Editing Glycocalyx

{{short description|Viscous, carbohydrate rich layer at the outermost periphery of a cell.}}
{{Infobox microanatomy
| Name        = Glycocalyx
| Latin       =
| Image       = Bacillus subtilis.jpg
| Caption     = [[Transmission electron microscopy|TEM]] [[micrograph]] of a [[Bacillus subtilis|''B. subtilis'']] bacterium, with the hair-like glycocalyx visible surrounding the cell membrane (scale bar = 200 nm)
| Image2      =
| Caption2    =
| Precursor   =
}}
The '''glycocalyx''' ({{plural form}}: '''glycocalyces''' or '''glycocalyxes'''), also known as the '''pericellular matrix''' and '''cell coat''', is a layer of [[glycoproteins]] and [[glycolipids]] which surround the [[cell membrane]]s of [[bacteria]], [[epithelial cells]], and other cells.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martínez-Palomo |first1=A. |title=The Surface Coats of Animal Cells |journal=International Review of Cytology |date=1970 |volume=29 |pages=29–75 |doi=10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60032-7|isbn=9780123643292 }}</ref>

Animal [[epithelial cells]] have a fuzz-like coating on the external surface of their [[plasma membrane]]s. This viscous coating is the glycocalyx that consists of several carbohydrate [[Functional group|moieties]] of membrane [[glycolipid]]s and [[glycoprotein]]s, which serve as backbone molecules for support. Generally, the [[carbohydrate]] portion of the glycolipids found on the surface of plasma membranes helps these molecules contribute to [[cell–cell recognition]], communication, and intercellular adhesion.<ref>McKinley, M. & V.D. O’Loughlin.  Human Anatomy.  McGraw-Hill, 2012. 3rd ed. p. 30-31.</ref>

The glycocalyx is a type of identifier that the body uses to distinguish between its own healthy cells and transplanted tissues, diseased cells, or invading organisms. Included in the glycocalyx are cell-adhesion molecules that enable cells to adhere to each other and guide the movement of cells during embryonic development.<ref>Saladin, Kenneth. "Anatomy & Physiology: The unity of form and function." McGraw Hill.  5th Edition. 2010. p. 94-95</ref> The glycocalyx plays a major role in regulation of [[endothelial]] [[Vascular system|vascular tissue]], including the modulation of [[red blood cell]] volume in [[capillaries]].<ref>Reitsma, Sietze. "The endothelial glycocalyx: composition, functions, and visualization." European Journal of Physiology. 2007. Vol. 454. Num. 3. p. 345-359</ref>

The term was initially applied to the polysaccharide matrix coating epithelial cells, but its functions have been discovered to go well beyond that.

==In vascular endothelial tissue==

The glycocalyx is located on the [[apical membrane|apical]] surface of vascular endothelial cells which line the [[Lumen (anatomy)|lumen]]. When vessels are stained with cationic dyes such as [[Alcian blue stain]], [[transmission electron microscopy]] shows a small, irregularly shaped layer extending approximately 50–100&nbsp;nm into the lumen of a blood vessel.  Another study used [[osmium tetroxide]] staining during freeze substitution, and showed that the endothelial glycocalyx could be up to 11 μm thick.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ebong|first=Eno|author2=Macaluso FP |author3=Spray DC |author4=Tarbell JM |title=Imaging the Endothelial Glycocalyx In Vitro By Rapid Freezing/Freeze Substitution Transmission Electron Microscopy|journal=Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology|date=August 2011|volume=31|issue=8|pages=1908–1915|doi=10.1161/ATVBAHA.111.225268|pmc=3141106 |pmid=21474821}}</ref> It is present throughout a diverse range of microvascular beds (capillaries) and macrovessels (arteries and veins).  The glycocalyx also consists of a wide range of enzymes and proteins that regulate [[leukocyte]] and [[thrombocyte]] adherence, since its principal role in the vasculature is to maintain plasma and vessel-wall homeostasis.  These enzymes and proteins include:
*Endothelial nitric oxide synthase ([[endothelial NOS]])
*Extracellular superoxide dismutase ([[SOD3]])
*[[Angiotensin converting enzyme]]
*[[Antithrombin]]-III
*[[Lipoprotein lipase]]
*[[Apolipoproteins]]
*[[Growth factors]]
*[[Chemokines]]

