Editing Geomorphology

{{Short description|Scientific study of landforms}}
{{For|the scientific journal|Geomorphology (journal)}}
[[File:Badlands at the Blue Gate, Utah.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Badlands]] incised into [[shale]] at the foot of the North Caineville Plateau, Utah, within the pass carved by the [[Fremont River (Utah)|Fremont River]] and known as the Blue Gate. [[Grove Karl Gilbert|G. K. Gilbert]] studied the landscapes of this area in great detail, forming the observational foundation for many of his studies on geomorphology.<ref>Gilbert, Grove Karl, and Charles Butler Hunt, eds. Geology of the Henry Mountains, Utah, as recorded in the notebooks of GK Gilbert, 1875–76. Vol. 167. Geological Society of America, 1988.</ref>]]
[[File:Earth surface NGDC 2000.jpg|thumb|Surface of Earth, showing higher elevations in red]]

'''Geomorphology''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|γῆ}}'' ({{grc-transl|γῆ}})|earth||''{{wikt-lang|grc|μορφή}}'' ({{grc-transl|μορφή}})|form||''{{wikt-lang|grc|λόγος}}'' ({{grc-transl|[[-logy|λόγος]]}})|study}})<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard John |last=Huggett |chapter=What Is Geomorphology? |title=Fundamentals Of Geomorphology |edition=3rd |series=Routledge Fundamentals of Physical Geography Series |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2011 |page=3 |isbn=978-0-203-86008-3}}</ref> is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of [[topography|topographic]] and [[bathymetry|bathymetric]] features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near [[Earth#Surface|Earth's surface]]. Geomorphologists seek to understand why [[landscape]]s look the way they do, to understand [[landform]] and [[terrain]] history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and [[landscape evolution model|numerical modeling]]. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as [[physical geography]], [[geology]], [[geodesy]], [[engineering geology]], [[archaeology]], [[climatology]], and [[geotechnical engineering]]. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

== Overview ==
[[File:VU0K1843 (39985550).jpg|thumbnail|[[Weathering#Ocean waves|Waves]] and [[Water chemistry analysis|water chemistry]] lead to structural failure in exposed rocks.]]

[[Earth]]'s surface is modified by a combination of surface processes that shape landscapes, and geologic processes that cause [[tectonic uplift]] and [[subsidence]], and shape the [[coastal geography]]. Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, [[wildfire]], and life on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form [[soil]]s and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of [[topography]] under the force of [[gravity]], and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by [[climate]]. Geologic processes include the uplift of [[mountain range]]s, the growth of [[volcano]]es, [[isostasy|isostatic]] changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and the formation of deep [[sedimentary basin]]s where the surface of the Earth drops and is filled with material [[erosion|eroded]] from other parts of the landscape. The Earth's surface and its topography therefore are an intersection of [[climate|climatic]], [[hydrology|hydrologic]], and [[biology|biologic]] action with geologic processes, or alternatively stated, the intersection of the Earth's [[lithosphere]] with its [[hydrosphere]], [[atmosphere]], and [[biosphere]].

The broad-scale topographies of the Earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountain belts are [[tectonic uplift|uplifted]] due to geologic processes. [[Denudation]] of these high uplifted regions produces [[sediment]] that is transported and [[deposition (geology)|deposited]] elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Willett|first=Sean D.|author2=Brandon, Mark T.|s2cid=8571776|title=On steady states in mountain belts|journal=Geology|date=January 2002|volume=30|issue=2|pages=175–178|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0175:OSSIMB>2.0.CO;2|bibcode = 2002Geo....30..175W}}</ref> On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes (uplift and deposition) and subtractive processes ([[subsidence]] and [[erosion]]). Often, these processes directly affect each other: ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography through [[flexural isostasy]]. Topography can modify the local climate, for example through [[orographic precipitation]], which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for [[Climate change feedback|feedbacks]] between climate and [[erosion and tectonics|tectonics]], mediated by geomorphic processes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Roe|first=Gerard H.|author2=Whipple, Kelin X. |author3=Fletcher, Jennifer K. |title=Feedbacks among climate, erosion, and tectonics in a critical wedge orogen|journal=American Journal of Science|date=September 2008|volume=308|issue=7|pages=815–842|doi=10.2475/07.2008.01|url=http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Publications/RoeEtal_ClimateWedge_08.pdf|bibcode=2008AmJS..308..815R|citeseerx=10.1.1.598.4768|s2cid=13802645}}</ref>

In addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific or more local. Glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits such as [[moraine]]s, [[esker]]s, and proglacial [[lake]]s, as well as [[Erosion#Ice|glacial erosional]] features, to build chronologies of both small [[glacier]]s and large [[ice sheet]]s and understand their motions and effects upon the landscape. [[Fluvial]] geomorphologists focus on [[river]]s, how they [[sediment transport|transport sediment]], [[River channel migration|migrate across the landscape]], [[bedrock river|cut into bedrock]], respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rock interact. Other geomorphologists study how [[hill]]slopes form and change. Still others investigate the relationships between [[ecology]] and geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets.

Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of the physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely on [[geochronology]], using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Summerfield |first=M.A. |date=1991 |title=Global Geomorphology |publisher=[[Pearson Education|Pearson]] |page=537 |isbn=9780582301566}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Dunai |first=T.J. |date=2010 |title=Cosmogenic Nucleides |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=187 |isbn=978-0-521-87380-2}}</ref> Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of the Earth's surface, and include [[differential GPS]], remotely sensed [[digital terrain model]]s and [[Lidar#Geology and soil science|laser scanning]], to quantify, study, and to generate illustrations and maps.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/terrain/intro.html |title=What is Digital Terrain Analysis? |publisher=[[Hunter College]] Department of Geography, New York |first=Paul |last=Messina |date=2 May 1997}}</ref>

Practical applications of geomorphology include [[natural hazard|hazard]] assessment (such as [[landslide]] prediction and [[Landslide mitigation|mitigation]]), river control and [[stream restoration]], and coastal protection. 

Planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects of [[aeolian processes|wind]], [[fluvial]], [[glacial]], [[mass wasting]], [[Impact event|meteor impact]], [[tectonics]] and [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic]] processes are studied.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms|date=2015|publisher=Springer New York|isbn=978-1-4614-3133-6|editor-last=Hargitai|editor-first=Henrik|location=New York, NY|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-3134-3|s2cid=132406061|editor-last2=Kereszturi|editor-first2=Ákos}}</ref> This effort not only helps better understand the geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth. Planetary geomorphologists often use [[Terrestrial Analogue Sites|Earth analogues]] to aid in their study of surfaces of other planets.<ref>{{cite web |title=International Conference of Geomorphology |url=http://www.geomorphology-iag-paris2013.com/en/s3-%E2%80%93-planetary-geomorphology-iag-wg |publisher=Europa Organization |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317082407/http://www.geomorphology-iag-paris2013.com/en/s3-%E2%80%93-planetary-geomorphology-iag-wg |archive-date=2013-03-17}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Cono de Arita, Salar de Arizaro (Argentina).jpg|thumb|"Cono de Arita" at the dry lake [[Salar de Arizaro]] on the [[Atacama Plateau]], in northwestern [[Argentina]]. The cone itself is a volcanic edifice, representing complex interaction of intrusive igneous rocks with the surrounding salt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amusingplanet.com/2014/07/cono-de-arita-in-argentina.html|title=Cono de Arita in Argentina |website=amusingplanet.com |first=Kaushik |last=Patowary |date=16 July 2014}}</ref>]]
[[File:Velke Hincovo pleso.jpg|thumb|Lake "Veľké Hincovo pleso" in [[High Tatras]], [[Slovakia]]. The lake occupies an "[[overdeepening]]" carved by flowing ice that once occupied this glacial valley.]]
Other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of the [[earth sciences]] in the mid-19th century. This section provides a very brief outline of some of the major figures and events in its development.

=== Ancient geomorphology ===
The study of landforms and the evolution of the Earth's surface can be dated back to scholars of [[Classical Greece]]. In the 5th century BC, [[Greek historiography|Greek historian]] [[Herodotus]] argued from observations of soils that the [[Nile delta]] was actively growing into the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and estimated its age.<ref name='Bierman'>Bierman, Paul R., and David R. Montgomery. ''Key Concepts in Geomorphology''. Macmillan Higher Education, 2014.</ref><ref name="Rafferty 2012 pp 8-9">Rafferty, John P. (2012). ''Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks''. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, pp. 8–9. {{ISBN|9781615305445}}</ref> In the 4th century BC, [[List of Greek philosophers|Greek philosopher]] [[Aristotle]] [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|speculated]] that due to [[sediment transport]] into the sea, eventually those seas would fill while the land lowered. He claimed that this would mean that land and water would eventually swap places, whereupon the process would begin again in an endless cycle.<ref name='Bierman' /><ref name="Rafferty 2012 p. 9"/> The ''[[Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity]]'' published in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] at [[Basra]] during the 10th century also discussed the cyclical changing positions of land and sea with rocks breaking down and being washed into the sea, their sediment eventually rising to form new continents.<ref name="Rafferty 2012 p. 9"/> The medieval [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Muslim]] scholar [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (973–1048), after observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers, hypothesized that the [[Indian Ocean]] once covered all of [[Indian subcontinent|India]].<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1142/9789814503204_0018 |chapter=Islam and Science |title=Ideals and Realities — Selected Essays of Abdus Salam |pages=179–213 |year=1987 |last1=Salam |first1=Abdus |isbn=978-9971-5-0315-4}}</ref> In his ''[[De Natura Fossilium]]'' of 1546, German [[metallurgist]] and [[mineralogist]] [[Georgius Agricola]] (1494–1555) wrote about erosion and natural [[weathering]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Needham |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Needham |date=1959 |title=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=604 |isbn=9780521058018}}</ref>

