Editing Grammatical particle

{{Short description|Typically short and indeclinable word with a grammatical function but no clear part of speech}}

In [[grammar]], the term '''''particle''''' ([[list of glossing abbreviations|abbreviated]] '''{{sc|ptcl}}''') has a traditional meaning, as a [[part of speech]] that cannot be [[Inflection|inflected]], and a modern meaning, as a [[function word]] (functor) associated with another word or phrase in order to impart meaning. Although a particle may have an intrinsic meaning and may fit into other grammatical categories, the fundamental idea of the particle is to add context to the sentence, expressing a mood or indicating a specific action.

In English, for example, the phrase "oh well" has no purpose in speech other than to convey a mood. The word "up" would be a particle in the phrase "look up" (as in "look up this topic"), implying that one researches something rather than that one literally gazes skywards. Many languages use particles in varying amounts and for varying reasons. In Hindi, they may be used as honorifics, or to indicate emphasis or negation. In some languages, they are clearly defined; for example, in Chinese, there are three types of {{Transliteration|zh|pinyin|zhùcí}} ({{lang|zh|助詞}}; {{gloss|particles}}): ''structural'', ''aspectual'', and ''modal''. ''Structural'' particles are used for [[grammatical relations]]. ''Aspectual'' particles signal [[grammatical aspect]]s. ''Modal'' particles express [[linguistic modality]]. However, [[Polynesian languages]], which are almost devoid of inflection, use particles extensively to indicate mood, tense, and case.

== Modern meaning ==
In modern grammar, a '''particle''' is a [[function word]] that must be associated with another word or phrase to impart meaning, i.e., it does not have its own lexical definition.{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}} According to this definition, particles are a separate [[part of speech]] and are distinct from other [[word class|classes]] of function words, such as [[article (grammar)|articles]], [[preposition]]s, [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] and [[adverbs]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}} Languages vary widely in how much they use particles, some using them extensively and others more commonly using alternative devices such as prefixes/suffixes, inflection, [[auxiliary verb]]s and word order. Particles are typically words that encode [[grammatical category|grammatical categories]] (such as [[negation (linguistics)|negation]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], or [[grammatical case|case]]), [[clitic]]s, [[Filler (linguistics)|filler]]s or (oral) [[discourse markers]] such as ''well'', ''um'', etc. Particles are never [[Inflection|inflected]].<ref>McArthur, Tom: "The Oxford Companion to the English Language", pp. 72-76, Oxford University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-19-214183-X}}</ref>

== Afrikaans ==
Some commonly used particles in [[Afrikaans]] include:
* {{lang|af|nie}}<sub>2</sub>: Afrikaans has a [[Double negative#Other Germanic languages|double negation system]], as in:
{{interlinear|lang=af|indent=3|Sy is nie<sub>1</sub> moeg nie<sub>2</sub>|She is not tired '''PTCL.NEG'''|'She is not tired'}}
:: The first {{lang|af|nie}}<sub>1</sub> is analysed as an adverb, while the second {{lang|af|nie}}<sub>2</sub> as a negation particle.
* {{lang|af|te}}: Infinitive verbs are preceded by the [[complementiser]] {{lang|af|om}} and the infinitival particle {{lang|af|te}}, e.g.
{{interlinear|lang=af|indent=3|Jy moet onthou om te eet|You must remember {{gcl|COMP|complementiser}} '''PTCL.INF''' eat|'You must remember to eat'}}
* {{lang|af|se}} or {{lang|af|van}}: Both {{lang|af|se}} and {{lang|af|van}} are [[genitive]] particles, e.g.
{{interlinear|lang=af|indent=3|Peter se boek|Peter '''PTCL.GEN''' book|'Peter's book'}}
{{interlinear|lang=af|indent=3|die boek van Peter|the book '''PTCL.GEN''' Peter|'Peter's book'}}
* {{lang|af|so}} and {{lang|af|soos}}: These two particles are found in constructions like
{{interlinear|lang=af|indent=3|abbreviations=CMPR:compare|so groot soos 'n huis|'''PTCL.CMPR''' big '''PTCL.CMPR''' a house|'as big as a house'}}

== Arabic ==
Particles in Arabic can take the form of a single root letter before a given word, like "{{lang|ar|-و}}" ('and'), "{{lang|ar|-ف}}" ('so') and "{{lang|ar|-ل}}" ('to'). However, other particles like "{{lang|ar|هل}}" (which marks a question) can be complete words as well.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wightwick|first1=Jane|title=Mastering Arabic 1|last2=Gaafar|first2=Mahmoud|publisher=[[Hippocrene Books]]}}</ref>

== Chinese ==
{{See also|Chinese particles}}
There are three types of {{pinyin|zhùcí}} ({{lang|zh|助詞}}; particles) in Chinese: Structural, Aspectual, and Modal. Structural particles are used for [[grammatical relations]]. Aspectual particles signal [[grammatical aspect]]s. Modal particles express [[linguistic modality]]. Note that particles are different from {{pinyin|zhùdòngcí}} ({{lang|zh|助動詞}}; modal verbs) in Chinese.