The enzymes and proteins listed above serve to reinforce the glycocalyx barrier against vascular and other diseases.  Another main function of the glycocalyx within the vascular endothelium is that it shields the vascular walls from direct exposure to blood flow, while serving as a vascular permeability barrier.<ref>Van de Berg, Bernard M., Max Nieuwdorp, Erik S.G. Stroes, Hans Vink.  "Glycocalyx and endothelial (dys) function:  from mice to men."  Pharmacological Reports, 2006, 57: 75-80.</ref>  Its protective functions are universal throughout the vascular system, but its relative importance varies depending on its exact location in the vasculature.  In microvascular tissue, the glycocalyx serves as a vascular permeability barrier by inhibiting coagulation and leukocyte adhesion.  Leukocytes must not stick to the vascular wall because they are important components of the [[immune system]] that must be able to travel to a specific region of the body when needed.  In arterial vascular tissue, the glycocalyx also inhibits coagulation and leukocyte adhesion, but through mediation of [[shear stress]]-induced nitric oxide release.  Another protective function throughout the cardiovascular system is its ability to affect the filtration of [[interstitial fluid]] from capillaries into the interstitial space.<ref>Drake-Holland, Angela & Mark Noble. "The Important New Drug Target in Cardiovascular Medicine – the Vascular Glycocalyx." Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders-Drug Targets, 2009, 9, p. 118-123</ref>

The glycocalyx, which is located on the [[apical membrane|apical]] surface of [[endothelial]] cells, is composed of a negatively charged network of [[proteoglycan]]s, glycoproteins, and glycolipids.<ref>Van de Berg, Bernard M., Max Nieuwdorp, Erik S.G. Stroes, Hans Vink.  Glycocalyx and endothelial (dys) function:  from mice to men.  Pharmacological Reports, 2006, 57: 75-80.</ref> Along the luminal surface of the vascular glycocalyx exists an empty layer that excludes red blood cells.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reitsma |first1=Sietze |last2=Slaaf |first2=Dick W. |last3=Vink |first3=Hans |last4=van Zandvoort |first4=Marc A. M. J. |last5=oude Egbrink |first5=Mirjam G. A. |title=The endothelial glycocalyx: composition, functions, and visualization |journal=Pflügers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology |date=June 2007 |volume=454 |issue=3 |pages=345–359 |doi=10.1007/s00424-007-0212-8|pmid=17256154 |pmc=1915585 }}</ref>

==Disruption and disease==

Because the glycocalyx is so prominent throughout the cardiovascular system, disruption to this structure has detrimental effects that can cause disease. Certain stimuli that cause [[atheroma]] may lead to enhanced sensitivity of vasculature. Initial dysfunction of the glycocalyx can be caused by hyperglycemia or oxidized low-density lipoproteins ([[LDL]]s), which then causes [[atherothrombosis]]. In microvasculature, dysfunction of the glycocalyx leads to internal fluid imbalance, and potentially [[edema]]. In arterial vascular tissue, glycocalyx disruption causes inflammation and atherothrombosis.<ref>Drake-Holland, Angela & Mark Noble. "The Important New Drug Target in Cardiovascular Medicine – the Vascular Glycocalyx." Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders-Drug Targets, 2009, 9, p. 118–123</ref>

Experiments have been performed to test precisely how the glycocalyx can be altered or damaged.  One particular study used an isolated perfused heart model designed to facilitate detection of the state of the vascular barrier portion, and sought to cause insult-induced shedding of the glycocalyx to ascertain the cause-and-effect relationship between glycocalyx shedding and vascular permeability.  [[Hypoxia (medical)|Hypoxic]] perfusion of the glycocalyx was thought to be sufficient to initiate a degradation mechanism of the endothelial barrier.  The study found that flow of oxygen throughout the blood vessels did not have to be completely absent ([[ischemic]] hypoxia), but that minimal{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=August 2016}} levels of oxygen were sufficient to cause the degradation.  Shedding of the glycocalyx can be triggered by inflammatory stimuli, such as [[tumor necrosis factor-alpha]].  Whatever the stimulus is, however, shedding of the glycocalyx leads to a drastic{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=August 2016}} increase in vascular permeability.  Vascular walls being permeable is disadvantageous, since that would enable passage of some macromolecules or other harmful antigens.<ref>Annecke, T., et al. "Shedding of the coronary endothelial glycocalyx: effects of hypoxia/reoxygenation vs ischaemia/reperfusion." British Journal of Anaesthesia, 2011. 107 (5): 679–86</ref>

