Editing Glorious First of June

{{Short description|1794 naval battle of the French Revolutionary Wars}}
{{For|the play by Richard Brinsley Sheridan|The Glorious First of June (play)}}
{{Redirect|Fourth Battle of Ushant|other engagements named for Ushant|Battle of Ushant (disambiguation)}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict    = Glorious First of June
| partof      = the [[Atlantic campaign of May 1794]]
| image       = Loutherbourg-La Victoire de Lord Howe.jpg
| image_size  = 300
| caption     = ''[[Lord Howe's action, or the Glorious First of June]]'', [[Philip James de Loutherbourg]]
| date        = 1 June 1794
| place       = {{convert|400|nmi|km}} west of [[Ushant]], [[Atlantic Ocean]]{{efn|Although some sources differ (Smith, p. 82 claims only 50&nbsp;km from Ushant, which may be a typographical error), the accepted position of the battle is approximately {{convert|400|nmi|km}} west of [[Ushant]] in the Eastern Atlantic.}}{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=13}}
| coordinates = {{coord|47|24|N|17|27|W|type:event|display=inline,title}}
| result      = See ''[[#Aftermath|Aftermath]]''
| combatant1  = [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]
| combatant2  = [[First French Republic|France]]
| commander1  = [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Richard Howe]]
| commander2  = [[Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse|Villaret de Joyeuse]]
| strength1   = 25 ships of the line <br /> 7 frigates <br /> 2 fireships <br /> 2 cutters <br /> 1 sloop ([[Glorious First of June order of battle#British fleet|OOB]])
| strength2   = 26 ships of the line <br /> 5 frigates <br /> 2 corvettes ([[Glorious First of June order of battle#French fleet|OOB]])
| casualties1 = 1,200 killed and wounded
| casualties2 = 4,000 killed or wounded <br /> 3,000 captured <br /> 6 ships of the line captured <br /> 1 ship of the line sunk
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox First Coalition}} <br /> {{Campaignbox French Revolutionary Wars Naval Battles}} <br /> {{Campaignbox Atlantic campaign of May 1794}}
}}

The '''Glorious First of June''', also known as the '''Fourth Battle of Ushant''', (known in France as the '''{{lang|fr|Bataille du 13 prairial an 2}}''' or '''{{lang|fr|Combat de Prairial}}'''){{efn|The battle is generally known in both English and French by its date rather than its geographical location. Naval battles were traditionally known by the closest land feature to the battle or a particularly prominent coastal feature nearby. In the case of the Glorious First of June, however, the nearest land was hundreds of miles away and bore no relation to the battle. Thus the date has instead been commonly used to represent the action. The discrepancy between English and French renditions is a result of the different calendars then in use: for Britain the [[Gregorian calendar]] and for France the [[French Revolutionary calendar]]. The name Third Battle of Ushant follows the nearest landmark tradition and also acknowledges the two previous [[Battle of Ushant (disambiguation)|Battles of Ushant]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}}} was fought on 1 June 1794 between the [[Royal Navy|British]] and [[French Navy|French navies]] during the [[War of the First Coalition]]. It was the first and largest [[fleet action]] of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]].

The action was the culmination of the [[Atlantic campaign of May 1794]], which had criss-crossed the [[Bay of Biscay]] over the previous month and saw both sides capturing numerous merchant ships and small warships along with engaging in two partial, but inconclusive, fleet actions. The British [[Channel Fleet|Channel Squadron]] under Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Lord Howe]] attempted to prevent the passage of a vital French [[Cereal|grain]] [[convoy]] from the [[Federalist Era#Foreign Affairs|United States]], which was protected by the French [[Ponant Fleet|Atlantic Squadron]], commanded by [[Counter admiral|Counter-admiral]] [[Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse]]. The two forces clashed in the Atlantic Ocean, some {{convert|400|nmi|km|-2}} west of the French island of [[Ushant]] on 1 June 1794.

During the battle, Howe defied naval convention by ordering his fleet to turn towards the French and for each of his vessels to [[raking fire|rake]] and engage their immediate opponent. This unexpected order was not understood by all of his captains, and as a result, his attack was more piecemeal than he intended. Nevertheless, his ships inflicted a severe tactical defeat on the French fleet. In the aftermath of the battle both fleets were left shattered; in no condition for further combat, Howe and Villaret returned to their home ports. Despite losing seven of his [[ships of the line]], Villaret had bought enough time for the French grain convoy to reach safety unimpeded by Howe's fleet, securing a strategic success. However, he was also forced to withdraw his battle fleet back to port, leaving the British free to conduct a campaign of [[blockade]] for the remainder of the war. In the immediate aftermath, both sides claimed victory and the outcome of the battle was seized upon by the press of both nations as a demonstration of the prowess and bravery of their respective navies.

The battle demonstrated a number of the major problems inherent in the French and British navies at the start of the French Revolutionary Wars. Both admirals were faced with disobedience from their captains, along with ill-discipline and poor training among their shorthanded crews, and they failed to control their fleets effectively during the height of the combat.

== Background ==
Since early 1792 France had been at war with four of its neighbours on two fronts, battling the [[Habsburg monarchy]] and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] in the [[Austrian Netherlands]], and the Austrians and [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Piedmontese]] in Italy. On 2 January 1793, almost one year into the [[French Revolutionary War]], republican-held forts at [[Brest, France|Brest]] in Brittany [[Childers Incident|fired on]] the British [[brig]] HMS ''[[HMS Childers (1778)|Childers]]''.{{efn|HMS ''Childers'' was under the command of Lieutenant [[Robert Barlow (Royal Navy officer)|Robert Barlow]], who later commanded the frigate [[HMS Pegasus (1779)|HMS ''Pegasus'']] at the Glorious First of June.}}{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=3}} A few weeks later, following the [[Execution of Louis XVI|execution]] of the imprisoned King [[Louis XVI]],{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=9}} diplomatic ties between Britain and France were broken. On 1 February, France declared war on both Britain and the [[Dutch Republic]].{{sfn|Williams |1907|p=373}}

Protected from immediate invasion by the [[English Channel]], Britain prepared for an extensive naval campaign and dispatched troops to the Netherlands for service against the French.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=15}} Throughout the remainder of 1793, the British and French navies undertook minor operations in Northern waters, the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Caribbean|West]] and [[East Indies]], where both nations maintained [[European colonization of the Americas|colonies]]. The closest the British [[Channel Fleet|Channel Squadron]] had come to an engagement was when it had narrowly missed intercepting the French convoy from the Caribbean, escorted by 15 ships of the line on 2 August.{{sfn|Mostert |2007|p=102}} The only major clash was the [[Siege of Toulon (1793)|Siege of Toulon]], a confused and bloody affair in which the British force holding the town—alongside [[History of Spain (1700-1808)|Spanish]], [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720-1861)|Sardinian]], Austrian and [[Armée des Émigrés|French Royalist]] troops—had to be evacuated by the [[Royal Navy]] to prevent its imminent defeat at the hands of the [[French Revolutionary Army]].{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=27}} The aftermath of this siege was punctuated by recriminations and accusations of cowardice and betrayal among the allies, eventually resulting in Spain switching allegiance with the signing of the [[Second Treaty of San Ildefonso|Treaty of San Ildefonso]] two years later.{{sfn|Williams |1907|p=387}} Nevertheless, the siege produced one major success: Sir [[Sidney Smith (Royal Navy officer)|Sidney Smith]], with parties of sailors from the retreating British fleet, accomplished the destruction of substantial French naval stores and shipping in [[Toulon]].{{sfn|Williams |1907|p=373}} More might have been achieved had the Spanish raiding parties that accompanied Smith not been issued with secret orders to stall the destruction of the French fleet.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=53}}

