Editing Ghawar Field

{{Short description|Oil field in Saudi Arabia}}
{{Infobox oilfield
| name                    = Ghawar Field
| location_map            = Saudi Arabia
| location_map_width      = 
| location_map_text       = 
| coordinates = {{coord|25.43| N| 49.62| E| region:SA_type:landmark_scale:3000000|display     = inline,title}}{{brk}}
| coordinates_ref         = (Centre approximation: {{coord|25.20| N| 49.31 | E| = inline,title}})
| relief                  = yes
| country                 = Saudi Arabia
| region                  = [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]]
| location                = [[Al-Ahsa Governorate|Al-Ahsa]]
| block                   = 
| offonshore              = Onshore
| operator                = [[Saudi Aramco]]
| operators               = 
| partners                = 
| image                   = 
| caption                 = The Ghawar Field is the largest known field in the world
| discovery               = 1948
| start_development       = 
| start_production        = 1951
| peak_year               = 2005 (Contested)
| abandonment             = 
| oil_production_bbl/d    = 3800000
| oil_production_tpy      = 
| production_year_oil     = 2019
| production_gas_mmcuft/d = 2000
| production_gas_mmscm/d  = 
| production_gas_bcm/y    = 
| production_year_gas     = 
| est_oil_bbl             = 48250
| est_oil_t               = 
| est_gas_bft             = 110000
| est_gas_bcm             = 
| formations              = Upper/Middle Jurassic, Upper/Lower Permian, Lower Devonian
}}

{{external media
| float  = right
| width  = 220
| image1 = [http://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/abqaiq-aramco/images/2-ghawar-field.jpg Ghawar Field map and regional setting] 
| image2 = [https://web.archive.org/web/20110610051942/http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2005/01jan/ghawa_xsectn.jpg Regional cross section through Ghawar]
| image3 = [https://grandemotte.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/ghawar-total-wells-oil-drum1.jpg Total Wells at Ghawar. Blue wells are waterflood injectors, red are production wells.] 
}}
[[File:Map of approximate size, shape, and location of Ghawar Field.png|thumb|Map of the approximate size, shape, and location of the Ghawar Oil Field.]]
'''Ghawar''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الغوار) is an [[oil field]] located in [[Al-Ahsa Governorate]], [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. Measuring {{convert|280|by|30|km|mi|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} (some {{convert|8400|km2}}), it is by far the largest conventional oil field in the world,<ref name=Durham /> and accounts for roughly a third of the cumulative oil production of Saudi Arabia as of 2018.<ref name=Croft/><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rns-pdf.londonstockexchange.com/rns/6727U_1-2019-4-1.pdf|title=Saudi Arabian Oil Company - Global Medium Term Note Programme|date=April 1, 2019|publisher=Saudi Arabian Oil Company|access-date=April 4, 2019}}</ref>

Ghawar is entirely owned and operated by [[Saudi Aramco]], the state-run Saudi oil company. In April 2019, the company first published its profit figures since its nationalization nearly 40 years ago in the context of issuing a bond to international markets. The bond prospectus revealed that Ghawar is able to pump a maximum of {{convert|3.8|Moilbbl|m3}} per day—well below the more than {{convert|5|Moilbbl|m3}} per day that had become conventional wisdom in the market.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2 April 2019 |title=The Biggest Saudi Oil Field Is Fading Faster Than Anyone Guessed |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-02/saudi-aramco-reveals-sharp-output-drop-at-super-giant-oil-field |website=Bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

== Geology ==
Ghawar occupies an [[anticline]] above a basement fault block dating to [[Carboniferous]] time, about 320{{nbsp}}million years ago; [[Cretaceous]] tectonic activity, as the northeast margin of Africa began to impinge on southwest Asia, enhanced the structure. Reservoir rocks are [[Jurassic]] Arab-D limestones with exceptional porosity (as much as 35&nbsp;% of the rock in places), which is about {{convert|280|ft|m}} thick and occurs {{convert|6,000|to|7,000|ft|m}} beneath the surface. [[Source rock]] is the Jurassic Hanifa formation, a marine shelf deposit of mud and lime with as much as 5&nbsp;% organic material, it is estimated that 1&nbsp;% to 7&nbsp;% is considered good oil source rock. The [[Petroleum reservoir#Seal / cap rock|seal]] is an [[evaporite|evaporitic]] package of rocks including impermeable [[anhydrite]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://explorer.aapg.org/story?articleid=2185 |title=Finding Ghawar: Elephant Hid in Desert |author=Rasoul Sorkhab |work=[[American Association of Petroleum Geologists|AAPG]] Explorer |date=June 2011}}</ref>