Other sources of damage to the endothelial glycocalyx have been observed in several pathological conditions such as inflammation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Henry |first1=Charmaine B. S. |last2=Duling |first2=Brian R. |date=2000-12-01 |title=TNF-α increases entry of macromolecules into luminal endothelial cell glycocalyx |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology |language=en |volume=279 |issue=6 |pages=H2815–H2823 |doi=10.1152/ajpheart.2000.279.6.H2815 |pmid=11087236 |s2cid=86646327 |issn=0363-6135|doi-access=free }}</ref> hyperglycemia,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zuurbier |first1=Coert J. |last2=Demirci |first2=Cihan |last3=Koeman |first3=Anneke |last4=Vink |first4=Hans |last5=Ince |first5=Can |date=October 2005 |title=Short-term hyperglycemia increases endothelial glycocalyx permeability and acutely decreases lineal density of capillaries with flowing red blood cells |url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/japplphysiol.00436.2005 |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |language=en |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=1471–1476 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00436.2005 |pmid=16024521 |issn=8750-7587|url-access=subscription }}</ref> ischemia-reperfusion,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mulivor |first1=A. W. |last2=Lipowsky |first2=H. H. |date=May 2004 |title=Inflammation- and ischemia-induced shedding of venular glycocalyx |url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/ajpheart.00832.2003 |journal=American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology |language=en |volume=286 |issue=5 |pages=H1672–H1680 |doi=10.1152/ajpheart.00832.2003 |pmid=14704229 |issn=0363-6135}}</ref>  viral infections<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Bernhard F. |last2=Jacob |first2=Matthias |last3=Leipert |first3=Stephanie |last4=Salmon |first4=Andrew H. J. |last5=Chappell |first5=Daniel |date=September 2015 |title=Degradation of the endothelial glycocalyx in clinical settings: searching for the sheddases: Endothelial glycocalyx - emerging clinical impact |journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |language=en |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=389–402 |doi=10.1111/bcp.12629 |pmc=4574825 |pmid=25778676}}</ref> and sepsis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Steppan |first1=Jochen |last2=Hofer |first2=Stefan |last3=Funke |first3=Benjamin |last4=Brenner |first4=Thorsten |last5=Henrich |first5=Michael |last6=Martin |first6=Eike |last7=Weitz |first7=Jürgen |last8=Hofmann |first8=Ursula |last9=Weigand |first9=Markus A. |date=January 2011 |title=Sepsis and major abdominal surgery lead to flaking of the endothelial glycocalix |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19560161 |journal=The Journal of Surgical Research |volume=165 |issue=1 |pages=136–141 |doi=10.1016/j.jss.2009.04.034 |issn=1095-8673 |pmid=19560161}}</ref>

Some key components of the glycocalyx such as [[Syndecan|syndecans]], [[Heparan sulfate|heparan sulphate]], [[Chondroitin sulfate|chondroitin sulphate]] and [[Hyaluronic acid|hyaluronan]] can be shed of the endothelial layer by enzymes. [[Hyaluronidase]], hepararanse/heparinase, matrix and membrane-type [[Matrix metalloproteinase|matrix metalloproteases]], thrombin, plasmin and elastase are some examples of enzymes that can induce shedding of the glycocalyx and these sheddases can therefor contribute to degradation of the glycocalyx layer in several pathological conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Bernhard F. |last2=Jacob |first2=Matthias |last3=Leipert |first3=Stephanie |last4=Salmon |first4=Andrew H. J. |last5=Chappell |first5=Daniel |date=September 2015 |title=Degradation of the endothelial glycocalyx in clinical settings: searching for the sheddases |journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=389–402 |doi=10.1111/bcp.12629 |issn=1365-2125 |pmc=4574825 |pmid=25778676}}</ref> Research shows that plasma hyaluronidase activity is decreased in experimental as well as in clinical septic shock and is therefore not considered to be a sheddase in sepsis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van der Heijden |first1=Jaap |last2=Kolliopoulos |first2=Constantinos |last3=Skorup |first3=Paul |last4=Sallisalmi |first4=Marko |last5=Heldin |first5=Paraskevi |last6=Hultström |first6=Michael |last7=Tenhunen |first7=Jyrki |date=2021-10-11 |title=Plasma hyaluronan, hyaluronidase activity and endogenous hyaluronidase inhibition in sepsis: an experimental and clinical cohort study |journal=Intensive Care Medicine Experimental |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=53 |doi=10.1186/s40635-021-00418-3 |issn=2197-425X |pmc=8502523 |pmid=34632531 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Concomitant, the endogenous plasma inhibition of hyaluronidase is increased and could serve as a protection against glycocalyx shedding.

Fluid shear stress is also a potential problem if the glycocalyx is degraded for any reason.  This type of frictional stress is caused by the movement of viscous fluid (i.e. blood) along the lumen boundary. Another similar experiment was carried out to determine what kinds of stimuli cause fluid shear stress. The initial measurement was taken with intravital microscopy, which showed a slow-moving plasma layer, the glycocalyx, of 1 μm thick.  Light dye damaged the glycocalyx minimally, but that small change increased capillary [[hematocrit]]. Thus, fluorescence light microscopy should not be used to study the glycocalyx because that particular method uses a dye. The glycocalyx can also be reduced in thickness when treated with oxidized LDL.<ref>Gouverneur, Mirella. Dissertation. "Fluid shear stress directly stimulates synthesis of the endothelial glycocalyx : perturbations by hyperglycemia." 2006.  University of Amsterdam. p. 115–153</ref> These stimuli, along with many other factors, can cause damage to the delicate glycocalyx.  These studies are evidence that the glycocalyx plays a crucial role in cardiovascular system health.