Another early theory of geomorphology was devised by [[Song dynasty]] [[History of China|Chinese]] scientist and statesman [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095). This was based on [[Dream Pool Essays|his observation]] of [[Ocean|marine]] [[fossil]] shells in a [[stratum|geological stratum]] of a mountain hundreds of miles from the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Noticing [[bivalvia|bivalve]] shells running in a horizontal span along the cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre-historic location of a seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles over the centuries. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by [[soil erosion]] of the mountains and by deposition of [[silt]], after observing strange natural erosions of the [[Taihang Mountains]] and the [[Yandangshan|Yandang Mountain]] near [[Wenzhou]].<ref>Sivin, Nathan (1995). ''Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections''. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. III, p. 23</ref><ref name=nj>Needham, Joseph. (1959). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. pp. 603–618.</ref><ref name="Rafferty 2012 p. 6-8">Rafferty, John P. (2012). ''Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks''. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, pp. 6–8. {{ISBN|9781615305445}}</ref> Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual [[climate change (general concept)|climate change]] over centuries of time once ancient [[petrified]] [[bamboo]]s were found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone of ''Yanzhou'', which is now modern day [[Yan'an]], [[Shaanxi]] province.<ref name=nj/><ref>Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). ''Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine''. Singapore: [[Singapore University Press]]. p. 15. {{ISBN|9971-69-259-7}}.</ref><ref name="Rafferty 2012 p. 6">Rafferty, John P. (2012). ''Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks''. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 6. {{ISBN|9781615305445}}</ref> Previous [[Chinese literature|Chinese authors]] also presented ideas about changing landforms. [[Scholar-official]] [[Du Yu]] (222–285) of the [[Western Jin dynasty]] predicted that two monumental stelae recording his achievements, one buried at the foot of a mountain and the other erected at the top, would eventually change their relative positions over time as would hills and valleys.<ref name="Rafferty 2012 p. 9">Rafferty, John P. (2012). ''Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks''. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 9. {{ISBN|9781615305445}}</ref> [[Chinese alchemy|Daoist alchemist]] [[Ge Hong]] (284–364) created a fictional dialogue where the [[Magu (deity)|immortal Magu]] explained that the territory of the [[East China Sea]] was once a land filled with [[Morus (plant)|mulberry trees]].<ref>Schottenhammer, Angela. "The 'China Seas' in world history: A general outline of the role of Chinese and East Asian maritime space from its origins to c. 1800", ''Journal of Marine and Island Cultures'', (Volume 1, Issue 2, 2012): 63-86. ISSN 2212-6821, p. 72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imic.2012.11.002.</ref>

=== Early modern geomorphology ===
The term geomorphology seems to have been first used by [[Laumann]] in an 1858 work written in German. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the word came into general use in English, German and French after [[John Wesley Powell]] and [[W. J. McGee]] used it during the International Geological Conference of 1891.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tinkler |first=Keith J. |title=A short history of geomorphology |page=4 |date=1985 |isbn=978-0389205449 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]]}}</ref> [[John Edward Marr]] in his The Scientific Study of Scenery<ref>{{cite book|last=Marr |first=J.E. |title=The Scientific Study of Scenery |publisher=Methuen |page=v |date=1900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fhVHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR5}}</ref> considered his book as, 'an Introductory Treatise on Geomorphology, a subject which has sprung from the union of Geology and Geography'.

An early popular geomorphic model was the ''geographical cycle'' or ''[[cycle of erosion]]'' model of broad-scale landscape evolution developed by [[William Morris Davis]] between 1884 and 1899.<ref name='Bierman' /> It was an elaboration of the [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]] theory that had first been proposed by [[James Hutton]] (1726–1797).<ref name='OldroydGrapes'>Oldroyd, David R. & Grapes, Rodney H. Contributions to the history of geomorphology and Quaternary geology: an introduction. In: Grapes, R. H., Oldroyd, D. & GrigelisR, A. (eds) ''History of Geomorphology and Quaternary Geology''. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 301, 1–17.</ref> With regard to [[valley]] forms, for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carving an increasingly deep valley, until the [[side valley]]s eventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower elevation. It was thought that [[tectonic uplift]] could then start the cycle over. In the decades following Davis's development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as "Davisian".<ref name='OldroydGrapes' /> Davis's ideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictive power and qualitative nature.<ref name='OldroydGrapes' />

In the 1920s, [[Walther Penck]] developed an alternative model to Davis's.<ref name='OldroydGrapes' /> Penck thought that landform evolution was better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis's model of a single uplift followed by decay.<ref name='Ritter'>Ritter, Dale F., R. Craig Kochel, and Jerry R. Miller. ''Process geomorphology''. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1995.</ref> He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occurs by backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian-style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surface process over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality. Penck was German, and during his lifetime his ideas were at times rejected vigorously by the English-speaking geomorphology community.<ref name=OldroydGrapes /> His early death, Davis' dislike for his work, and his at-times-confusing writing style likely all contributed to this rejection.<ref name='Simons'>Simons, Martin (1962), "The morphological analysis of landforms: A new review of the work of Walther Penck (1888–1923)", Transactions and Papers (Institute of British Geographers) 31: 1–14.</ref>

Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the Earth's surface on a more generalized, globally relevant footing than it had been previously. In the early 19th century, authors – especially in Europe – had tended to attribute the form of landscapes to local [[climate]], and in particular to the specific effects of [[glaciation]] and [[periglacial]] processes. In contrast, both Davis and Penck were seeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the Earth's surface processes across different landscapes under different conditions.