== History ==
In the early 1940s, [[Max Steineke]], [[Thomas Barger]] and Ernie Berg noted a bend in the Wadi Al-Sahbah dry riverbed. Measurements confirmed that the area had undergone [[geologic uplift]], an indication that an oil reservoir may be trapped underneath. Oil was indeed found, in what turned out to be the southern reaches of Ghawar.<ref name="Ali">{{cite book |author=Ali Al-Naimi |title=Out of the Desert |date=2016 |publisher=Portfolio Penguin |location=Great Britain |isbn=9780241279250 |pages=20}}</ref>

Historically, Ghawar has been subdivided into five production areas, from north to south: '[[Ain Dar]] and [[Shedgum]], '[[Uthmaniyah]], Hawiyah and [[Haradh]]. The major oasis of [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Ahsa]] and the city of [[Al-Hofuf]] are located on Ghawar's east flank, corresponding to the 'Uthmaniyah production area. Ghawar was discovered in 1948 and put on stream in 1951.<ref name=Durham>{{cite web |url=https://explorer.aapg.org/story/articleid/40740/the-elephant-of-all-elephants |title=The Elephant of All Elephants |work=[[American Association of Petroleum Geologists|AAPG]] Explorer |date=January 2005 |author=Louise Durham |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060302145331/http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2005/01jan/ghawar.cfm |archive-date=March 2, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.energybulletin.net/1269.html|title=Trouble in the World's Largest Oil Field-Ghawar|publisher=Energy Bulletin|date=24 July 2004 |author=Glenn Morton|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003010442/http://www.resilience.org/stories/2004-07-29/trouble-worlds-largest-oil-field-ghawar|archive-date=3 October 2016
}}</ref> Some sources claim that Ghawar [[peak oil|peaked]] in 2005, though this is denied by the field operators.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.energybulletin.net/5065.html
|date=31 March 2005|title=Has Ghawar truly peaked?|author=Donald Coxe|archive-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301190142/http://www.resilience.org/stories/2005-04-01/has-ghawar-truly-peaked/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Bank says Saudi's top field in decline |author=Adam Porter |work=English Al-Jazeera |date=April 12, 2005 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2005/4/12/bank-says-saudis-top-field-in-decline |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813190446/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/08B97BCF-7BE6-4F1D-A846-7ACB9B0F8894.htm |archive-date=2006-08-13 }}</ref>

Saudi Aramco reported in mid-2008 that Ghawar had produced 48% of its proven reserves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Saudi_Arabia/Oil.html|date=2008-08-01|title=Saudi Arabia Energy Data, Statistics and Analysis - Oil, Gas, Electricity, Coal|website=Energy Information Agency|publisher=US Department of Energy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913234543/http://www.eia.doe.gov:80/emeu/cabs/Saudi_Arabia/Oil.html|archive-date=13 September 2008}}</ref>

== Extraction of crude oil ==
Approximately 60–65% of all Saudi [[Petroleum|oil]] produced between 1948 and 2000, came from Ghawar. Cumulative [[extraction of petroleum]] through early 2010, has exceeded {{convert|65|Goilbbl|m3|lk=in}}.<ref name=Croft>{{cite web |url=http://www.gregcroft.com/ghawar.ivnu |title=The Ghawar Oil Field, Saudi Arabia |publisher=Gregcroft.com |access-date=2013-04-15 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202330/http://www.gregcroft.com/ghawar.ivnu |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2009, it was estimated that Ghawar produced about {{convert|5|Moilbbl|m3}} of oil a day (6.25% of global production),<ref name=King>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.geoexpro.com/article/The_King_of_Giant_Fields/d311f583.aspx |title=The King of Giant Fields |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816221552/https://www.geoexpro.com/articles/2010/04/the-king-of-giant-fields |archive-date=2020-08-16 |author=Rasoul Sorkhab |magazine=GeoExPro |issue=4 |volume=7 |date=2010}}</ref> a figure which was later shown to be substantially overestimated.<ref name=":1" />

