Editing Goose bumps

{{Short description|Physiological response to stimuli}}
{{For|the book series, see ''[[Goosebumps]]''. For other uses|Goosebumps (disambiguation)}}
{{More medical citations needed|date=January 2018}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name          = Goosebumps
| synonyms      = Goose-pimples, goose-skin, goose-flesh, ''cutis anserina'', horripilation, ''horripilatio''
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| image         = 2003-09-17 Goose bumps.jpg
| caption       = Goose-bumps on a human arm
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| field         = [[Dermatology]]
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'''Goose bumps''', '''goosebumps''' or '''goose pimples'''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/goosebumps |title = Goosebumps noun – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes {{!}} Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com}}</ref> are the bumps on a person's skin at the base of body hairs which may involuntarily develop when a person is [[Tickling|tickled]], [[cold]] or experiencing strong emotions such as [[fear]], [[euphoria]] or [[sexual arousal]].<ref name="McPhetres 6–20">{{Cite journal |last1=McPhetres |first1=Jonathon |last2=Zickfeld |first2=Janis H. |date=2022-09-01 |title=The physiological study of emotional piloerection: A systematic review and guide for future research |url=https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/327998765/McPhetres_2022_The_physiological_study_of_emotional_piloerection.pdf |journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology |language=en |volume=179 |pages=6–20 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.06.010 |pmid=35764195 |s2cid=250058771 |issn=0167-8760}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McPhetres |first=Jonathon |date=2024-08-15 |title=Diverse stimuli induce piloerection and yield varied autonomic responses in humans |url=https://journals.biologists.com/bio/article/13/8/bio060205/361490/Diverse-stimuli-induce-piloerection-and-yield |journal=Biology Open |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |doi=10.1242/bio.060205 |pmid=38989667 |pmc=11391818 |issn=2046-6390}}</ref>

The formation of goose bumps in humans under [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] is considered by some to be a [[Vestigial response|vestigial reflex]],<ref name="Darwin1872">{{cite web|last=Darwin|first=Charles|date=1872|title=The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F1142&viewtype=text|publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]]|location=London|pages=101–103|title-link=}}</ref> though visible piloerection is associated with changes in skin temperature in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McPhetres |first=Jonathon |date=2024-08-15 |title=Diverse stimuli induce piloerection and yield varied autonomic responses in humans |url=https://journals.biologists.com/bio/article/13/8/bio060205/361490/Diverse-stimuli-induce-piloerection-and-yield |journal=Biology Open |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |doi=10.1242/bio.060205 |pmid=38989667 |pmc=11391818 |issn=2046-6390}}</ref> The reflex of producing goose bumps is known as '''piloerection''' or the '''pilomotor reflex''', or, more traditionally,<ref>{{cite web|work=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]|title=horripilation|author=OUP|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/88574}}</ref> '''horripilation'''. It occurs in many [[mammal]]s; a prominent example is [[porcupine]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chapman |first1=David M. |last2=Roze |first2=Uldis |date=1997-01-01 |title=Functional histology of quill erection in the porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum |url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/z97-001 |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1139/z97-001 |issn=0008-4301|url-access=subscription }}</ref> which raise their quills when threatened, or sea otters when they encounter sharks or other predators.

== Anatomy and biology ==
Goose bumps are created when tiny muscles at the base of each hair, known as ''[[arrector pili muscle]]s'', contract and pull the hair straight up. The reflex is started by the [[sympathetic nervous system]], which is responsible for many [[fight-or-flight response]]s. The muscle cells connected to the hair follicle have been visualized by actin immunofluorescence.<ref name="2017-Hanukoglu-2">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hanukoglu I, Boggula VR, Vaknine H, Sharma S, Kleyman T, Hanukoglu A|date=January 2017|title=Expression of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and CFTR in the human epidermis and epidermal appendages|url=https://zenodo.org/record/890756|journal=Histochemistry and Cell Biology|volume=147|issue=6|pages=733–748|doi=10.1007/s00418-016-1535-3|pmid=28130590|s2cid=8504408}}</ref>

'''<big>Arrector pili muscle</big>'''