The situation in Europe remained volatile into 1794. Off northern France, the French [[Ponant Fleet|Atlantic Squadron]] had mutinied due to errors in provisions and pay. In consequence, the French Navy officer corps suffered greatly from the effects of the [[Reign of Terror]], with many experienced sailors being executed, imprisoned or dismissed from the service for perceived disloyalty.{{sfn|James |2002|p=22}} The shortage of provisions was more than a navy problem though; France itself was starving because the social upheavals of the previous year had combined with a harsh winter to ruin the harvest.{{sfn|Williams |1907|p=381}} By this time at war with all her neighbours, France had nowhere to turn for overland imports of fresh provisions. Eventually a solution to the food crisis was agreed by the [[National Convention]]: food produced in France's overseas colonies would be concentrated on board a fleet of merchant ships gathered in [[Chesapeake Bay]], and augmented with food and goods purchased from the United States.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=89}} During April and May 1794, the merchantmen would convoy the supplies across the Atlantic to Brest, protected by elements of the Atlantic Squadron.{{sfn|Mostert |2007|p=123}}

==Fleets==
{{further|Glorious First of June order of battle}}

The navies of Britain and France in 1794 were at very different stages of development. Although the British fleet was numerically superior, the French ships were larger (even if more lightly built), and carried a heavier weight of shot.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=96}} The largest French ships were three-decker [[first rates]], carrying 110 or 120 guns, against 100 guns on the largest British vessels.{{sfn|James |2002|p=127}}

===Royal Navy===
[[File:Admiral Richard Howe, 1726-99, 1st Earl Howe RMG BHC2790.tiff|thumb|Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe; 1794 painting by [[John Singleton Copley]]]]

Since the [[Nootka Crisis]] of 1790, the Royal Navy had been at sea in a state of readiness for over three years.{{sfn|James |2002|p=48}} The Navy's dockyards under [[First Lord of the Admiralty]] [[Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barham|Charles Middleton]] were all fully fitted and prepared for conflict. This was quite unlike the disasters of the [[American Revolutionary War]] ten years earlier, when an ill-prepared Royal Navy had taken too long to reach full effectiveness and was consequently unable to support the North American campaign, which ended in defeat at the [[Siege of Yorktown]] due to lack of supplies.{{sfn|Rodger |2004|p=429}} With British dockyards now readily turning out cannon, shot, sails, provisions and other essential equipment, the only remaining problem was that of manning the several hundred ships on the Navy list.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=94}}

Unfortunately for the British, gathering sufficient manpower was difficult and never satisfactorily accomplished throughout the entire war. The shortage of seamen was such that [[press gangs]] were forced to take thousands of men with no experience on the sea, meaning that training and preparing them for naval life would take quite some time.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=94}} The lack of [[Royal Marines]] was even more urgent, and soldiers from the [[British Army]] were drafted into the fleet for service at sea. Men of the [[Queen's Royal Regiment|2nd. Regiment of Foot – The Queen's (Royal West Surrey Regiment)]] and the [[29th Regiment of Foot]] served aboard Royal Navy ships during the campaign; their descendant regiments still maintain the [[battle honour]] "1 June 1794".<ref name="Worcs">[http://www.worcestershireregiment.com/wr.php?main=inc/h_glorious_first The Glorious First of June 1794], ''[[Worcestershire Regiment]]'', retrieved 23 December 2007</ref><ref name="QRSR">[http://www.queensroyalsurreys.org.uk/1661to1966/gloriousfirst/gloriousfirst.html The Glorious First of June 1794] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305005820/http://www.queensroyalsurreys.org.uk/1661to1966/gloriousfirst/gloriousfirst.html |date=5 March 2016 }}, ''Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment'', retrieved 1 January 2008</ref>

Despite these difficulties, the Channel Squadron was possessed of one of the best naval commanders of the age; its commander-in-chief, [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe]], had learned his trade under [[Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke]] and fought at the [[Battle of Quiberon Bay]] in 1759.<ref name="ODNBHowe">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13963?docPos=2 Howe, Richard], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Roger Knight, retrieved 23 December 2007</ref> In the spring of 1794, with the French convoy's arrival in European waters imminent, Howe had dispersed his fleet in three groups. [[George Montagu (Royal Navy officer)|George Montagu]], in [[HMS Hector (1774)|HMS ''Hector'']], was sent with six ships of the line and two [[frigate]]s to guard British convoys to the East Indies, West Indies and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] as far as [[Cape Finisterre]]. [[Peter Rainier (Royal Navy officer, born 1741)|Peter Rainier]], in [[HMS Suffolk (1765)|HMS ''Suffolk]] and commanding six other ships, was to escort the convoys for the rest of their passage. The third force consisted of 26 ships of the line, with several supporting vessels, under Howe's direct command. They were to patrol the Bay of Biscay for the arriving French.{{sfn|James |2002|p=125}}

===French Navy===
[[Image:Louis-Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse, vice-amiral (1750-1812).jpg|upright|thumb|1839 portrait of Villaret by [[Jean-Baptiste Paulin Guérin]]]]

In contrast to their British counterparts, the [[French Navy]] was in a state of confusion. Although the quality of the fleet's ships was high, the fleet hierarchy was riven by the same crises that had torn through France since the [[French Revolution|Revolution]] five years earlier.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=94}} Consequently, the high standard of ships and ordnance was not matched by that of the available crews, which were largely untrained and inexperienced. With the Terror resulting in the death or dismissal of many senior French sailors and officers, political appointees and conscripts—many of whom had never been to sea at all, let alone in a fighting vessel—filled the Atlantic Squadron.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=16}}

The manpower problem was compounded by the supply crisis which was affecting the entire nation, with the fleet going unpaid and largely unfed for months at times.{{sfn|James |2002|p=58}} In August 1793, these problems came to a head in the [[Ponant Fleet|Brest Fleet]], when a lack of provisions resulted in a mutiny among the fleet's [[naval rating]]s. The crews overruled their officers and brought their ships into harbour in search of food, leaving the French coast undefended.{{sfn|James |2002|p=59}} The [[National Convention]] responded by instantly executing a swathe of the fleet's senior officers and non-commissioned officers. Hundreds more officers and sailors were imprisoned, banished or dismissed from the navy. The effect of this purge was devastating, seriously degrading the fighting ability of the fleet by removing at a stroke many of its most capable personnel.{{sfn|James |2002|p=22}} In their places were promoted junior officers, merchant captains and even civilians who expressed sufficient revolutionary zeal, although few of them knew how to fight or control a battle fleet at sea.{{sfn|James |2002|p=23}}{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=13}}

The newly appointed commander of this troubled fleet was [[Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse]]; although formerly in a junior position, he was known to possess a high degree of tactical ability, and had served under Vice-Admiral [[Pierre André de Suffren]] in the Indian Ocean during the American War of Independence.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=96}}{{sfn|Mostert|2007|p=133}} However, Villaret's attempts to mould his new officer corps into an effective fighting unit were hampered by another new appointee, a deputy of the National Convention named [[Jean-Bon Saint-André]]. Saint-André's job was to report directly to the National Convention on the revolutionary ardour of both the fleet and its admiral. He frequently intervened in strategic planning and tactical operations. Shortly after his arrival, Saint-André proposed issuing a decree ordering that any officer deemed to have shown insufficient zeal in defending his ship in action should be put to death on his return to France, although this highly controversial legislation does not appear to have ever been acted upon. Although his interference was a source of frustration for Villaret, Saint-André's dispatches to Paris were published regularly in ''[[Le Moniteur Universel]]'', and did much to popularise the Navy in France.{{sfn|James |2002|p=123–124}}