== English ==
''Particle'' is a somewhat nebulous term for a variety of small words that do not conveniently fit into other classes of words.<ref name="Glossary Particle">{{Cite book|title=A Glossary of English Grammar|first=Geoffrey|last=Leech|year=2006|page=79|isbn=978-0-7486-1729-6|publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}</ref> ''The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language'' defines a particle as a "word that does not change its form through inflection and does not fit easily into the established system of parts of speech".<ref name="Companion Particle">{{Cite book|at=Particle|title=The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language|last1=McArthur|first1=Thomas Burns|last2=McArthur|first2=Roshan|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780192806376|date=2005|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/conciseoxfordcom00mcar}}</ref> The term includes the "adverbial particles" like ''up'' or ''out'' in verbal idioms ([[phrasal verb]]s) such as "look up" or "knock out"; it also includes the "infinitival particle" ''to'', the "negative particle" ''not'', the "imperative particles" ''do'' and ''let'', and sometimes "pragmatic particles" (also called "fillers" or "discourse markers") like ''oh'' and ''well''.<ref name="Companion Particle"/>

== German ==
A [[German modal particle]] serves no necessary syntactical function, but expresses the speaker's attitude towards the utterance. Modal particles include {{lang|de|ja, halt, doch, aber, denn, schon}} and others. Some of these also appear in non-particle forms. {{lang|de|Aber}}, for example, is also the conjunction ''but''. In {{lang|de|Er ist Amerikaner, '''aber''' er spricht gut Deutsch}}, "He is American, '''but''' he speaks German well," {{lang|de|aber}} is a conjunction connecting two sentences. But in {{lang|de|Er spricht '''aber''' gut Deutsch!}}, the {{lang|de|aber}} is a particle, with the sentence perhaps best translated as "What good German he speaks!"<ref>Martin Durrell, ''Using German'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition (2003), p. 156-164.</ref> These particles are common in speech but rarely found in written language, except that which has a spoken quality (such as online messaging).<ref>{{cite journal|first=Fabian|last=Bross|year=2012|url=http://helikon-online.de/2012/Bross_Particles.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318005540/http://helikon-online.de/2012/Bross_Particles.pdf |archive-date=2013-03-18 |url-status=live|title=German modal particles and the common ground|journal=Helikon. A Multidisciplinary Online Journal|pages=182–209}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Modal Particles: schon, ja, halt |url=https://german.yabla.com/lesson-Modal-Particles-schon-ja-halt-278 |publisher=[[Yabla]] German |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Vyatkina |first1=Nina |last2=Johnson |first2=Karen E. |title=German Modal Particles |url=http://calper.la.psu.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/CALPER_GMP_Preface.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701124443/http://calper.la.psu.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/CALPER_GMP_Preface.pdf |archive-date=2019-07-01 |url-status=live |publisher=Center for Advanced Language Proficiency Education and Research – The Pennsylvania State University}}</ref>

== Hindi ==
There are different types of particles present in [[Hindi]]: emphatic particles, limiter particles, negation particles, affirmative particles, honorific particles, topic-marker particle and case-marking particles.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=PARGHI|first=KHUSHBOO|date=2016|title=ON DISTRIBUTION AND SENSES OF THE EMPHATIC PARTICLE hI IN HINDI|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26264771|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|volume=76|pages=93–100|jstor=26264771|issn=0045-9801}}</ref> Some common particles of Hindi are mentioned in the table below:
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
| colspan="4" |Hindi particles
|-
!Type
!Particles
! scope=col style="width: 33%" | Notes
!Sentences
|-
!Emphatic