During the early 1900s, the study of regional-scale geomorphology was termed "physiography".<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Douglas |editor1-last=Richardson |editor2-first=Noel |editor2-last=Castree |editor3-first=Michael F. |editor3-last=Goodchild |editor4-first=Weidong |editor4-last=Liu |editor5-first=Richard A. |editor5-last=Marston |date=2017|chapter=Landforms & Physiography |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfYoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1988 |title=International Encyclopedia of Geography, 15 Volume Set: People, the Earth, Environment & Technology |pages=3979–3980 |isbn=978-0470659632 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref> Physiography later was considered to be a contraction of "''physi''cal" and "ge''ography''", and therefore synonymous with [[physical geography]], and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding the appropriate concerns of that discipline. Some geomorphologists held to a geological basis for physiography and emphasized a concept of [[physiographic regions of the world|physiographic regions]] while a conflicting trend among geographers was to equate physiography with "pure morphology", separated from its geological heritage.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} In the period following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term "geomorphology" in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than a descriptive one.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baker |first=Victor R. |title=Geomorphology From Space: A Global Overview of Regional Landforms, Introduction |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=1986 |url=http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/GEO_1/GEO_CHAPTER_1.shtml |access-date=2007-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315105147/http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/GEO_1/GEO_CHAPTER_1.shtml |archive-date=2008-03-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Climatic geomorphology ===
{{further|Climatic geomorphology}}
During the age of [[New Imperialism]] in the late 19th century European explorers and scientists traveled across the globe bringing descriptions of landscapes and landforms. As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns. Climate emerged thus as prime factor for explaining landform distribution at a grand scale. The rise of climatic geomorphology was foreshadowed by the work of [[Wladimir Köppen]], [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] and [[Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper|Andreas Schimper]]. [[William Morris Davis]], the leading geomorphologist of his time, recognized the role of climate by complementing his "normal" temperate climate [[cycle of erosion]] with arid and glacial ones.<ref name=TwidaleLageat1994>{{cite journal |last1=Twidale |first1=C.R. |author-link=Charles Rowland Twidale |last2=Lageat |first2=Y. |date=1994 |title=Climatic geomorphology: a critique |journal=[[Progress in Physical Geography]] |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=319–334 |doi= 10.1177/030913339401800302 |bibcode=1994PrPG...18..319T |s2cid=129518705}}</ref><ref name=Goudie2004>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Goudie |first=A.S. |editor-last=Goudie |editor-first=A.S. |author-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |editor-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Geomorphology |title=Climatic geomorphology |year=2004 |pages=162–164}}</ref> Nevertheless, interest in climatic geomorphology was also a reaction ''against'' [[Cycle of erosion|Davisian geomorphology]] that was by the mid-20th century considered both un-innovative and dubious.<ref name=Goudie2004/><ref name=Attack>{{cite journal |last=Flemal |first=Ronald C. |date=1971 |title=The Attack on the Davisian System Of Geomorphology: A Synopsis |journal=[[Journal of Geological Education]] |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.5408/0022-1368-XIX.1.3 |bibcode=1971JGeoE..19....3F}}</ref> Early climatic geomorphology developed primarily in [[continental Europe]] while in the English-speaking world the tendency was not explicit until L.C. Peltier's 1950 publication on a [[periglaciation|periglacial]] cycle of erosion.<ref name=TwidaleLageat1994/>

Climatic geomorphology was criticized in a 1969 [[review article]] by process geomorphologist [[David Stoddart (geographer)|D.R. Stoddart]].<ref name=Goudie2004/><ref name=Thomas2004>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Thomas |first=Michael F. |editor-last=Goudie |editor-first=A.S. |editor-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Geomorphology |title=Tropical geomorphology |year=2004 |pages=1063–1069}}</ref> The criticism by Stoddart proved "devastating" sparking a decline in the popularity of climatic geomorphology in the late 20th century.<ref name=Goudie2004/><ref name=Thomas2004/> Stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology for applying supposedly "trivial" methodologies in establishing landform differences between morphoclimatic zones, being linked to [[Cycle of erosion|Davisian geomorphology]] and by allegedly neglecting the fact that physical laws governing processes are the same across the globe.<ref name=Thomas2004/> In addition some conceptions of climatic geomorphology, like that which holds that chemical weathering is more rapid in tropical climates than in cold climates proved to not be straightforwardly true.<ref name=Goudie2004/>

=== Quantitative and process geomorphology ===
[[File:South Africa-Mpumalanga-Gods Window002.jpg|thumb|Part of the [[Great Escarpment, Southern Africa|Great Escarpment]] in the [[Drakensberg]], southern Africa. This landscape, with its high altitude [[plateau]] being incised into by the steep slopes of the escarpment, was cited by Davis as a classic example of his [[cycle of erosion]].<ref>Burke, Kevin, and Yanni Gunnell. "The African erosion surface: a continental-scale synthesis of geomorphology, tectonics, and environmental change over the past 180 million years." Geological Society of America Memoirs 201 (2008): 1–66.</ref>]]
Geomorphology was started to be put on a solid quantitative footing in the middle of the 20th century. Following the early work of [[Grove Karl Gilbert]] around the turn of the 20th century,<ref name='Bierman' /><ref name='OldroydGrapes' /><ref name= 'Ritter' /> a group of mainly American natural scientists, [[geologists]] and [[hydraulic engineers]] including [[William Walden Rubey]], [[Ralph Alger Bagnold]], [[Hans Albert Einstein]], [[Frank Ahnert]], [[John Tilton Hack|John Hack]], [[Luna Leopold]], [[Shields parameter|A. Shields]], [[Thomas Maddock (scientist)|Thomas Maddock]], [[Arthur Strahler]], [[Stanley Schumm]], and [[Ronald Shreve]] began to research the form of landscape elements such as [[river]]s and [[mass wasting|hillslopes]] by taking systematic, direct, quantitative measurements of aspects of them and investigating the [[Scaling law|scaling]] of these measurements.<ref name='Bierman' /><ref name='OldroydGrapes' /><ref name='Ritter' /><ref>{{cite web|title=Memorial to Stanley A. Schumm (1927–2011) |publisher=[[The Geological Society of America]] |url=https://www.geosociety.org/documents/gsa/memorials/v41/Schumm-S.pdf |first1=Frank G. |last1=Ethridge |first2=Ellen |last2=Wohl |first3=Allen |last3=Gellis |first4=Dru |last4=Germanoski |first5=Ben R. |last5=Hayes |first6=Shunji |last6=Ouchi |work=Memorials |volume=41 |date=December 2012}}</ref> These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from present observations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems. Many groundbreaking and widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared in the [[Bulletin of the Geological Society of America]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morisawa |first=Marie |date=1988-07-01 |title=The Geological Society of America Bulletin and the development of quantitative geomorphology |journal=[[GSA Bulletin]] |language=en |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1016–1022 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1016:TGSOAB>2.3.CO;2 |issn=0016-7606 |bibcode=1988GSAB..100.1016M}}</ref> and received only few citations prior to 2000 (they are examples of [[Paper with delayed recognition|"sleeping beauties"]])<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goldstein|first=Evan B|date=2017-04-17|title=Delayed recognition of geomorphology papers in the Geological Society of America Bulletin|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=363–368|doi=10.1177/0309133317703093|bibcode=2017PrPG...41..363G |s2cid=132521098|url=http://eartharxiv.org/bnshx/|access-date=2019-01-19|archive-date=2020-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807152046/https://eartharxiv.org/bnshx/|url-status=dead}}</ref> when a marked increase in quantitative geomorphology research occurred.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Church |first=Michael |date=2010-06-01 |title=The trajectory of geomorphology |journal=[[Progress in Physical Geography]] |language=en |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=265–286 |doi=10.1177/0309133310363992 |bibcode=2010PrPG...34..265C |s2cid=140160085 |issn=0309-1333}}</ref>