The Atlantic Squadron was even more dispersed than the British in the spring of 1794: Counter-Admiral [[Pierre Jean Van Stabel]] had been dispatched, with five ships including two of the line, to meet the much-needed French grain convoy off the American eastern seaboard. Counter-Admiral [[Joseph-Marie Nielly]] had sailed from [[Rochefort, Charente-Maritime|Rochefort]] with five ships of the line and assorted cruising warships to rendezvous with the convoy in the mid-Atlantic. This left Villaret with 25 ships of the line at Brest to meet the threat posed by the British fleet under Lord Howe.{{sfn|James |2002|p=127}}

===Convoy===
By early spring of 1794, the situation in France was dire. With famine looming after the failure of the harvest and the blockade of French ports and trade, the French government was forced to look overseas for sustenance.{{sfn|Rodger |2004|p=429}} Turning to [[French colonization of the Americas|France's colonies in the Americas]], and the agricultural bounty of the United States, the National Convention gave orders for the formation of a large convoy of sailing vessels to gather at [[Hampton Roads]] in the [[Chesapeake Bay]], where Admiral Vanstabel would wait for them. According to contemporary historian [[William James (naval historian)|William James]] this conglomeration of ships was said to be over 350 strong, although he disputes this figure, citing the number as 117 (in addition to the French warships).{{sfn|James |2002|p=127}}

The convoy had also been augmented by the United States government, in both cargo and shipping, as repayment for French financial, moral and military support during the [[American Revolution]]. In supporting the French Revolution in this way, the American government, urged especially by Ambassador [[Gouverneur Morris]], was fulfilling its ten-year-old debt to France.{{sfn|Williams |1907|p=381}} Friendly relations between the United States and France did not long survive the [[Jay Treaty]] which came into effect in 1796; by 1798 the two nations would be engaged in the [[Quasi War]].{{sfn|Gardiner|2001b|p=148}}

==May 1794==
{{Further|Atlantic campaign of May 1794}}
{{OSM Location map
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|caption = Location of the battle in the Atlantic Ocean
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The French convoy, escorted by Vanstabel, departed America from [[Virginia]] on 2 April, and Howe sailed from [[Portsmouth]] on 2 May, taking his entire fleet to both escort British convoys to the [[Western Approaches]] and intercept the French.{{sfn|Mostert |2007|p=132}} Checking that Villaret was still in [[Brest, France|Brest]], Howe spent two weeks searching the Bay of Biscay for the grain convoy, returning to Brest on 18 May to discover that Villaret had sailed the previous day.{{efn|It has been suggested by historian Peter Padfield that allowing Villaret to escape Brest was part of a deliberate strategy on Howe's part. If Howe could draw Villaret into the open ocean, he could rely on superior training and tactics to destroy the French fleet in battle. If successful, this would eliminate the threat from the French Atlantic Fleet for years to come.}}{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=17}} Returning to sea in search of his opponent, Howe pursued Villaret deep into the Atlantic. Also at sea during this period were the squadrons of Nielly (French) and Montagu (British), both of whom had met with some success; Nielly had captured a number of British merchant ships and Montagu had taken several back. Nielly was the first to encounter the grain convoy, deep in the Atlantic in the second week of May. He took it under escort as it moved closer to Europe, while Montagu was searching fruitlessly to the south.{{sfn|James |2002|p=128}}

Despite Howe's pursuit, the main French sortie found initial success, running into a Dutch convoy and taking 20&nbsp;ships from it on Villaret's first day at sea. For the next week Howe continued to follow the French, seizing and burning a trail of French-held Dutch ships and enemy corvettes.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=27}} On 25 May Howe spotted a straggler from Villaret's fleet and gave chase; [[French ship Audacieux (1784)|''Audacieux'']] led Howe straight to his opponent's location.{{sfn|James |2002|p=130}} Having finally found Villaret, on 28 May Howe attacked, using a flying squadron of his fastest ships to cut off its rearmost vessel [[French ship Bretagne (1766)|''Révolutionnaire'']]. This [[first rate]] was at various times engaged with six British ships and took heavy damage, possibly striking her colours late in the action.{{sfn|James |2002|p=132}} As darkness fell the British and French fleets separated, leaving ''Révolutionnaire'' and her final enemy, [[HMS Audacious (1785)|HMS ''Audacious'']], still locked in combat behind them. These two ships parted company during the night and eventually returned to their respective home ports.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=28}} By this stage Villaret knew through his patrolling frigates that the grain convoy was close, and deliberately took his fleet to the west, hoping to decoy Howe away from the vital convoy.{{sfn|Williams |1907|p=381}}

Taking the bait, the following day Howe attacked again, but his attempt to split the French fleet in half was unsuccessful when his lead ship, [[HMS Caesar (1793)|HMS ''Caesar'']], failed to follow orders.{{sfn|James |2002|p=138}} Much damage was done to both fleets but the action was inconclusive, and the two forces again separated without having settled the issue. Howe had however gained an important advantage during the engagement by seizing the [[weather gage]], enabling him to further attack Villaret at a time of his choosing.{{efn|The weather gage was a vital advantage in sailing warfare because the ships required wind of the correct volume and direction to conduct offensive operations. When the wind was in the wrong direction, a captain could [[tacking (sailing)|tack]] to compensate, but possessing the weather gage meant that a ship could use the wind to attack its opponent directly, without the need for complicated manoeuvre.}}{{sfn|Rodger |2004|p=430}} Three French ships were sent back to port with damage, but these losses were offset by reinforcements gained the following day with the arrival of Nielly's detached squadron.Battle was postponed during the next two days because of thick fog, but when the haze lifted on 1 June 1794, the battle lines were only 6&nbsp;miles (10&nbsp;km) apart and Howe was prepared to force a decisive action.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=16}}

== First of June ==
[[Image:June 1 1794 Order of Battle Map EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The British and French fleets on the morning of 1 June 1794{{sfn|James |2002|p=147}}]]

Although Howe was in a favourable position, Villaret had not been idle during the night. He had attempted, with near success, to distance his ships from the British fleet; when dawn broke at 05:00 he was within a few hours of gaining enough wind to escape over the horizon.{{sfn|James |2002|p=146}} Allowing his men to breakfast, Howe took full advantage of his position on the weather gage to close with Villaret, and by 08:12 the British fleet was just four miles (6&nbsp;km) from the enemy. By this time, Howe's formation was deployed in an organised line parallel to the French, with [[frigate]]s acting as repeaters for the admiral's commands.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=95}}The French were likewise in [[line ahead]] and the two lines began exchanging long-range gunfire at 09:24, whereupon Howe unleashed his innovative battleplan.{{sfn|James |2002|p=146}}

It was normal in fleet actions of the 18th century for the two lines of battle to pass one another sedately, exchanging fire at long ranges and then [[jibe|wearing]] away, often without either side losing a ship or taking an enemy.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=18}} In contrast, Howe was counting on the professionalism of his captains and crews combined with the advantage of the weather gage to attack the French directly, driving through their line.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=94}} However, this time he did not plan to manoeuvre in the way he had during the two previous encounters, each ship following in the wake of that in front to create a new line arrowing through his opponent's force (as [[George Rodney|Rodney]] had done at the [[Battle of the Saintes]] 12&nbsp;years earlier).{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=31}} Instead, Howe ordered each of his ships to turn individually towards the French line, intending to breach it at every point and rake the French ships at both bow and stern. The British captains would then pull up on the leeward side of their opposite numbers, cutting them off from their retreat downwind, and engage them directly, hopefully forcing each to surrender and consequently destroying the French Atlantic Fleet.{{sfn|Rodger |2004|p=430}}

==British break the line==
Within minutes of issuing the signal and turning his flagship [[HMS Queen Charlotte (1790)|HMS ''Queen Charlotte'']], Howe's plan began to falter. Many of the British captains had either misunderstood or ignored the signal and were hanging back in the original line.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=22}} Other ships were still struggling with damage from Howe's earlier engagements and could not get into action fast enough. The result was a ragged formation tipped by ''Queen Charlotte'' that headed unevenly for Villaret's fleet. The French responded by firing on the British ships as they approached, but the lack of training and coordination in the French fleet was obvious; many ships which did obey Howe's order and attacked the French directly arrived in action without significant damage.{{sfn|James |2002|p=155}}