Particles<ref name=":1" /> 
|
*{{lang|hi|ही}} ({{Transliteration|hi|hī}}) — Exclusive Emphatic Particle
*{{lang|hi|भी}} ({{Transliteration|hi|bhī}}) — Inclusive Emphatic Particle
*{{lang|hi|यूँ}} ({{Transliteration|hi|yū̃}}) — Manner Emphatic Particle
|{{lang|hi|ही}} ({{Transliteration|hi|hī}}) can roughly be translated as "only", "just", "alone" etc<br>{{lang|hi|भी}} ({{Transliteration|hi|bhī}}) can roughly be translated as "also", "too", "can't even" etc
|
# {{lang|hi|बस '''कॉफ़ी ही''' लेके आये?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|bas '''kôfī hī''' leke āye?}})
#* You brought '''just''' coffee?
# {{lang|hi|'''लिख भी''' नहीं सकते?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|'''likh bhī''' nahī̃ sakte?}})
#* You '''can't even''' write?
# {{lang|hi|मैं '''यूँ''' जाऊँगा और '''यूँ''' आऊँगा।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|ma͠i '''yū̃''' jāū̃gā aur '''yū̃''' āū̃gā.}})
#* I'll (instantly) go and (instantly) come back.
|-
!Limiter
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|मात्र}} ({{Transliteration|hi|mātr}}) — mere
*{{lang|hi|बस}} ({{Transliteration|hi|bas}}) — mere, only
|{{lang|hi|मात्र}} ({{Transliteration|hi|mātr}}) comes before a noun it modifies, and comes after a noun or verb or adverb when the meaning of "just/mere" is conveyed.
|
# {{lang|hi|नारंगी '''मात्र दो''' हैं अपने पास।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|nārangī '''mātr do''' hè̃ apne pās.}})
#* We have '''merely two''' oranges.
|-
!Negation

Particles 
|
*{{lang|hi|नहीं}} ({{Transliteration|hi|nahī̃}}) — Indicative Negation
*{{lang|hi|न / ना}} ({{Transliteration|hi|na / nā}}) — Subjunctive Negation
*{{lang|hi|मत}} ({{Transliteration|hi|mat}}) — Imperative Negation
|{{lang|hi|नहीं}} ({{Transliteration|hi|nahī̃}}) can have multiple positions in the same sentence while still conveying the same meaning. By default, it comes before the main verb of the sentence (or after the verb to emphasise). Usually, it doesn't appear at the end of a sentence and also at the beginning if the sentence starts with a noun.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lampp|first=Claire M.|date=2006|title=Negation in modern Hindi-Urdu: the development of nahII|s2cid=198686698|language=en}}</ref> {{lang|hi|न}} ({{Transliteration|hi|na}}) and {{lang|hi|मत}} ({{Transliteration|hi|mat}}) have rather restricted positions in a sentence and can usually only appear around the verb in subjunctive mood or imperative form, respectively.
|
# {{lang|hi|'''नहीं करना''' चाहिए ऐसा।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|'''nahī̃ karnā''' čāhiye aisā.}})
#* One should'''n't''' do [like] that.
# {{lang|hi|'''ना हो''' ऐसा तो अच्छा हो।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|'''nā ho''' aisā to acchā ho.}})
#* It'll be good if it '''doesn't''' happen [like that].
# {{lang|hi|'''मत''' कर यार !}} ({{Transliteration|hi|'''mat''' kar yār!}})
#* '''Don't''' do it, man!
|-
!Affirmative
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|हाँ}} ({{Transliteration|hi|hā̃}}) — "yes"<ref>Kalika Bali, "F0 cues for the discourse functions of "hã" in Hindi" https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221486826_F0_cues_for_the_discourse_functions_of_ha_in_Hindi</ref>
*{{lang|hi|जी}} ({{Transliteration|hi|jī}}) — "honorific yes"
*{{lang|hi|जी हाँ}} ({{Transliteration|hi|jī-hā̃}}) — "emphatic yes"
*{{lang|hi|हाँ तो}} ({{Transliteration|hi|hā̃-to}}) — "emphatic yes"
|
|
# {{lang|hi|'''हाँ''' करता हूँ।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|'''hā̃''' kartā hū̃.}})
#* '''Yes''', I (will) do it.
# {{lang|hi|'''जी''' और आप?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|'''jī''' aur āp.}})
#* '''Yes''', and you ('''formal''')?
# {{lang|hi|'''जी हाँ''' करूँगा।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|'''jī hā̃''' karū̃gā.}})
#* '''Yes sure''', I will do it.
# {{lang|hi|अरे '''हाँ तो''' ! किया है मैंने।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|are '''hā̃ to'''! kiyā hai ma͠ine.}})
#* ('''I already said''') '''yes'''! I have done it.
|-
!Honorific 
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|जी}} ({{Transliteration|hi|jī}}) — "honour giving particle"
|It comes after a noun and gives the noun an honorific value. 
Compare with the honorific particles in Japanese, e.g. {{Nihongo krt|2=さま|3=sama}} and {{Nihongo krt|2=さん|3=san}}.
|
# {{lang|hi|राहुल '''जी''' कैसे है?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|rāhul '''jī''' kaise ha͠i?}})
#* How is '''Mr.''' Rahul?
|-
!Topic Marker

Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|तो}} (to) — "[[topic marker]]"
|{{lang|hi|तो}} is used to mark the topic in the sentence which is often not the same the subject of a sentence. It indicates either presuppositionally shared information or shift in thematic orientation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montaut|first=Annie|date=2015|title=The discourse particle to and word ordering in Hindi: From grammar to discourse|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01287633|language=en|volume=283|pages=263|publisher=Benjamins }}</ref><ref>Case markers and Morphology: Addressing the crux of the fluency problem in English-Hindi SMT: https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P09-1090.pdf</ref> It has a rather flexible position in a sentence; it always goes after the topic of the sentence, even if that topic contains other particles.
|
# {{lang|hi|नेहा '''तो''' अच्छी है।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|nehā '''to''' acchī hai.}})
#* ['''Speaking of'''] Neha ['''she'''] is good.
# {{lang|hi|तुम अच्छी '''तो''' हो पर उतनी नहीं।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|tum acchī '''to''' ho par utnī nahī̃.}})
#* You '''"sure are"''' good but not that much.
|-
!Question Marker
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|क्या}} ({{Transliteration|hi|kyā}}) — "question marker"
*{{lang|hi|ना}} ({{Transliteration|hi|nā}}) — "doubt / confirmatory marker"
|The [[Yes–no question|question-marker]] {{lang|hi|क्या}} can come at the beginning or the end of a sentence as its default position but can also appear in between the sentence if it cannot also be interpreted as its non-particle meaning of "what" at a mid position in the sentence.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Bhatt|first1=Rajesh|last2=Dayal|first2=Veneeta|date=2020-01-31|title=Polar question particles: Hindi-Urdu kya|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11049-020-09464-0|journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory|volume=38|issue=4|pages=1115–1144|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11049-020-09464-0|s2cid=213719773|issn=1573-0859|url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{lang|hi|ना}} can only come at the end of a sentence and nowhere else. It conveys that the asker is in doubt or is seeking for a confirmation.<ref>Negation in modern Hindi-Urdu: the development of nahII: https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/g158bh795?locale=en</ref>
|
# {{lang|hi|वो गाता है '''क्या'''?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|vo gātā hai '''kyā'''?}})
#* '''Does''' he sing?
# {{lang|hi|ऐसा करना होता है '''ना'''?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|aisā karnā hota hai '''nā'''?}})
#* It should be done like this, '''no'''?
# {{lang|hi|ऐसा करें '''ना'''?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|aisā karē̃ '''nā'''?}})
#* [Are you sure that] we do this? / we are doing this?
|-
!Case Marker 
Particles
|
*{{lang|hi|को}} ({{Transliteration|hi|ko}}) — "[[Dative case|dative]] marker" & "[[Accusative case|accusative]] marker"
*{{lang|hi|से}} ({{Transliteration|hi|se}}) — "[[Ablative case|ablative]] marker" & "[[Instrumental case|instrumental]] marker"
*{{lang|hi|ने}} ({{Transliteration|hi|ne}}) — "[[Ergative case|ergative]] marker"
*{{lang|hi|का}} ({{Transliteration|hi|kā}}) — "[[Genitive case|genitive]] marker"
*{{lang|hi|में}} ({{Transliteration|hi|mē̃}}) — "[[Locative case|locative]] marker" "in / inside"
*{{lang|hi|पे / पर}} ({{Transliteration|hi|pe / par}}) — "[[Locative case|locative]] marker" "on / at"
*{{lang|hi|तक}} ({{Transliteration|hi|tak}}) — "[[Locative case|locative]] marker" "up to, until, as far as"
*{{lang|hi|सा}} ({{Transliteration|hi|sā}}) — "[[Semblative case|semblative]] marker" "like, -ish, -esque"
|The case marking particles require the noun to be declined to be in their oblique case forms. However, these markers themselves (except for one){{Clarify|reason=which one?|date=February 2023}} can inflect and change forms depending on the gender of the noun they modify.<ref>{{Citation|last1=de Hoop|first1=Helen|title=Chapter 12 - Differential Case-Marking in Hindi|date=2005-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978008044651650015X|work=Competition and Variation in Natural Languages|pages=321–345|editor-last=Amberber|editor-first=Mengistu|series=Perspectives on Cognitive Science|place=Oxford|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|access-date=2020-11-16|last2=Narasimhan|first2=Bhuvana|doi=10.1016/B978-008044651-6/50015-X |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1748-5 |isbn=9780080446516 |editor2-last=De Hoop|editor2-first=Helen|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=CASE IN HINDI|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267724707|access-date=2020-11-16|website=ResearchGate|language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|-
|Case
|Hindi
|-
|ergative
| {{lang|hi|ने}} ({{Transliteration|hi|ne}})
|-
|accusative
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|hi|को}} ({{Transliteration|hi|ko}})
|-
|dative
|-
|instrumental
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|hi|से}} ({{Transliteration|hi|se}})
|-
|ablative
|-
|genitive
|{{lang|hi|का}} ({{Transliteration|hi|kā}})
|-
|inessive
|{{lang|hi|में}} ({{Transliteration|hi|mē̃}})
|-
|adessive
|{{lang|hi|पे}} ({{Transliteration|hi|pe}})
|-
|terminative
|{{lang|hi|तक}} ({{Transliteration|hi|tak}})
|-
|semblative
|{{lang|hi|सा}} ({{Transliteration|hi|sā}})
|}
|
# {{lang|hi|उस'''ने''' उस'''को''' उस'''से''' मारा।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|us'''ne''' us'''ko''' us'''se''' mārā.}})
#* '''He/she''' hit '''him/her''' with '''it'''.
# {{lang|hi|उस'''का''' है?}} ({{Transliteration|hi|us'''kā''' hai?}})
#* Is it '''his'''?
# {{lang|hi|उस'''से''' निकालो और इस'''पे''' रखो।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|us'''mē̃''' se nikālo aur is'''pe''' rakho.}})
#* Take it out '''from that''' a keep it '''on this'''.
# {{lang|hi|उस'''में''' होगा।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|us'''mē̃''' hogā.}})
#* It must be '''inside it'''.
# {{lang|hi|उस'''पे''' ढालना।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|us'''pe''' ḍhālnā.}})
#* Pour it '''on that'''.
# {{lang|hi|कोई मुझ'''सा''' नहीं।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|koi mujh'''sā''' nahī̃.}})
#* No one's '''like''' me.
# {{lang|hi|चार बजे '''तक''' करना।}} ({{Transliteration|hi|cār baje '''tak''' karnā.}})
#* Do it '''until''' four o'clock.
|}