Quantitative geomorphology can involve [[fluid dynamics]] and [[solid mechanics]], [[geomorphometry]], laboratory studies, field measurements, theoretical work, and full [[landscape evolution model]]ing. These approaches are used to understand [[weathering]] and [[pedogenesis|the formation of soils]], [[sediment transport]], landscape change, and the interactions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition.<ref name = orogens>{{Cite journal |last=Whipple |first=Kelin X. |date=2004-04-21 |title=Bedrock rivers and the geomorphology of active orogens |journal=[[Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences]] |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=151–185 |doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120356 |issn=0084-6597 |url=http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/AGUC/article/view/60473 |bibcode=2004AREPS..32..151W}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Merritts |first1=Dorothy J. |last2=Tucker |first2=Gregory E. |last3=Whipple |first3=Kelin X. |last4=Snyder |first4=Noah P. |s2cid=5844478 |date=2000-08-01 |title=Landscape response to tectonic forcing: Digital elevation model analysis of stream profiles in the Mendocino triple junction region, northern California |journal=[[GSA Bulletin]] |language=en |volume=112 |issue=8 |pages=1250–1263 |doi= 10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112<1250:LRTTFD>2.0.CO;2 |issn=0016-7606 |bibcode=2000GSAB..112.1250S}}</ref>

In Sweden [[Filip Hjulström]]'s doctoral thesis, "The River Fyris" (1935), contained one of the first quantitative studies of geomorphological processes ever published. His students followed in the same vein, making quantitative studies of mass transport ([[Anders Rapp]]), fluvial transport ([[Åke Sundborg]]), delta deposition ([[Valter Axelsson]]), and coastal processes ([[John O. Norrman]]). This developed into "the [[Uppsala University|Uppsala]] School of [[Physical Geography]]".<ref>Gregory, KJ, 1985: "The Nature of Physical Geography", E. Arnold</ref>

=== Contemporary geomorphology ===
Today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests.<ref name='Bierman' /> Modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative "laws" that govern Earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include:

:1) that not all landscapes can be considered as either "stable" or "perturbed", where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from some ideal target form. Instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature.<ref name="orogens" /><ref name="Time scales">{{cite journal |last=Allen |first=Philip A. |author-link=Philip A. Allen |title=Time scales of tectonic landscapes and their sediment routing systems |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |date=2008 |volume=296 |issue=1 |pages=7–28 |doi=10.1144/SP296.2 |bibcode = 2008GSLSP.296....7A |s2cid=128396744}}</ref>

:2) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of the [[stochastic process|stochasticity]] of the processes occurring in them, that is, the probability distributions of event magnitudes and return times.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benda |first1=Lee |last2=Dunne |first2=Thomas |title=Stochastic forcing of sediment supply to channel networks from landsliding and debris flow |journal=[[Water Resources Research]] |date=December 1997 |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=2849–2863 |doi=10.1029/97WR02388 |bibcode=1997WRR....33.2849B |author2-link=Thomas Dunne (geologist) |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Knighton, David. Fluvial forms and processes: a new perspective. Routledge, 2014.</ref> This in turn has indicated the importance of [[chaos theory|chaotic determinism]] to landscapes, and that landscape properties are best considered [[statistics|statistically]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dietrich |first1=W. E. |last2=Bellugi |first2=D.G. |last3=Sklar |first3=L.S. |last4=Stock |first4=J.D. |last5=Heimsath |first5=A.M. |last6=Roering |first6=J.J. |title=Prediction in Geomorphology |date=2003 |volume=135 |pages=103–132 |doi=10.1029/135GM09 |chapter-url=http://calm.geo.berkeley.edu/geomorph/gtl.pdf |location=Washington, DC |bibcode=2003GMS...135..103D |series=Geophysical Monograph Series |isbn=978-1118668559 |chapter=Geomorphic Transport Laws for Predicting Landscape form and Dynamics}}</ref> The same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results.