===Van squadron===
[[File:Pocock Glorious First of June1.jpg|thumb|''HMS ''Defence'' at the Battle of the Glorious 1 June 1794'', by [[Nicholas Pocock]]{{efn|Pocock had been an officer with the British Fleet at the Glorious First of June, serving aboard the repeating frigate [[HMS Pegasus (1779)|HMS ''Pegasus'']].}}]]

Although ''Queen Charlotte'' pressed on all sail, she was not the first through the enemy line. That distinction belonged to a ship of the [[Vanguard (military tactics)|van squadron]] under [[Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves|Admiral Graves]]: [[HMS Defence (1763)|HMS ''Defence'']] under Captain [[James Gambier]], a notoriously dour officer nicknamed "Dismal Jimmy" by his contemporaries.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=32}} ''Defence'', the seventh ship of the British line, successfully cut the French line between its sixth and seventh ships; [[French ship Orion (1787)|''Mucius'']] and [[French ship Tourville (1788)|''Tourville'']]. Raking both opponents, ''Defence'' soon found herself in difficulty due to the failure of those ships behind her to properly follow up.{{sfn|James |2002|p=158}} This left her vulnerable to ''Mucius'', ''Tourville'' and the ships following them, with which she began a furious fusillade. However, ''Defence'' was not the only ship of the van to break the French line; minutes later [[George Cranfield Berkeley]] in [[HMS Marlborough (1767)|HMS ''Marlborough'']] executed Howe's manoeuvre perfectly, raking and then entangling his ship with [[French ship Impétueux (1787)|''Impétueux'']].{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=29}}{{sfn|James |2002|p=157}}

In front of ''Marlborough'' the rest of the van had mixed success. [[HMS Bellerophon (1786)|HMS ''Bellerophon'']] and [[HMS Leviathan (1790)|HMS ''Leviathan'']] were both still suffering the effects of their exertions earlier in the week and did not breach the enemy line. Instead they pulled along the near side of [[French ship Éole (1789)|''Éole'']] and [[French ship America (1788)|''America'']] respectively and brought them to close gunnery duels. Rear-Admiral [[Thomas Pasley]] of ''Bellerophon'' was an early casualty, losing a leg in the opening exchanges. [[HMS Royal Sovereign (1786)|HMS ''Royal Sovereign'']], Graves's flagship, was less successful due to a miscalculation of distance that resulted in her pulling up too far from the French line and coming under heavy fire from her opponent [[French ship Terrible (1780)|''Terrible'']]. In the time it took to engage ''Terrible'' more closely, ''Royal Sovereign'' suffered a severe pounding and Admiral Graves was badly wounded.{{sfn|James |2002|p=157}}

More disturbing to Lord Howe were the actions of [[HMS Russell (1764)|HMS ''Russell'']] and HMS ''Caesar''. ''Russell's'' captain [[John Willett Payne]] was criticised at the time for failing to get to grips with the enemy more closely and allowing her opponent [[French ship Téméraire (1782)|''Téméraire'']] to badly damage her rigging in the early stages, although later commentators blamed damage received on 29 May for her poor start to the action.{{sfn|James |2002|p=156}}There were no such excuses, however, for Captain [[Anthony James Pye Molloy|Anthony Molloy]] of ''Caesar'', who totally failed in his duty to engage the enemy. Molloy completely ignored Howe's signal and continued ahead as if the British battleline was following him rather than engaging the French fleet directly.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=24}} ''Caesar'' did participate in a desultory exchange of fire with the leading French ship ''Trajan'' but her fire had little effect, while ''Trajan'' inflicted much damage to ''Caesar's'' rigging and was subsequently able to attack ''Bellerophon'' as well, roaming unchecked through the melee developing at the head of the line.{{sfn|James |2002|p=155}}

===Centre===
The centre of the two fleets was divided by two separate squadrons of the British line: the forward division under admirals [[Benjamin Caldwell]] and [[Sir George Bowyer, 1st Baronet|George Bowyer]] and the rear under Lord Howe. While Howe in ''Queen Charlotte'' was engaging the French closely, his subordinates in the forward division were less active. Instead of moving in on their opposite numbers directly, the forward division sedately closed with the French in line ahead formation, engaging in a long distance duel which did not prevent their opponents from harassing the embattled ''Defence'' just ahead of them.{{sfn|James |2002|p=158}} Of all the ships in this squadron only [[HMS Invincible (1765)|HMS ''Invincible'']], under [[Thomas Pakenham (Royal Navy officer)|Thomas Pakenham]], ranged close to the French lines. ''Invincible'' was badly damaged by her lone charge but managed to engage the larger [[French ship Deux Frères|''Juste'']].{{sfn|James |2002|p=159}} [[HMS Barfleur (1768)|HMS ''Barfleur'']] under Bowyer did later enter the action, but Bowyer was not present, having lost a leg in the opening exchanges.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=32}}

Howe and ''Queen Charlotte'' led the fleet by example, sailing directly at the French flagship [[French ship Océan (1790)|''Montagne'']]. Passing between ''Montagne'' and the next in line [[French ship Vengeur du Peuple|''Vengeur du Peuple'']], ''Queen Charlotte'' raked both and hauled up close to ''Montagne'' to engage in a close-range artillery battle.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=24}} As she did so, ''Queen Charlotte'' also became briefly entangled with [[French ship Auguste (1778)|''Jacobin'']], and exchanged fire with her too, causing serious damage to both French ships.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=31}}

To the right of ''Queen Charlotte'', [[HMS Brunswick (1790)|HMS ''Brunswick'']] had initially struggled to join the action. Labouring behind the flagship, her captain [[John Harvey (Royal Navy officer)|John Harvey]] received a rebuke from Howe for the delay. Spurred by this signal, Harvey pushed his ship forward and almost outstripped ''Queen Charlotte'', blocking her view of the eastern half of the French fleet for a time and taking severe damage from French fire as she did so. Harvey hoped to run aboard ''Jacobin'' and support his admiral directly, but was not fast enough to reach her and so attempted to cut between [[French ship Annibal (1779)|''Achille'']] and ''Vengeur du Peuple''. This manoeuvre failed when ''Brunswick's'' anchors became entangled in ''Vengeur's'' rigging. Harvey's [[Master mariner|master]] asked if ''Vengeur'' should be cut loose, to which Harvey replied "No; we have got her and we will keep her".<ref name="ODNBJHarvey"/> The two ships swung so close to each other that ''Brunswick's'' crew could not open their gunports and had to fire through the closed lids, the ships battering each other from a distance of just a few feet.{{sfn|James |2002|p=161}}

Behind this combat, other ships of the centre division struck the French line, [[HMS Valiant (1759)|HMS ''Valiant'']] under [[Thomas Pringle (Royal Navy officer)|Thomas Pringle]] passing close to [[French ship Patriote (1785)|''Patriote'']] which pulled away, her crew suffering from [[Infectious disease|contagion]] and unable to take their ship into battle.{{sfn|James |2002|p=165}} ''Valiant'' instead turned her attention on ''Achille'', which had already been raked by ''Queen Charlotte'' and ''Brunswick'', and badly damaged her before pressing on sail to join the embattled van division.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=31}} [[HMS Orion (1787)|HMS ''Orion'']] under [[John Thomas Duckworth]] and [[HMS Queen (1769)|HMS ''Queen'']] under Admiral [[Alan Gardner, 1st Baron Gardner|Alan Gardner]] both attacked the same ship, ''Queen'' suffering severely from the earlier actions in which her masts were badly damaged and her captain [[John Hutt (Royal Navy officer)|John Hutt]] mortally wounded.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=31}} Both ships bore down on the French [[French ship Northumberland (1780)|''Northumberland'']], which was soon dismasted and left attempting to escape on only the stump of a mast. ''Queen'' was too slow to engage ''Northumberland'' as closely as ''Orion'', and soon fell in with [[French ship Jemmapes (1794)|''Jemmapes'']], both ships battering each other severely.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=99}}