==In bacteria and nature==
[[File:Glycocalyx in bacteria.svg|thumb|The glycocalyx exists in bacteria as either a capsule or a slime layer. Item 6 points at the glycocalyx. The difference between a capsule and a slime layer is that in a capsule polysaccharides are firmly attached to the cell wall, while in a slime layer, the glycoproteins are loosely attached to the cell wall.|201x201px]]
A glycocalyx, literally meaning "sugar coat" (''glykys'' = sweet, ''kalyx'' = husk), is a network of [[polysaccharide]]s that project from cellular surfaces of [[bacterium|bacteria]], which classifies it as a universal surface component of a bacterial cell, found just outside the bacterial cell wall.  A distinct, gelatinous glycocalyx is called a [[bacterial capsule|capsule]], whereas an irregular, diffuse layer is called a [[slime layer]].  This coat is extremely hydrated and stains with [[ruthenium red]].

Bacteria growing in natural ecosystems, such as in soil, bovine intestines, or the human urinary tract, are surrounded by some sort of glycocalyx-enclosed [[microcolony]].<ref>Costerton & Irvin.  Bacterial Glycocalyx in Nature and Disease.  Annual Reviews Microbiology, 1981.  Vol. 35: p. 299-324</ref>  It serves to protect the bacterium from harmful [[phagocyte]]s by creating capsules or allowing the bacterium to attach itself to inert surfaces, such as teeth or rocks, via [[biofilm]]s (e.g. ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' attaches itself to either lung cells, [[prokaryotes]], or other bacteria which can fuse their glycocalices to envelop the colony).

==In the digestive tract==

A glycocalyx can also be found on the apical portion of [[microvilli]] within the [[digestive tract]], especially within the small intestine.  It creates a meshwork 0.3 μm thick and consists of acidic [[mucopolysaccharide]]s and glycoproteins that project from the [[Apical membrane|apical]] [[plasma membrane]] of epithelial absorptive cells.  It provides additional surface for [[adsorption]] and includes [[enzyme]]s secreted by the absorptive cells that are essential for the final steps of digestion of proteins and sugars.

==Other generalized functions==
*Protection: Cushions the [[plasma membrane]] and protects it from chemical injury
*Immunity to infection: Enables the immune system to recognize and selectively attack foreign organisms
*Defense against cancer: Changes in the glycocalyx of [[cancer]]ous cells enable the immune system to recognize and destroy them.
*Transplant compatibility: Forms the basis for compatibility of [[blood transfusions]], [[allograft|tissue grafts]], and [[organ transplant]]s
*Cell adhesion: Binds cells together so that tissues do not fall apart
*Inflammation regulation: Glycocalyx coating on endothelial walls in blood vessels prevents [[leukocytes]] from rolling/binding in healthy states.<ref>[http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/85/1/637 Near-Wall {micro}-PIV Reveals a Hydrodynamically Relevant Endothelial Surface Layer in Venules In Vivo - Smith et al. 85 (1): 637 - Biophysical Journal<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203204157/http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/85/1/637 |date=2008-12-03 }}</ref>
*Fertilization: Enables [[sperm]] to recognize and bind to eggs<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schroter | first1 = Sabine | last2 = Osterhoff | first2 = Caroline | last3 = McArdle | first3 = Wendy | last4 = Ivell | first4 = Richard | year = 1999 | title = The glycocalyx of the sperm surface | journal = Human Reproduction Update | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 302–313 | doi=10.1093/humupd/5.4.302| pmid = 10465522 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
*Embryonic development: Guides [[embryonic cell]]s to their destinations in the body

==See also==
* [[Perineuronal net]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.beilstein.tv/tvpost/smart-carbohydrate-chemistry-as-a-means-to-understand-glycocalyx-biology/ Smart carbohydrate chemistry as a means to understand glycocalyx biology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160710210824/http://www.beilstein.tv/tvpost/smart-carbohydrate-chemistry-as-a-means-to-understand-glycocalyx-biology/ |date=2016-07-10 }} – Video by the Lindhorst group at Beilstein TV

{{Structures of the cell membrane}}
{{Cellular structures}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Polysaccharides]]
[[Category:Glycobiology]]
[[Category:Polymers]]