Arrector pili muscles (APM) are smooth muscles which connect the basement membrane to the hair follicle. When these muscles contract, they increase the trapping of air on the surface of the skin and in turn, causes [[thermoregulation]] to the body. It used to be believed that each APM was connected to an individual [[hair follicle]]. More recent studies have disproved this and now explain that there can be multiple hair follicles connected to a single APM. In between the hair follicle and the APM there are lobules which form an angular shape. These lobules are [[Sebaceous gland|sebaceous gland lobules]] which are supported by the APM.<ref>Torkamani, N., Rufaut, N., Jones, L., & Sinclair, R. (2014). Beyond goosebumps: Does the arrector pili muscle have a role in hair loss? ''International Journal of Trichology, 6''(3), 88–94. {{doi|10.4103/0974-7753.139077}}</ref>[[File:PilioerectionAnimation.gif|thumb|1) [[Epidermis]] 2) [[Arrector pili muscle]] 3) [[Hair follicle]] 4) [[Dermis]]

The diagram shows that the arrector pili muscle is connected to the hair follicle and the epidermis resulting in the erection of the hair during muscle contraction causing goose bumps.]]

<big>'''Hair follicle'''</big>

Hair follicles have four parts. There is the bulb, supra bulbar area, isthmus and infundibulum. The bulb is to be known as the part that is responsible for the growth of the rest of the hair follicle.<ref>Torkamani, N., Rufaut, N., Jones, L., & Sinclair, R. (2014). Beyond goosebumps: Does the arrector pili muscle have a role in hair loss? ''International Journal of Trichology, 6''(3), 88–94.  {{doi|10.4103/0974-7753.139077}}</ref>

=== As a response to cold ===
In animals covered with fur or hair, the erect hairs trap air to create a layer of [[thermal insulation|insulation]]. Goose bumps can also be a response to anger or fear: the erect hairs make the animal appear larger, in order to intimidate enemies. This can be observed in the intimidation displays of chimpanzees,<ref>Martin Muller and John Mitan. [http://people.bu.edu/mnmuller/Pdfs/Muller&Mitani_2005.pdf Conflict and Cooperation in Wild Chimpanzees.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908032501/http://people.bu.edu/mnmuller/Pdfs/Muller%26Mitani_2005.pdf|date=2006-09-08}} ''Advances in the Study of Behavior'', vol. 35</ref> some [[New World monkey]]s like the [[cotton-top tamarin]],<ref name="Agg5">French and Snowdon. [[Sexual dimorphism]] in responses to unfamiliar intruders in the tamarin, '' Saguinus oedipus''. [[Animal Behaviour (journal)|Animal Behaviour]] (1981) vol. 29 (3) pp. 822–829</ref> in stressed mice<ref>{{cite journal|author=Masuda|display-authors=etal|date=Jul 1999|title=Developmental and pharmacological features of mouse emotional piloerection|journal=Experimental Animals|volume=48|issue=3|pages=209–211|doi=10.1538/expanim.48.209|pmid=10480027|doi-access=free}}</ref> and rats, and in frightened cats.

=== In humans ===
In humans, goose bumps can even extend to piloerection as a reaction to hearing nails scratch on a chalkboard, or feeling or remembering strong and positive emotions (e.g., after winning a sports event), or while watching a [[horror film]].<ref>{{citation|author=George A. Bubenik|title=Why do humans get goosebumps when they are cold, or under other circumstances?|date=September 1, 2003|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-do-humans-get-goosebu|periodical=Scientific American}}</ref>[[File:Goosebumps in cat.jpg|thumb|Goose bumps in a kitten, due to the [[Fear of falling|fear of falling]]]]
Some people can deliberately evoke goose bumps in themselves without any external trigger. This is called "voluntarily generated piloerection." Further research is needed to discover more on such people.