===Rear===
Of the British rear ships, only two made a determined effort to break the French line. Admiral [[Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport|Hood]]'s flagship [[HMS Royal George (1788)|HMS ''Royal George'']] pierced it between [[French ship Royal Louis (1780)|''Républicain'']] and [[French ship Sans Pareil|''Sans Pareil'']], engaging both closely, while [[HMS Glory (1788)|HMS ''Glory'']] came through the line behind ''Sans Pareil'' and threw herself into the melee as well. The rest of the British and French rearguard did not participate in this close combat; [[HMS Montagu (1779)|HMS ''Montagu'']] fought a long range gunnery duel with [[French ship Neptune (1778)|''Neptune'']] which damaged neither ship severely,{{sfn|James |2002|p=167}} although the British captain [[James Montagu (Royal Navy officer)|James Montagu]] was killed in the opening exchanges, command devolving to Lieutenant [[Ross Donnelly]].<ref name="ODNB">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7823 Donnelly, Sir Ross], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', [[John Knox Laughton|J. K. Laughton]] and [[Andrew Lambert]], (subscription required), retrieved 10 May 2012</ref> Next in line, [[HMS Ramillies (1785)|HMS ''Ramillies'']] ignored her opponent completely and sailed west, Captain [[Henry Harvey]] seeking ''Brunswick'', his brother's ship, in the confused action around ''Queen Charlotte''.{{sfn|James |2002|p=163}}

Three other British ships failed to respond to the signal from Howe, including [[HMS Alfred (1778)|HMS ''Alfred'']] which engaged the French line at extreme range without noticeable effect, and Captain [[Sir Charles Cotton, 5th Baronet|Charles Cotton]] in [[HMS Majestic (1785)|HMS ''Majestic'']] who likewise did little until the action was decided, at which point he took the surrender of several already shattered French ships. Finally [[HMS Thunderer (1783)|HMS ''Thunderer'']] under [[Sir Albemarle Bertie, 1st Baronet|Albemarle Bertie]] took no part in the initial action at all, standing well away from the British line and failing to engage the enemy despite the signal for close engagement hanging limply from her mainmast. The French rear ships were no less idle, with [[French ship Entreprenant (1787)|''Entreprenant'']] and [[French ship Seduisant (1783)|''Pelletier'']] firing at any British ships in range but refusing to close or participate in the melees on either side. The French rear ship [[French ship Saint-Esprit (1766)|''Scipion'']] did not attempt to join the action either, but could not avoid becoming embroiled in the group around ''Royal George'' and ''Républicain'' and suffered severe damage.{{sfn|James |2002|pp=167–168}}

==Melee==
[[Image:Combat-de-prairial.jpg|thumb|right|The dismasted ship [[French ship Vengeur du Peuple|''Vengeur du Peuple'']] in the aftermath of battle.<br />Lithograph after [[Auguste Mayer]].]]

Within an hour of their opening volleys the British and French lines were hopelessly confused, with three separate engagements being fought within sight of one another. In the van, ''Caesar'' had finally attempted to join the fight, only to have a vital spar shot away by ''Trajan'' which caused her to slip down the two embattled fleets without contributing significantly to the battle. ''Bellerophon'' and ''Leviathan'' were in the thick of the action, the outnumbered ''Bellerophon'' taking serious damage to her rigging. This left her unable to manoeuvre and in danger from her opponents, of which ''Eole'' also suffered severely. Captain [[William Johnstone Hope]] sought to extract his ship from her perilous position and called up support; the frigate [[HMS Latona (1781)|HMS ''Latona'']] under Captain [[Edward Thornbrough]] arrived to provide assistance. Thornbrough brought his small ship between the ships of the French battleline and opened fire on ''Eole'', helping to drive off three ships of the line and then towing ''Bellerophon'' to safety. ''Leviathan'', under [[Lord Hugh Seymour]], had been more successful than ''Bellerophon'', her gunnery dismasting ''America'' despite receiving fire from ''Eole'' and ''Trajan'' in passing. ''Leviathan'' only left ''America'' after a two-hour duel, sailing at 11:50 to join ''Queen Charlotte'' in the centre.{{sfn|James |2002|pp=154–156}}

''Russell'' had not broken the French line and her opponent ''Témeraire'' got the better of her, knocking away a topmast and escaping to windward with ''Trajan'' and ''Eole''. ''Russell'' then fired on several passing French ships before joining ''Leviathan'' in attacking the centre of the French line. ''Russell's'' boats also took the surrender of ''America'', her crew boarding the vessel to make her a prize (although later replaced by men from ''Royal Sovereign''){{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=98}} ''Royal Sovereign'' lost Admiral Graves to a serious wound and lost her opponent as well, as ''Terrible'' fell out of the line to windward and joined a growing collection of French ships forming a new line on the far side of the action. Villaret was leading this line in his flagship ''Montagne'', which had escaped from ''Queen Charlotte'', and it was ''Montagne'' which ''Royal Sovereign'' engaged next, pursuing her close to the new French line accompanied by ''Valiant'', and beginning a long-range action.{{sfn|James |2002|p=157}}

Behind ''Royal Sovereign'' was ''Marlborough'', inextricably tangled with ''Impétueux''. Badly damaged and on the verge of surrender, ''Impétueux'' was briefly reprieved when ''Mucius'' appeared through the smoke and collided with both ships.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=33}} The three entangled ships continued exchanging fire for some time, all suffering heavy casualties with ''Marlborough'' and ''Impétueux'' losing all three of their masts. This combat continued for several hours. Captain Berkeley of ''Marlborough'' had to retire below with serious wounds, and command fell to Lieutenant [[John Monkton]], who signalled for help from the frigates in reserve.{{sfn|James |2002|p=158}} [[Robert Stopford (Royal Navy officer)|Robert Stopford]] responded in [[HMS Aquilon (1786)|HMS ''Aquilon'']], which had the assignment of repeating signals, and towed ''Marlborough'' out of the line as ''Mucius'' freed herself and made for the regrouped French fleet to the north. ''Impétueux'' was in too damaged a state to move at all, and was soon seized by sailors from HMS ''Russell''.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=98}}

Dismasted, ''Defence'' was unable to hold any of her various opponents to a protracted duel, and by 13:00 was threatened by the damaged ''Républicain'' moving from the east. Although ''Républicain'' later hauled off to join Villaret to the north, Gambier requested support for his ship from the fleet's frigates and was aided by [[HMS Phaeton (1782)|HMS ''Phaeton'']] under Captain [[William Bentinck (Royal Navy officer)|William Bentinck]]. As ''Impétueux'' passed she fired on ''Phaeton'', to which Bentinck responded with several broadsides of his own.{{sfn|James |2002|p=158}} ''Invincible'', the only ship of the forward division of the British centre to engage the enemy closely, became embroiled in the confusion surrounding ''Queen Charlotte''. ''Invincible's'' guns drove [[French ship Deux Frères|''Juste'']] onto the broadside of ''Queen Charlotte'', where she was forced to surrender to Lieutenant [[Henry Blackwood]] in a boat from ''Invincible''.{{sfn|James |2002|p=159}} Among the other ships of the division there were only minor casualties, although [[HMS Impregnable (1786)|HMS ''Impregnable'']] lost several [[yard (sailing)|yards]] and was only brought back into line by the quick reactions of two junior officers, Lieutenant [[Robert Otway]] and Midshipman [[Charles Dashwood (Royal Navy officer)|Charles Dashwood]].<ref name="ODNBOt">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/20943 Otway, Sir Robert], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', [[J. K. Laughton]], retrieved 2 January 2008</ref>

[[File:Lord Howe on the deck of HMS Queen Charlotte 1 June 1794.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''[[Lord Howe on the Deck of the Queen Charlotte|Lord Howe on the deck of HMS ''Queen Charlotte'' 1 June 1794]]'', painted by [[Mather Brown]].]]