As of 31 December 2018, total reserves of {{convert|58.32|Goilbbl|m3}} of oil equivalent including {{convert|48.25|Goilbbl|m3}} barrels of liquid reserves have been confirmed by [[Saudi Aramco]]. Average daily extraction was {{convert|3.8|Moilbbl|m3}} per day.<ref name=":0" />

Ghawar also produces approximately {{convert|2|Gcuft|m3}} of [[natural gas]] per day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top Ten Highest Producing Oil Fields |url=http://oilpatchasia.com/2013/10/top-ten-highest-producing-oil-fields/|publisher=Oil Patch Asia |date=3 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102203244/http://oilpatchasia.com/2013/10/top-ten-highest-producing-oil-fields/ |archive-date=2 January 2014}}</ref>

The operators stimulate production by [[Water injection (oil production)|waterflood]]ing, using seawater at a rate said to be around {{convert|7|Moilbbl|m3}} per day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://globalresourcesnews.com/channel-Ghawar |title=Saudi Arabia's Giant Ghawar Oil Field |website=Global Resources News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211060419/http://globalresourcesnews.com/channel-Ghawar |archive-date=11 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghawar Oil Field - Hydrocarbons Technology |url=https://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/ghawar-oil-field/#:~:text=Technologies%20employed%20at%20the%20Ghawar%20field&text=The%20field%27s%20current%20extensive%20injection,Persian%20Gulf%20seawater%20per%20day. |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=www.hydrocarbons-technology.com}}</ref> Water flooding is said to have begun in 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.energyandcapital.com/articles/ghawar-oil-field/3101 |title=Ghawar Oil Field: Saudi Arabia's Oil Future |website=Energy and Capital |author=Justin Williams |date=19 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331234435/http://www.energyandcapital.com/articles/ghawar-oil-field/3101 |archive-date=31 March 2016}}</ref> The [[water cut]] was about 32% in 2003, and ranged from about 27% to 38% from 1993 to 2003.<ref>A.M. Afifi, 2004 AAPG Distinguished Lecture, chart reproduced in {{harvp|Rasoul Sorkhab|2010}}.</ref> By 2006, North Uthmaniyah's water cut was about 46%.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2013/04/13/peak-oil-isnt-dead-an-interview-with-chris-nelder/ |title=Peak oil isn't dead: An interview with Chris Nelder |author=Brad Plumer |newspaper=Washington Post |date=13 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theoildrum.com/node/9263 |title=Tech Talk - Current Oil Production and the Future of Ghawar |website=The Oil Drum |date=18 June 2012}}</ref>

== Energy content ==
Taking the {{convert|1.9e8|t}} production figure per year and the conventional [[energy density]] of crude oil (per the definition of the [[ton of oil equivalent]]) of 41.868&nbsp;MJ/kg (5275.3&nbsp;Wh/lb)) the total thermal energy equivalent produced yearly by the oil field is roughly 7.955&nbsp;EJ or 2.21&nbsp;PWh of thermal energy equivalent.

For comparison,
*[[North Antelope Rochelle Mine]], the largest coal mine in the world, produced 85.3&nbsp;Mt of coal in 2019 (down from over 100&nbsp;Mt in 2015) at 1.746&nbsp;EJ or 485&nbsp;TWh of thermal energy equivalent.

*[[McArthur River uranium mine]], the largest uranium mine in the world, produced 7.3&nbsp;Mt (16.1&nbsp;Mio&nbsp;lb) of [[yellowcake]] in fiscal 2017, equivalent to roughly 6.2&nbsp;kt of uranium metal or 4.46&nbsp;EJ (1240&nbsp;TWh) of thermal energy at a [[burnup]] of 200&nbsp;MWh/kg achievable in [[CANDU]]-type reactors, but much less in more widespread reactor designs.

*The largest solar farm in the world, [[Bhadla solar park]] in India, covering 57&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> and boasting a [[nameplate capacity]] of 2255&nbsp;MW would produce 17.778&nbsp;PJ or 4938&nbsp;GWh of electricity per year.