Goose bumps are accompanied by a specific physiological response pattern that is thought to indicate the emotional state of being moved.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Benedek, Kaernbach|year=2011|title=Physiological correlates and emotional specificity of human piloerection|journal=Biological Psychology|volume=86|issue=3|pages=320–329|doi=10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.12.012|pmc=3061318|pmid=21276827}}</ref>

In humans, goose bumps occur everywhere on the body, including the legs, neck, and other areas of the skin that have hair. In some people, they even occur in the face or on the head. In humans, goose bumps tends to occur across the whole body, especially when elicited by thermal or emotional stimuli, and only locally when elicited via tactile stimuli.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McPhetres |first=Jonathon |date=2024-08-15 |title=Diverse stimuli induce piloerection and yield varied autonomic responses in humans |url=https://journals.biologists.com/bio/article/13/8/bio060205/361490/Diverse-stimuli-induce-piloerection-and-yield |journal=Biology Open |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |doi=10.1242/bio.060205 |pmid=38989667 |pmc=11391818 |issn=2046-6390}}</ref> 

Piloerection is also a classic symptom of some diseases, such as [[temporal lobe epilepsy]], some [[brain tumor]]s, and [[autonomic hyperreflexia]]. Goose bumps can also be caused by withdrawal from [[opiate]]s such as [[heroin]]. A skin condition that mimics goose bumps in appearance is [[keratosis pilaris]].

== Causes ==
=== Extreme temperatures ===
Goose bumps can be experienced in the presence of flash-cold temperatures, for example being in a cold environment, and the skin being able to re-balance its surface temperature quickly. The stimulus of cold surroundings causes the tiny muscles ([[arrector pili muscle]]) attached to each [[hair follicle]] to contract. This contraction causes the hair strands to stand straight, the purpose of which is to aid in quicker drying via evaporation of water clinging to the hair which is moved upward and away from the skin.{{Citation needed|reason=This seems unlikely in humans (Adhesion and cohesion would net let water move upward/away from the skin along a thin hair. It's more likely the erection is due to vestigial reflexes as outlined in other parts of the article.|date=June 2018}}

=== Intense emotion ===
The emotional correlates of piloerection in humans are not well understood.<ref name="McPhetres 6–20"/> People often say they feel their "hair standing on end" when they are frightened or in awe. 

=== Music ===
Most research using musical stimuli has focused on self-reported "chills" which is a subjective experience, unlike piloerection which is an objectively quantifiable physiological reaction. However, research has shown that self-reported piloerection does not correspond to observed piloerection.{{citation needed|date=May 2025}} Thus, research on the chills should not be considered to extend to the physiological phenomena of piloerection.

=== Ingestion ===
Medications and herbal supplements that affect body temperature and blood flow may cause piloerection. For example, one of the common reported side effects of the intake of [[yohimbine]] is piloerection.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smet|first1=Peter A. G. M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KeHVBQAAQBAJ&q=yohimbine+hcl+piloerection&pg=PT261|title=Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs, Volume 3|date=1997|publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-540-60181-4|location=Germany|display-authors=etal|access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goldberg|first1=M R|date=1983|title=Influence of yohimbine on blood pressure, autonomic reflexes, and plasma catecholamines in Humans|url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/5/5/772|journal=Hypertension|volume=5|issue=5|pages=776–777|doi=10.1161/01.HYP.5.5.772|pmid=6352483|access-date=19 September 2015|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Opiate withdrawal ===
Piloerection is one of the signs of [[Opioid use disorder|opioid withdrawal]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Withdrawal Syndromes Clinical Presentation: History, Physical Examination|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/819502-clinical|access-date=15 April 2017|work=medscape.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Parkar|first1=S.R.|last2=Seethalakshmi|first2=R|last3=Adarkar|first3=S|last4=Kharawala|first4=S|date=1 January 2006|title=Is this 'complicated' opioid withdrawal?|journal=Indian J Psychiatry|volume=48|issue=2|pages=121–122|doi=10.4103/0019-5545.31604|pmc=2913562|pmid=20703400 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The term "[[cold turkey]]" meaning abrupt withdrawal from a drug, may derive from the goose bumps that occur during abrupt withdrawal from [[opioid]]s; this resembles the skin of a [[turkey as food|refrigerated plucked turkey]].<ref name="Hales 2014">{{Cite book|last1=Hales|first1=Robert E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVWTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA779|title=The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry, Sixth Edition|last2=Yudofsky|first2=Stuart C.|last3=Roberts|first3=Laura Weiss|publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing|year=2014|isbn=9781585624447|pages=779|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ghodse 2010">{{Cite book|last=Ghodse|first=Hamid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYQ23OMjWbcC&pg=PA77|title=Ghodse's Drugs and Addictive Behaviour: A Guide to Treatment|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=9781139485678|pages=77|language=en}}</ref>