The conflict between ''Queen Charlotte'' and ''Montagne'' was oddly one-sided, the French flagship failing to make use of her lower-deck guns and consequently suffering extensive damage and casualties. ''Queen Charlotte'' in her turn was damaged by fire from nearby ships and was therefore unable to follow when ''Montagne'' set her remaining sails and slipped to the north to create a new focal point for the survivors of the French fleet.{{sfn|James |2002|p=149}} ''Queen Charlotte'' also took fire during the engagement from [[HMS Gibraltar (1780)|HMS ''Gibraltar'']], under [[Thomas Mackenzie (Royal Navy officer)|Thomas Mackenzie]], which had failed to close with the enemy and instead fired at random into the smoke bank surrounding the flagship. Captain [[Andrew Snape Douglas|Sir Andrew Snape Douglas]] was seriously wounded by this fire.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=32}} Following ''Montagne'''s escape, ''Queen Charlotte'' engaged ''Jacobin'' and ''Républicain'' as they passed, and was successful in forcing the surrender of ''Juste''.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=37}} To the east of ''Queen Charlotte'', ''Brunswick'' and ''Vengeur du Peuple'' continued their bitter combat, locked together and firing main broadsides from point blank range. Captain Harvey of ''Brunswick'' was mortally wounded early in this action by [[Naval artillery in the Age of Sail#Shot|langrage fire]] from ''Vengeur'', but refused to quit the deck, ordering more fire into his opponent.<ref name="ODNBJHarvey">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12525?docPos=3 Harvey, John], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', J. K. Laughton, retrieved 24 December 2007</ref> ''Brunswick'' also managed to drive ''Achille'' off from her far side when the French ship attempted to intervene. ''Achille'', already damaged, was totally dismasted in the exchange and briefly surrendered, although her crew rescinded this when it became clear ''Brunswick'' was in no position to take possession.{{sfn|James |2002|p=163}} With her colours rehoisted, ''Achille'' then made what sail she could in an attempt to join Villaret to the north. It was not until 12:45 that the shattered ''Vengeur'' and ''Brunswick'' pulled apart, both largely dismasted and very battered. ''Brunswick'' was only able to return to the British side of the line after being supported by ''Ramillies'', while ''Vengeur'' was unable to move at all.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=37}} ''Ramillies'' took ''Vengeur's'' surrender after a brief cannonade but was unable to board her and instead pursued the fleeing ''Achille'', which soon surrendered as well.{{sfn|James |2002|p=164}}

To the east, ''Orion'' and ''Queen'' forced the surrender of both ''Northumberland'' and ''Jemmappes'', although ''Queen'' was unable to secure ''Jemmappes'' and she had to be abandoned later. ''Queen'' especially was badly damaged and unable to make the British lines again, wallowing between the newly reformed French fleet and the British battleline along with several other shattered ships.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=99}}{{efn|Manderson served as a lieutenant aboard HMS ''Queen''}} ''Royal George'' and ''Glory'' had between them disabled ''Scipion'' and ''Sans Pareil'' in a bitter exchange, but were also too badly damaged themselves to take possession. All four ships were among those left drifting in the gap between the fleets.{{sfn|James |2002|p=168}}

==French recovery==
[[File:La Marine-Pacini-50.png|thumb|Villaret's ''Montagne'' breaking loose to reform the French forces. Drawing by [[Antoine Morel-Fatio]].]]

Villaret in ''Montagne'', having successfully broken contact with the British flagship and slipped away to the north, managed to gather 11&nbsp;ships of the line around him and formed them up in a reconstituted battle squadron.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=99}} At 11:30, with the main action drawing to a close, he began a recovery manoeuvre intended to lessen the tactical defeat his fleet had suffered. Aiming his new squadron at the battered ''Queen'', Villaret's attack created consternation in the British fleet, which was unprepared for a second engagement.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=38}} However, discerning Villaret's intention, Howe also pulled his ships together to create a new force. His reformed squadron consisted of ''Queen Charlotte'', ''Royal Sovereign'', ''Valiant'', ''Leviathan'', ''Barfleur'', and ''Thunderer''.{{sfn|James |2002|p=151}} Howe deployed this squadron in defence of ''Queen'', and the two short lines engaged one another at a distance before Villaret abandoned his manoeuvre and hauled off to collect several of his own dismasted ships that were endeavouring to escape British pursuit.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=38}} Villaret was subsequently joined by the battered ''Terrible'', which sailed straight through the dispersed British fleet to reach the French lines, and he also recovered the dismasted ''Scipion'', ''Mucius'', ''Jemmappes'', and ''Républicain''—all of which lay within reach of the unengaged British ships—before turning eastwards towards France.{{sfn|James |2002|p=169}}{{efn|Several of these ships had already signified surrender by lowering their flags, only to re-hoist them once out of danger. This was a severe breach of the customs of naval warfare at the time and provoked outrage in the British naval establishment. (Woodman, p. 36)}} At this stage of the battle, Howe retired below and the British consolidation was left to his [[Captain of the Fleet]], [[Roger Curtis|Sir Roger Curtis]]. Curtis was subsequently blamed by some in the Navy for not capturing more of the dismasted French ships, and was also accused of dissuading Howe from attempting further pursuit.{{sfn|Jane |1997|p=96}}

[[Image:Vengeur du Peuple-Prairial.png|thumb|The sinking of the [[French ship Vengeur du Peuple|''Vengeur du Peuple'']], engraving by P. Ozanne.{{efn|This depiction is somewhat fantastical, as the [[French ensigns|French ensign]] flown by ''Vengeur'' was in all likelihood the white flag with a canton of three equal columns of red, white, and blue, and not the tricolour which, even though it had been officially introduced, was flown only by the flagship ''Montagne'' due to a lack of appropriate fabric in Brest. Furthermore, ''Vengeur'' is seen listing on the wrong side.}}]]
[[File:Bataille du 13 prairial an II.jpg|thumb|The sinking of the ''Vengeur du Peuple'', haut relief by [[Léopold Morice]], Monument to the Republic, Paris, 1883.]]