According to [[Karna Lidmar-Bergström]], [[regional geography]] is since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies.<ref name=Karna2020>{{cite journal |last=Lidmar-Bergström |first=Karna |author-link=Karna Lidmar-Bergström |date=2020 |title=The major landforms of the bedrock of Sweden–with a view on the relationships between physical geography and geology |journal=[[Geografiska Annaler]] |publisher=[[Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography]] |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1080/04353676.2019.1702809 |bibcode=2020GeAnA.102....1L |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Albeit having its importance diminished, [[climatic geomorphology]] continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. More recently concerns over [[global warming]] have led to a renewed interest in the field.<ref name=Goudie2004/> 

Despite considerable criticism, the [[cycle of erosion]] model has remained part of the science of geomorphology.<ref name=Slaymaker/> The model or theory has never been proved wrong,<ref name=Slaymaker/> but neither has it been proven.<ref name=ARoy>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Andre |title=Contemporary Meanings in Physical Geography: From What to Why? |page=5}}</ref> The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines.<ref name=Slaymaker>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Slaymaker |first=Olav |editor-last=Goudie |editor-first=A.S. |editor-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Geomorphology |title=Geomorphic evolution |year=2004 |pages=420–422}}</ref> In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish [[denudation chronology|denudation chronologies]], and is thus an important concept in the science of [[historical geology]].<ref name=Jones>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jones |first=David K.C. |editor-last=Goudie |editor-first=A.S. |editor-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Geomorphology |title=Denudation chronology |year=2004 |pages=244–248}}</ref> While acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologists [[Andrew Goudie (geographer)|Andrew Goudie]] and [[Karna Lidmar-Bergström]] have praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively.<ref name=Naten>{{cite web |url=http://www.ne.se/uppslagsverk/encyklopedi/l%C3%A5ng/erosionscykel |title=erosionscykel |trans-title=Erosion cycle |last=Lidmar-Bergström |first=Karna |author-link=Karna Lidmar-Bergström |website=[[Nationalencyklopedin]] |publisher=Cydonia Development |access-date=June 22, 2016 |language=sv}}</ref><ref name=Goudie>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Goudie |first=A.S. |author-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |editor-last=Goudie |editor-first=A.S. |editor-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Geomorphology |title=Cycle of erosion |year=2004 |pages=223–224}}</ref>

== Processes ==
[[File:Nanga_Parbat_Indus_Gorge.jpg|thumb|[[Gorge]] cut by the [[Indus River]] into bedrock, [[Nanga Parbat]] region, Pakistan. This is the deepest river canyon in the world. Nanga Parbat itself, the world's 9th highest mountain, is seen in the background.]]
Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into
(1) the production of [[regolith]] by [[weathering]] and [[erosion]],
(2) the [[sediment transport|transport]] of that material, and
(3) its eventual [[deposition (geology)|deposition]]. Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include [[wind]], [[wave]]s, [[weathering|chemical dissolution]], [[mass wasting]], [[groundwater]] movement, [[surface water]] flow, [[glacier|glacial action]], [[tectonism]], and [[volcanism]]. Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include [[periglacial]] (freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, changes to the seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact.

=== Aeolian processes ===
[[File:MoabAlcove.JPG|thumb|Wind-eroded alcove near [[Moab, Utah]]]]
[[Aeolian processes]] pertain to the activity of the [[wind]]s and more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the [[Earth]]. Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse [[vegetation]] and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated [[sediment]]s. Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as [[desert]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leeder |first=M. |date=1999 |title=Sedimentology and Sedimentary Basins, From Turbulence to Tectonics |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell Science]] |page=592 |isbn=0-632-04976-6}}</ref>

=== Biological processes ===
[[File:Beaver dam in Tierra del Fuego.jpg|thumb|[[Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego|Beaver dams]], as this one in [[Tierra del Fuego]], constitute a specific form of zoogeomorphology, a type of biogeomorphology.]]
The interaction of living organisms with landforms, or [[Biogeomorphology|biogeomorphologic processes]], can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from [[biogeochemical]] processes controlling [[chemical weathering]], to the influence of mechanical processes like [[burrowing]] and [[tree throw]] on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as [[Geography of Mars|Mars]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dietrich |first1=William E. |last2=Perron |first2=J. Taylor |title=The search for a topographic signature of life |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=26 January 2006 |volume=439 |issue=7075 |pages=411–418 |doi=10.1038/nature04452 |pmid=16437104 |bibcode=2006Natur.439..411D |s2cid=4417041}}</ref>