=== Voluntary control ===
An unknown proportion of people may consciously initiate the sensation and physiological signs of piloerection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Katahira |first1=Kenji |last2=Kawakami |first2=Ai |last3=Tomita |first3=Akitoshi |last4=Nagata |first4=Noriko |date=2020-06-05 |title=Volitional Control of Piloerection: Objective Evidence and Its Potential Utility in Neuroscience Research |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |language=English |volume=14 |page=590 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2020.00590 |doi-access=free |issn=1662-453X |pmc=7290233 |pmid=32581701}}</ref> The phenomenon is discovered spontaneously, appearing to be innate, and is not known to be possible to learn or acquire. Those with the ability frequently are unaware that it is not possible for everyone. The ability appears to correlate with personality traits associated with [[openness to experience]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heathers |first1=James A.J. |last2=Fayn |first2=Kirill |last3=Silvia |first3=Paul J. |last4=Tiliopoulos |first4=Niko |last5=Goodwin |first5=Matthew S. |date=July 30, 2018 |title=The voluntary control of piloerection |journal=PeerJ |volume=6 |pages=e5292 |doi=10.7717/peerj.5292 |issn=2167-8359 |pmc=6071615 |pmid=30083447 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

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== Etymology ==
[[File:Chaire de poule.jpg|thumb|Moderate goose bumps]]
The term "goose bumps" derives from the phenomenon's association with goose skin. Goose feathers grow from pores in the epidermis that resemble human [[hair follicle]]s. When a goose's feathers are plucked, its skin has protrusions where the feathers were, and these bumps are what the human phenomenon resembles.<ref>{{citation | title=Online Etymology Dictionary – "Goose-bumps" | url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=goose+bumps}}</ref>

It is not clear why the particular fowl, goose, was chosen in English (and German, Greek, Icelandic, Italian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Polish and Czech)<ref name="ReferenceA">[[wikt:goose bump#Translations|Translations for ''goose-bumps'' in English wiktionary]]</ref> as most other birds share this same anatomical feature. Other languages may use a different species. For example, the hen or chicken is used in Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Cantonese, Finnish, Dutch, Luxembourgish, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and Galician; Irish uses both;{{Citation needed|reason=Unable to verify using any translation service - need a source|date=July 2021}} Hebrew, the duck; the ants (referred to as "''murashki''", alluding to the feeling of ants crawling on one's skin) in Ukrainian and Russian;<ref name="ReferenceA"/> and a variety of synonyms in Mandarin.<ref>[[:wikt:Template:zh-dial-map/雞皮疙瘩|Dialectal map for ''goose-bumps'' in Mandarin]]</ref>

Some authors have applied "goose bumps" to the symptoms of [[sexually transmitted infection|sexually transmitted diseases]].<ref>{{citation | title=Heavy words lightly thrown: the reason behind the rhyme | first=Chris | last=Roberts | publisher=Granta | year=2004 | isbn= 978-1-86207-765-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdMZqhMzfpYC&pg=PA24 | page=24}}</ref> "Bitten by a Winchester goose" was a common euphemism for having contracted [[syphilis]]<ref>{{citation | title=Syphilis to-day and among the ancients v. 2–3 | year=1895 | first=Frédéric | last=Buret | publisher= F.A. Davis | page=48 | url=https://archive.org/details/syphilistodayan00buregoog}}</ref> in the 16th century.<ref>{{citation | title=Syphilis to-day and among the ancients v. 1 | year=1895 | first=Frédéric | last=Buret | publisher= F.A. Davis | page=62 | url=https://archive.org/details/syphilistodayan01buregoog}} dates the aforementioned manuscript to the 16th century</ref> "[[Winchester Geese|Winchester geese]]" was the nickname for the prostitutes of Southern London,<ref>{{citation | title=Preaching during the English Reformation | series=Cambridge studies in early modern British history | first=Susan | last=Wabuda | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-521-45395-0| page=127 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8g9m9eRt-cC&pg=PA127 }}</ref> licensed by the [[Bishop of Winchester]] in [[Liberty of the Clink|the area]] around his [[Winchester Palace|London palace]].

== See also ==
*[[Autonomous sensory meridian response]]
*[[Cold chill]]
*[[Frisson]]
{{Clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
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[[Category:Skin physiology]]
[[Category:Reflexes]]