In fact, the British fleet was unable to pursue Villaret, having only 11&nbsp;ships still capable of battle to the French 12, and having numerous dismasted ships and prizes to protect. Retiring and regrouping, the British crews set about making hasty repairs and securing their prizes; seven in total, including the badly damaged ''Vengeur du Peuple''. ''Vengeur'' had been holed by cannon firing from ''Brunswick'' directly through the ship's bottom, and after her surrender no British ship had managed to get men aboard. This left ''Vengeur'''s few remaining unwounded crew to attempt to salvage what they could—a task made harder when some of her sailors broke into the spirit room and became drunk.{{sfn|James |2002|p=164}} Ultimately the ship's pumps became unmanageable, and ''Vengeur'' began to sink. Only the timely arrival of boats from the undamaged ''Alfred'' and [[HMS Culloden (1783)|HMS ''Culloden'']], as well as the services of the cutter HMS ''Rattler'', saved any of the ''Vengeur's'' crew from drowning, these ships taking off nearly 500 sailors between them.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=33}} Lieutenant John Winne of ''Rattler'' was especially commended for this hazardous work.{{sfn|James |2002|p=164}} By 18:15, ''Vengeur'' was clearly beyond salvage and only the very worst of the wounded, the dead, and the drunk remained aboard. Several sailors are said to have waved [[Flag of France|the tricolor]] from the bow of the ship and cried "Vive la Nation, vive la République!"{{efn|The arguments about the final minutes of ''Vengeur du Peuple'' have been extensive and bitter. French accounts report a great patriotic gesture,{{sfn|Williams|1907|p=381}} mainly due to the report of the action made to the French National Convention in a celebrated speech by [[Bertrand Barère]]<ref name="Bryan1906">{{cite book|editor-last=Bryan|editor-first=William Jennings|editor-link=William Jennings Bryan|title=The world's famous orations|location=New York|publisher=Funk & Wagnalls|year=1906|orig-year=1794|chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/268/7/28.html|volume=7|page=1906|last=Barère|first=Bertrand|author-link=Bertrand Barère|chapter=On the Heroism of ''Vengeur''{{'}}s Sailors}}</ref>
Lord Howe however debunks that report entirely, claiming that it never occurred,{{sfn|Tracy|1998|p=95}} a position followed by many British sources.{{sfn|Jane|1997|p=95}} Some interesting light is thrown on this story by [[Thomas Carlyle]], who originally included the legend in his history of the French Revolution. When Admiral John Griffiths—who, as a lieutenant on HMS ''Culloden'' at the time, had been an eyewitness to the sinking—publicly challenged Carlyle's tale, dismissing both Barère's version of the tale and Carlyle's own poetic license, Carlyle set out to get to the bottom of the story, eventually unearthing the official report of ''Vengeur'' by [[Jean François Renaudin|Captain Renaudin]]. Carlyle concluded that Barère had concocted a "cunningly devised fable", and changed his account of the sinking of ''Vengeur'' in subsequent editions.<ref name="Carlyle_to_Mary Rich">{{cite web|title=TC to Mary Rich|work=The Carlyle Letters Online|volume=10|page=236|date=10 December 1838|url=http://carlyleletters.dukejournals.org/cgi/content/full/10/1/lt-18381210-TC-MRI-01|access-date=29 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713022350/http://carlyleletters.dukejournals.org/cgi/content/full/10/1/lt-18381210-TC-MRI-01|archive-date=13 July 2010}}</ref> [[William James (naval historian)|William James]] provides an alternative theory when he suggests that any person who behaved in such a manner on the stricken ship was acting under the influence of alcohol.{{sfn|James|2002|p=164}} In his ''Histoire de la Marine Française'', [[Claude Farrère]] attributes the sinking to failure of the crew to close damaged lower gunports, claims that a good part of the crew evacuated the ship, and describes the patriotic cries as those of wounded men trapped on the sinking ship with no hope of rescue.{{sfn|Farrère|1956|p=271}}}}

Having escaped to the east, Villaret made what sail his battered fleet could muster to return to France, and dispatched his frigates in search of the convoy. Villaret was also hoping for reinforcements; eight ships of the line, commanded by Admiral [[Pierre-François Cornic Dumoulin]], were patrolling near the [[Ushant]] headland. Behind him to the west, the British took the whole night to secure their ships and prizes, not setting out to return to Britain until 05:00 on 2 June.{{sfn|James |2002|p=169}}

Casualties in the battle are notoriously hard to calculate exactly.{{efn|name=casualties|French losses have been estimated by various commentators and historians with some variation: N. A. M. Rodger gives {{nowrap|4,200 casualties}} and {{nowrap|3,300 captured}};{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=430}}
Digby Smith gives {{nowrap|4,270 casualties}} and {{nowrap|3,254 captured;}}{{sfn|Smith|1998|p=83}} Padfield lists {{nowrap|3,500 casualties;}}{{sfn|Padfield|2000|p=39}} Gardiner {{nowrap|3,500 casualties}} and the same number captured.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001b|p=38}} Saint-André gave {{nowrap|3,000 killed}} and wounded in his official dispatch and James assesses total French killed, wounded, and captured as no fewer than 7,000.{{sfn|James|2002|p=153}} British casualty returns are easier to establish due to surviving records although there are discrepancies here too. The official total was {{nowrap|287 killed}} and {{nowrap|811 wounded}} during the campaign, while the individual ship totals listed in James do not add up to his eventual total of 1,148, coming in slightly under this figure.{{sfn|James|2002|p=152}} Most sources agree however that the total casualty figure is approximately 1,200.}} With only one exception (''Scipion''), records made by the French captains of their losses at the time are incomplete. The only immediately available casualty counts are the sketchy reports of Saint-André and the records made by British officers aboard the captured ships, neither of which can be treated as completely reliable.{{sfn|James |2002|p=153}} Most sources accept that French casualties in the campaign numbered approximately 7,000, including around 3,000&nbsp;captured, but these figures are vague and frequently do not agree with each other on details.{{efn|As an example of this, the losses sustained aboard the sinking ''Vengeur'' have been variously reported as "very low besides the badly wounded", (James, p. 164) 150 survivors, (Gardiner, p. 33) and "over 600&nbsp;drowned". (Tracy, p. 106)}} British casualties are easier to confirm but here, too, there are some discrepancies; overall British casualties are generally given as around 1,200.{{efn|name=casualties}}

==Convoy arrives==
[[File:Ozanne-Glorious First of June.jpg|thumb|left|Although a tactical British victory, Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Howe]] failed to achieve the broader strategic aim of intercepting a vital grain convoy bound for the famine-ridden French populace.]]

With a large portion of his fleet no longer battleworthy, Howe was unable to resume his search for the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay. The [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]], though unaware of Howe's specific circumstances, knew a battle had taken place through the arrival of [[HMS Audacious (1785)|HMS ''Audacious'']] in Portsmouth, and was preparing a second expedition under [[George Montagu (Royal Navy officer)|George Montagu]]. Montagu had returned to England after his unsuccessful May cruise, and was refitting in Portsmouth when ordered to sea again.{{sfn|James |2002|p=169}} His force of ten ships was intended to both cover Howe's withdrawal from Biscay, and find and attack the French grain convoy. Montagu returned to sea on 3 June, and by 8 June was off Ushant searching for signs of either the French or Howe; unknown to him, neither had yet entered European waters. At 15:30 on 8 June Montagu spotted sails, and soon identified them as the enemy. He had located Cornic's squadron, which was also patrolling for the convoy and the returning fleets. Montagu gave chase and drove Cornic into Bertheaume Bay, where he blockaded the French squadron overnight, hoping to bring them to action the following day.{{sfn|James |2002|p=171}} However, on 9 June, Montagu sighted 19 French ships appearing from the west—the remnants of Villaret's fleet. Hastily turning his ships, Montagu sailed south to avoid becoming trapped between two forces which might easily overwhelm him.{{sfn|Williams |1907|p=382}} Villaret and Cornic gave chase for a day before turning east towards the safety of the French ports.{{sfn|James |2002|p=171}}

Howe benefited from Montagu's withdrawal, as his own battered fleet passed close to the scene of this stand-off on 10 June, pushing north into the English Channel. With Villaret and Cornic fortuitously pursuing Montagu to the south, Howe was free to pass Ushant without difficulty and arrived off [[Plymouth]] on 12 June, joined soon afterwards by Montagu. Villaret had anchored with Cornic in Bertheaume Bay the day before, but Saint-André refused to allow him to enter Brest until the republican attitudes of the town's population had been assessed. On 12 June, the convoy from America finally arrived off France, having lost just one ship in passage during a storm.{{sfn|James |2002|p=172}}

==Aftermath==
Both Britain and France claimed victory in the battle: Britain by virtue of capturing or sinking seven French ships without losing any of her own and remaining in control of the battle site; France because the vital convoy had passed through the Atlantic unharmed and arrived in France without significant loss.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=98}} The two fleets were showered by their respective nations with both praise and criticism—the latter particularly directed at those captains not felt to have contributed significantly to the fighting.{{sfn|James |2002|p=173}}