=== Fluvial processes ===
[[File:Eroding Mesas Forming Seif and Barchan Dunes in Hellespontus region.jpg|thumb|[[Seif dune|Seif]] and [[barchan]] dunes in the [[Noachis quadrangle|Hellespontus]] region on the surface of [[Mars]]. Dunes are mobile landforms formed by the transport of large volumes of sand by wind.]]
{{Main|Fluvial}}
{{See also|Hack's law|Sediment transport}}
Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of [[sediment]]. The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as [[bed load]], [[suspended load]] or [[dissolved load]]. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's [[discharge (hydrology)|discharge]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Knighton |first=D. |date=1998 |title=Fluvial Forms & Processes |publisher=[[Hodder Arnold]] |page=383 |isbn=0-340-66313-8}}</ref> Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Strahler |first=A. N. |title=Equilibrium theory of erosional slopes approached by frequency distribution analysis; Part II |journal=[[American Journal of Science]] |date=1 November 1950 |volume=248 |issue=11 |pages=800–814 |doi=10.2475/ajs.248.11.800 |bibcode=1950AmJS..248..800S|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Burbank |first=D. W. |title=Rates of erosion and their implications for exhumation |journal=[[Mineralogical Magazine]] |date=February 2002 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–52 |doi=10.1180/0026461026610014 |url=http://projects.crustal.ucsb.edu/tectgeomorphfigs/Min_Mag_exhumation_ms.pdf |bibcode=2002MinM...66...25B |citeseerx=10.1.1.518.6023 |s2cid=14114154 |access-date=2012-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315035544/http://projects.crustal.ucsb.edu/tectgeomorphfigs/Min_Mag_exhumation_ms.pdf |archive-date=2013-03-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Rivers are key links in the connectivity of different landscape elements.

As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a [[drainage system (geomorphology)|drainage system]]. These systems take on four general patterns: dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis. Dendritic happens to be the most common, occurring when the underlying stratum is stable (without faulting). Drainage systems have four primary components: [[drainage basin]], alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic examples of fluvial landforms are [[alluvial fan]]s, [[oxbow lake]]s, and [[fluvial terrace]]s.

=== Glacial processes ===
[[File:Glacial landscape LMB.png|thumb|right|Features of a glacial landscape]]
[[Glacier]]s, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement of [[ice]] down a valley causes [[Abrasion (geology)|abrasion]] and [[Plucking (glaciation)|plucking]] of the underlying [[rock (geology)|rock]]. Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed [[glacial flour]]. The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a [[moraine]]. Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bennett |first1=M.R. |last2=Glasser |first2=N.F. |date=1996 |title=Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] Ltd |page=364 |isbn=0-471-96345-3}}</ref>

The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect of [[Plio-Pleistocene]] landscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but are no longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes which nevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termed [[paraglacial]] processes. This concept contrasts with [[periglacial]] processes, which are directly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Church |first1=Michael |last2=Ryder |first2=June M. |s2cid=56240248 |title=Paraglacial Sedimentation: A Consideration of Fluvial Processes Conditioned by Glaciation |journal=[[Geological Society of America Bulletin]] |date=October 1972 |volume=83 |issue=10 |pages=3059–3072 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[3059:PSACOF]2.0.CO;2 |bibcode = 1972GSAB...83.3059C}}</ref>

=== Hillslope processes ===
[[File:TalusConesIsfjorden.jpg|thumb|[[Talus cone]]s on the north shore of [[Isfjorden (Svalbard)|Isfjorden]], [[Svalbard]], Norway. Talus cones are accumulations of coarse hillslope debris at the foot of the slopes producing the material.]]
[[Image:Ferguson-slide.jpg|thumb|The [[Ferguson landslide|Ferguson Slide]] is an active [[landslide]] in the [[Merced River|Merced River canyon]] on [[California State Highway 140]], a primary access road to [[Yosemite National Park]].]]
[[Soil]], [[regolith]], and [[rock (geology)|rock]] move downslope under the force of [[gravity]] via [[Downhill creep|creep]], [[Landslide|slides]], flows, topples, and falls. Such [[mass wasting]] occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Venus]], [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] and [[Iapetus (moon)|Iapetus]].

Ongoing hillslope processes can change the topology of the hillslope surface, which in turn can change the rates of those processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically active areas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roering |first1=Joshua J. |last2=Kirchner |first2=James W. |last3=Dietrich |first3=William E. |title=Evidence for nonlinear, diffusive sediment transport on hillslopes and implications for landscape morphology |journal=[[Water Resources Research]] |date=March 1999 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=853–870 |doi=10.1029/1998WR900090 |bibcode=1999WRR....35..853R |doi-access=free }}</ref>

On the Earth, biological processes such as [[burrowing]] or [[tree throw]] may play important roles in setting the rates of some hillslope processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gabet |first1=Emmanuel J. |last2=Reichman |first2=O.J. |last3=Seabloom |first3=Eric W. |title=The Effects of Bioturbation on Soil Processes and Sediment Transport |journal=[[Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences]] |date=May 2003 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=249–273 |doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141314 |bibcode= 2003AREPS..31..249G}}</ref>

=== Igneous processes ===
Both [[volcanic]] (eruptive) and [[plutonic]] (intrusive) igneous processes can have important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with [[lava]] and [[tephra]], releasing [[pyroclastic flow|pyroclastic]] material and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones built by eruptions also build substantial new topography, which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces.

=== Tectonic processes ===
{{See also|Erosion and tectonics}}
[[Plate tectonics|Tectonic]] effects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of years to minutes or less. The effects of tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the underlying [[bedrock]] fabric that more or less controls what kind of local morphology tectonics can shape. [[Earthquake]]s can, in terms of minutes, submerge large areas of land forming new wetlands. [[Isostatic rebound]] can account for significant changes over hundreds to thousands of years, and allows erosion of a mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass is removed from the chain and the belt uplifts. Long-term plate tectonic dynamics give rise to [[orogeny|orogenic belts]], large mountain chains with typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment production.