*The largest wind farm as of 2021, [[Gansu Wind Farm]] in China has a [[nameplate capacity]] approaching 8&nbsp;GW with plans to ramp up to 20&nbsp;GW.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://earthandhuman.org/world-largest-wind-farms/ | title=Top 10 Largest Wind Farms in the World - Earth and Human | date=13 September 2021 }}</ref> A 20&nbsp;GW power plant at 100&nbsp;% capacity factor could deliver {{convert|630.7|PJ}} of electric output per year. However, once again due to the weather-dependency and [[intermittent renewable energy|intermittency]] of wind power, capacity factors for onshore wind installations like Gansu are typically much lower, ranging at 15-35% depending on local factors. 250000 [[tonne of coal equivalent| standard tons of coal]] will be replaced per year at full deployment, which is equivalent to 7327&nbsp;TJ (2035&nbsp;GWh).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://earthandhuman.org/world-largest-wind-farms/ | title=Top 10 Largest Wind Farms in the World - Earth and Human | date=13 September 2021 }}</ref>

The Ghawar oil field is thus the largest single supplier of [[primary energy]] on Earth.

== Reserves ==
In April 2010, Saad al-Tureiki, Vice-President for Operations at Aramco, stated, in a news conference reported in Saudi media, that over {{convert|65|Goilbbl|km3}} have been produced from the field since 1951. Tureiki further stated that the total reserves of the field had originally exceeded {{convert|100|Goilbbl|km3}}.<ref>{{cite news
  |url=http://www.alyaum.com/issue/article.php?IN=13447&I=750340
  |title=أرامكو: "الغوار" ما زال قويا بـ"100" مليار برميل
  |trans-title=Aramco: "Ghawar" is still strong with "100" billion barrels
  |language=ar
  |year=2010
  |access-date=2010-04-10
  |archive-date=2020-10-04
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004085807/https://www.alyaum.com/issue/article.php?IN=13447&I=750340
  |url-status=dead
  }}</ref>

The [[International Energy Agency]] in its 2008 [[World Energy Outlook]] stated that the oil production from Ghawar reached 66 Bbo in 2007, and that the remaining reserves are 74 Bbo.<ref name=King/>

[[Matthew Simmons]], in his 2005 book ''[[Twilight in the Desert]]'', suggested that production from the Ghawar field and Saudi Arabia may soon [[Hubbert peak theory|peak]].<ref name=simmons>{{cite book
  | author = Matthew Simmons
  | author-link = Matthew Simmons
  | title = Twilight in the Desert - The coming Saudi oil shock and the world economy.
  | year = 2005
  | publisher = John Wiley & Sons
  | location = Hoboken, NJ
  | isbn = 0-471-73876-X
  | url-access = registration
  | url = https://archive.org/details/twilightindesert00simm_0
  }}</ref>

When appraised in the 1970s, the field was assessed to have {{convert|170|Goilbbl|km3}} of original [[oil in place]] (OOIP), with about {{convert|60|Goilbbl|km3}} recoverable (1975 Aramco estimate quoted by Matt Simmons). The second figure, at least, was understated since that production figure has already been exceeded.<ref name=simmons/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Saudi Arabia|Energy}}
*[[Udhailiyah]], residential compound built atop the central part of  Ghawar
* [[Khurais oil field]]
* [[List of oil fields]]
* [[Peak oil]]
* [[Swing producer]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |author=Arabian American Oil Company Staff |title=Ghawar Oil Field, Saudi Arabia |journal=Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists |volume=43 |issue=2 |date=February 1959 |pages=434–454 |doi=10.1306/0BDA5CB1-16BD-11D7-8645000102C1865D}} Still the basic public reference for Ghawar geology.

== External links ==
* [http://www.theoildrum.com/tag/ghawar Articles on Ghawar and analysis on its reserves] from [[The Oil Drum]]
* [http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/05/journal_oil_con.html Terrorists and Ghawar]
* {{Official website|http://www.saudiaramco.com/|Saudi Aramco official website}} (source of most data in this article).
:*[http://www.saudiaramco.com/content/dam/Publications/Dimensions%20international/Dimensions%20Fall%202008/GhawarFall08.pdf World-beater Ghawar a field apart] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304231845/http://www.saudiaramco.com/content/dam/Publications/Dimensions%20international/Dimensions%20Fall%202008/GhawarFall08.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}, 2008 article in Saudi Aramco ''Dimensions'' magazine
*[http://www.oilandgasinfrastructure.com/home/oilandgasmiddleeast/saudi-arabia Map of oil and gas infrastructure in Saudi Arabia]

[[Category:Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Oil fields of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Saudi Aramco oil and gas fields]]
[[Category:Oil field disputes]]