive.org/details/termanskids00joel }}
**{{cite news |author=Frederic Golden |date=May 31, 1992 |title=Tracking the IQ Elite : TERMAN'S KIDS: The Groundbreaking Study of How the Gifted Grow Up, By Joel N. Shurkin |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-05-31-bk-1247-story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108031753/http://articles.latimes.com/1992-05-31/books/bk-1247_1_lewis-terman |archive-date=2012-11-08 |url-status=live |newspaper=Los Angeles Times }}
* {{Cite book |title=Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley, Creator of the Electronic Age |last=Shurkin |first=Joel |year=2006 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-1-4039-8815-7}}
**{{cite magazine |author=Brian Clegg |title=Review - Broken Genius - Joel Shurkin |url=http://www.popularscience.co.uk/reviews/rev291.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006151557/http://www.popularscience.co.uk/reviews/rev291.htm |archive-date=2006-10-06 |magazine=Popular Science }}
* {{Cite book |title=Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity |last=Simonton |first=Dean Keith |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-512879-6 |jstor=3080746 |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofgeniusd00simo }}
* {{Cite book |title=The Measurement of Intelligence: An Explanation of and a Complete Guide to the Use of the Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale |last=Terman |first=Lewis M. |author-link=Lewis Terman |others=[[Ellwood P. Cubberley]] (Editor's Introduction) |year=1916 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |series=Riverside Textbooks in Education |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20662 |access-date=26 June 2010 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Measuring Intelligence: A Guide to the Administration of the New Revised Stanford–Binet Tests of Intelligence |url=https://archive.org/details/measuringintelli0000term |url-access=registration |last1=Terman |first1=Lewis M. |last2=Merrill |first2=Maude |year=1937 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston }}
* {{Cite book |title=Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale: Manual for the Third Revision Form L–M with Revised IQ Tables by Samuel R. Pinneau |url=https://archive.org/details/stanfordbinetint00term |url-access=registration |last1=Terman |first1=Lewis Madison |last2=Merrill |first2=Maude A. |year=1960 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston (MA) }}
* {{cite journal|last=Thys|first=Erik|title=Creativity and Psychopathology: A Systematic Review|journal=Psychopathology|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259988373|doi=10.1159/000357822|pmid=24480798|volume=47|issue=3|pages=141–147|year=2014|s2cid=12879552}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Measurement of Adult Intelligence |last=Wechsler |first=David |author-link=David Wechsler |year=1939 |edition=first |publisher=Williams & Witkins |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn=978-1-59147-606-1}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
Sources listed in chronological order of publication within each category.

===Books===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |title=The Promise of Youth: Follow-up Studies of a Thousand Gifted Children |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156439 |last1=Burks |first1=Barbara S. |last2=Jensen |first2=Dortha W. |last3=Terman |first3=Lewis M. |author-link3=Lewis Terman |date=1930 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford (CA) |series=Genetic Studies of Genius Volume 3 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Gifted Group at Mid-Life: Thirty-Five Years' Follow-Up of the Superior Child |last1=Terman |first1=Lewis M. |last2=Oden |first2=Melita |author-link1=Lewis Terman |date=1959 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford (CA) |series=Genetic Studies of Genius Volume V |url=https://archive.org/details/giftedgroupatmid011505mbp |access-date=2 June 2013 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Harold Bloom |title=Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds |publisher=Warner Books |date=November 2002 |isbn=0-446-52717-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/geniusmosaicof1000bloo_0 |author-link=Harold Bloom |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Creativity in Science: Chance, Logic, Genius, and Zeitgeist |last=Simonton |first=Dean Keith |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-54369-X|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=David Galenson |title=Old Masters and Young Geniuses: The Two Life Cycles of Artistic Creativity |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=27 December 2005 |isbn=0-691-12109-5 |author-link=David Galenson |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/oldmastersyoungg0000gale |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Genius 101 |last=Simonton |first=Dean Keith |year=2009 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8261-0627-8 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Sudden Genius?: The Gradual Path to Creative Breakthroughs |last=Robinson |first=Andrew |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-956995-3 |ref=none|url=https://archive.org/details/suddengeniusgrad00robi_0 }}
* {{Cite book |last = McMahon |first = Darrin M. |author-link = Darrin McMahon |year = 2013 |title = Divine Fury: A History of Genius |location = New York, NY |publisher = Basic Books |isbn = 978-0-465-00325-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Geography of Genius: Lessons from the World's Most Creative Places |last=Weiner |first=Eric |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2016 |isbn=978-1451691672|ref=none}}
{{Refend}}

===Review articles===
* {{cite journal |title=The Wrong Way to Treat Child Geniuses |last=Ellenberg |first=Jordan |author-link=Jordan Ellenberg |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-wrong-way-to-treat-child-geniuses-1401484790 |access-date=1 June 2014 |date=30 May 2014 |journal=Wall Street Journal |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |author=Feldman, David |title=A Follow-up of Subjects Scoring above 180 IQ in Terman's Genetic Studies of Genius |journal=[[Exceptional Children (journal)|Exceptional Children]] |volume=50  |issue=6 |pages=518–523 |year=1984 |url=http://www.davidsongifted.org/db/Articles_id_10192.aspx |access-date=8 July 2010|ref=none|doi=10.1177/001440298405000604|s2cid=146862140 }}

===Encyclopedia entries===
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Feldman |first=David Henry | year=2009 | title=Genius |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Giftedness, Creativity, and Talent |editor-first=Barbara |editor-last=Kerr |volume=2 | publisher=SAGE | location=Thousand Oaks (CA) |isbn=978-141294971-2 | ref=none}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Giftedness]]
[[Category:Intelligence]]