Features of deeper [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] dynamics such as [[mantle plume|plumes]] and [[delamination (geology)|delamination]] of the lower lithosphere have also been hypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution of the Earth's topography (see [[dynamic topography]]). Both can promote surface uplift through isostasy as hotter, less dense, mantle rocks displace cooler, denser, mantle rocks at depth in the Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cserepes |first1=L. |last2=Christensen |first2=U.R. |last3=Ribe |first3=N.M. |title=Geoid height versus topography for a plume model of the Hawaiian swell |journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |date=15 May 2000 |volume=178 |issue=1–2 |pages=29–38 |doi=10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00065-0 |bibcode=2000E&PSL.178...29C}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seber |first1=Dogan |last2=Barazangi |first2=Muawia |last3=Ibenbrahim |first3=Aomar |last4=Demnati |first4=Ahmed |title=Geophysical evidence for lithospheric delamination beneath the Alboran Sea and Rif–Betic mountains |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=29 February 1996 |volume=379 |issue=6568 |pages=785–790 |doi=10.1038/379785a0 |bibcode = 1996Natur.379..785S |url=http://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/5287/1/Seber1996_Abstract%26Figure.pdf |hdl=1813/5287 |s2cid=4332684 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Marine processes ===
Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through the seafloor. [[Mass wasting]] and submarine [[landslide|landsliding]] are also important processes for some aspects of marine geomorphology.<ref>Guilcher, A., 1958. Coastal and submarine morphology. Methuen.</ref> Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment fans, [[deltas]]) are particularly important as elements of marine geomorphology.

== Overlap with other fields ==
There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important in [[sedimentology]]. [[Weathering]] is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by [[soil science|soil scientists]] and environmental [[chemist]]s, but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place. [[Civil engineering|Civil]] and [[Environmental engineering|environmental]] engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to [[canal]]s, [[slope stability]] (and [[natural hazard]]s), [[water quality]], coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and [[stream restoration]]. Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams; [[glaciology]] therefore is important in geomorphology.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=24em}}
* [[Bioerosion]]
* [[Biogeology]]
* [[Biogeomorphology]]
* [[Biorhexistasy]]
* [[British Society for Geomorphology]]
* [[Coastal biogeomorphology]]
* [[Coastal erosion]]
* [[Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography]]
* [[Drainage system (geomorphology)]]
* [[Erosion prediction]]
* [[Geologic modelling]]
* [[Geomorphometry]]
* [[Geotechnics]]
* [[Hack's law]]
* [[Hydrology|Hydrologic modeling]], [[behavioral modeling in hydrology]]
* [[List of landforms]]
* [[Orogeny]]
* [[Physiographic regions of the world]]
* [[Sediment transport]]
* [[Soil morphology]]
* [[Soils retrogression and degradation]]
* [[Stream capture]]
* [[Thermochronology]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|35em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Chorley |first=Richard J. |author-link=Richard Chorley |author2=Stanley Alfred Schumm |author3=David E. Sugden |title=Geomorphology |publisher=Methuen |location=London |date=1985 |isbn=978-0-416-32590-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Committee on Challenges and Opportunities in Earth Surface Processes |first=National Research Council |author-link=United States National Research Council |title=Landscapes on the Edge: New Horizons for Research on Earth's Surface |publisher=National Academies Press |location=Washington, DC |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-309-14024-9}}
* {{cite book |first=Bernhard |last=Edmaier |author-link=Bernhard Edmaier |title=Earthsong |publisher=[[Phaidon Press]] |location=London |date=2004|isbn=978-0-7148-4451-0}}
* [https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/09/14/347048876/envisioning-landscapes-of-our-very-distant-future Ialenti, Vincent. "Envisioning Landscapes of Our Very Distant Future"] NPR Cosmos & Culture. 9/2014.
* {{cite book |last=Kondolf |first=G. Mathias |author2=Hervé Piégay |title=Tools in fluvial geomorphology |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |location=New York |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-471-49142-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Scheidegger |first=Adrian E. |title=Morphotectonics |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |date=2004 |isbn=978-3-540-20017-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Selby |first=Michael John |author-link=Michael Selby |title=Earth's changing surface: an introduction to geomorphology |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |date=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-823252-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/earthschangingsu00selb}}
* {{cite book |last=Charlton |first=Ro |title=Fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-33454-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=R.S. |last2=Anderson |first2=S.P. |title=Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2011 |isbn=978-0521519786}}
* Bierman, P.R.; Montgomery, D.R. ''Key Concepts in Geomorphology''. New York: [[W. H. Freeman]], 2013. {{ISBN|1429238607}}.
* Ritter, D.F.; Kochel, R.C.; Miller, J.R.. ''Process Geomorphology''. London: Waveland Pr Inc, 2011. {{ISBN|1577666690}}.
* Hargitai H., Page D., Canon-Tapia E. and Rodrigue C.M..; ''Classification and Characterization of Planetary Landforms.'' in: Hargitai H, Kereszturi Á, eds, Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Cham: Springer 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-4614-3133-6}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline|Geomorphology}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180417113332/http://www.ugb.org.br/home/artigos/classicos/Davis_1899.pdf The Geographical Cycle, or the Cycle of Erosion (1899)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130808060641/http://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/geomorphology/index.shtml Geomorphology from Space (NASA)]
* [http://www.geomorphology.org.uk/ British Society for Geomorphology]

{{Physical geography topics}}
{{Geology}}

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[[Category:Geomorphology| ]]
[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Geology]]
[[Category:Geological processes]]
[[Category:Gravity]]
[[Category:Physical geography]]
[[Category:Planetary science]]
[[Category:Seismology]]
[[Category:Topography]]