===France===
In France the revolutionary principles of {{lang|fr|égalité}} precluded extensive awards, but Villaret was promoted to vice-admiral on 27 September 1794<ref name=levot544>Levot, p.544</ref> and other minor awards were distributed to the admirals of the fleet. In addition the fleet's officers took part in a celebratory parade from Brest to Paris, accompanying the recently arrived food supplies. The role of [[French ship Vengeur du Peuple|''Vengeur du Peuple'']] was mythified by [[Bertrand Barère]], giving birth to an exalted legend. Opinion in France concerning the battle's outcome was divided; while many celebrated Saint-André's exaggerated accounts of victory in ''Le Moniteur'', senior naval officers disagreed. Among the dissenters was the highly experienced but recently dismissed Admiral [[Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec|Kerguelen]]. Kerguelen was disgusted by Villaret's failure to renew the battle after he had reformed his squadron, and felt that the French fleet could have been successful tactically as well as strategically if only Villaret had made greater efforts to engage the remains of Howe's fleet.{{sfn|James |2002|pp=174–175}} The French Navy had suffered its worst losses in a single day since the [[Battle of La Hogue]] in 1692.{{sfn|Rodger |2004|p=430}}

Ultimately the revolutionary excesses of the period would prove disastrous for the French Navy. Poor leadership, conflicting and arbitrary orders and the decimation of the experienced seamen in the ranks promoted a negative attitude in the French officer corps. The French battlefleet did not contest British dominance in Northern European waters again, and their raiding operations repeatedly ended in failure at the hands of more confident British squadrons and the unforgiving Atlantic weather. By 1805, when the last great French fleet to take to the sea was crushed at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], poor training and low investment in the Navy had reduced its efficiency to levels unthinkable 20&nbsp;years earlier.{{sfn|Padfield |2000|p=163}}

===Britain===
[[Image:Glorious First of June.jpg|thumb|1802 engraving commemorating the Glorious First of June.]]

In Britain, the fleet in [[Spithead]] was treated with a Royal visit by King [[George III]] and the entire royal household.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=99}} Numerous honours were bestowed on the fleet and its commanders. Admiral Howe, already an earl, refused any further elevation, and one of Howe's political opponents dissuaded King George III from making him a [[Knight of the Garter]].{{sfn|James |2002|p=179}} Vice-Admiral Graves was elevated to the [[Peerage of Ireland]] as [[Baron Graves]], while Vice-Admiral Hood was made [[Viscount Bridport]].{{efn|The title [[Viscount Hood]] was already in use as the title of his cousin, Admiral [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood]].}} Rear-Admirals [[Sir George Bowyer, 5th Baronet|Bowyer]], Gardner, Pasley and Curtis (the last-named was promoted from captain on 4 July 1794) were all made [[baronets]], and Bowyer and Pasley also received pensions of £1,000 a year to compensate them for their severe wounds.{{sfn|James |2002|p=179}} All first lieutenants were promoted to [[commander]] and numerous other officers were promoted in consequence of their actions. The thanks of [[Parliament of Great Britain|parliament]] were unanimously passed to all who fought at the action and various other gifts and awards were distributed among the fleet.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=39}} A memorial to Captains John Hutt and John Harvey, both of whom had died of their wounds on 30 June, was raised in [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref name="ODNBJHarvey"/>

[[Image:London-Woolwich, Royal Arsenal, Shell Foundry Gate, cannon 01.jpg|thumb|left|French cannon, captured by Lord Howe, now on display at [[Royal Arsenal]], [[Woolwich]]]]

There was, however, a bitter consequence of the awards, rooted in Howe's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle, which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis.{{sfn|Rodger |2004|p=430}} Howe had appended a list to his report containing the names of officers whom he believed merited special reward for their part in the battle. The list included Vice-Admirals Graves and Hood, Rear-Admirals Bowyer, Gardner, and Pasley, and Captains Seymour, Pakenham, Cranfield Berkeley, Gambier, John Harvey, Payne, Henry Harvey, Pringle, Duckworth, Elphinstone, Nichols, and Hope. Also mentioned were Lieutenants Monkton and Donnelly.{{sfn|James |2002|p=181}} The list had omitted a number of officers who had served in the battle, and the justice of their omission was a highly controversial issue in the Navy.{{sfn|Tracy |1998|p=90}}> Rear-Admiral Caldwell was the sole British flag officer present not to receive a hereditary honour, although he was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 4 July (as were Bowyer and Gardner). After studying the ship's logs and reports of the battle, the Admiralty minted a medal to be awarded to the living captains on the list only (although Captain [[Sir William Parker, 1st Baronet, of Harburn|William Parker]] of HMS ''Audacious'' was awarded one as well).{{sfn|Rodger |2004|p=430}} The captains excluded from the list were furious, and the furore from this selective commendation lasted years: in 1795 Vice-Admiral Caldwell quit the service in anger as a result,<ref name="ODNBCald">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4383 Caldwell, Sir Benjamin], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', J. K. Laughton, retrieved 8 December 2007</ref> while [[Cuthbert Collingwood]], flag captain of ''Barfleur'', refused all awards for future service until the Glorious First of June medal was presented to him as well. He eventually received it after the [[Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St Vincent]] in 1797.<ref name="ODNBColl">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5930?docPos=1 Collingwood, Cuthbert], ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', C. H. H. Owen, retrieved 31 December 2007</ref> Over five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the [[Naval General Service Medal (1847)|Naval General Service Medal]], awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847.<ref name="LG4">{{London Gazette|issue=20939|pages=236–245|date=26 January 1849}}</ref>

Bitterest of all was the [[whispering campaign]] directed at Anthony Molloy, captain of HMS ''Caesar''. Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe's orders on both 29 May and 1 June. Molloy's request for an official court-martial to clear his name failed, and although his personal courage was not called into question, his professional ability was.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|p=39}} Molloy was dismissed from his ship.<ref>Brenton, ''The Naval History of Great Britain'', p. 227</ref>

Of the captured ships, several were purchased and enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy, in particular the two 80-gun ships [[HMS Sans Pareil (1794)|HMS ''Sans Pareil'']], which was decommissioned in 1802 but not broken up until 1842, and [[French ship Deux Frères|HMS ''Juste'']], which was a popular command until her decommissioning in 1802 at the [[Peace of Amiens]]. Of the four 74-gun prizes, ''Achille'' and ''Northumberland'' (both 74s built in the late 1770s) were broken up as unserviceable soon after arrival in Britain, while ''Impétueux'' was destroyed in a dockyard fire on 24 August 1794 while undergoing repairs. ''America'', the final prize, was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS ''America'' but renamed [[French ship America (1788)|HMS ''Impetueux'']] in July 1795 and remained in service until 1813.{{sfn|Gardiner|2001a|pp=40–41}} The combined [[prize money]] for these ships was £201,096 (the equivalent of £{{Formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|201096|1794|r=-6}}|0}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}),{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y|group=lower-alpha}} divided among the ships under Lord Howe's command.<ref name="TW64">Wareham, p. 64</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist|30em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
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* ''Campagnes, thriomphes, revers, désastres et guerres civiles des Français de 1792 à la paix de 1856'', F. Ladimir et E. Moreau. Librairie Populaire des Villes et des Campagnes, 1856 [https://books.google.com/books?id=fSFCAAAAcAAJ&q=Campagnes,+thriomphes,+revers,+d%C3%A9sastres+et+guerres+civiles+des+Fran%C3%A7ais+de+1792+%C3%A0+la+paix+de+1856 Tome 5], pp.&nbsp;17–27
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|First of June, Battle of the}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Glorious First of June}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Glorious First of June| ]]
[[Category:1794 in France]]
[[Category:Battles of the War of the First Coalition]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1794]]
[[Category:Military history of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars involving France]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the French Revolutionary Wars involving Great Britain]]