== Japanese and Korean ==
{{See also|Japanese particles|Korean particles}}
The term ''particle'' is often used in descriptions of [[Japanese language|Japanese]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://japanese.about.com/blparticles.htm |title=All About the Japanese Particles Wa and Ga |access-date=2009-10-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303200426/http://japanese.about.com/blparticles.htm |archive-date=2009-03-03 }} List of Japanese particles</ref> and [[Korean language|Korean]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/portnerp/nsfsite/KoreanParticlesMiokPak.pdf |title=Paul H. Portner – Paul Portner's academic homepage |access-date=2008-04-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306201122/http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/portnerp/nsfsite/KoreanParticlesMiokPak.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-06 }} List of Korean particles</ref> where they are used to mark [[noun]]s according to their [[grammatical case]] or [[thematic relation]] in a sentence or clause.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conf.ling.cornell.edu/japanese_historical_linguistics/3.3%20Particles.pdf|title=conf.ling.cornell.edu|website=cornell.edu|access-date=7 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724192923/http://conf.ling.cornell.edu/japanese_historical_linguistics/3.3%20Particles.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2010}}</ref> Linguistic analyses describe them as [[suffix]]es, [[clitic]]s, or [[Preposition and postposition|postposition]]s. There are sentence-tagging particles such as Japanese question markers.

== Polynesian languages ==
[[Polynesian languages]] are almost devoid of inflection, and use particles extensively to indicate mood, tense, and case. Suggs,<ref name=suggs>{{cite book|last=Suggs|first=Robert C|title=The Island Civilizations of Polynesia|year=1960|publisher=[New York] New American Library|url=https://archive.org/details/islandcivilizati00sugg|url-access=registration}}</ref> discussing the deciphering of the [[rongorongo]] script of [[Easter Island]], describes them as all-important. In [[Māori language|Māori]] for example, the versatile particle {{lang|mi|e}} can signal the [[imperative mood]], the vocative case, the future tense, or the subject of a sentence formed with most passive verbs. The particle {{lang|mi|i}} signals the past imperfect tense, the object of a transitive verb or the subject of a sentence formed with "neuter verbs" (a form of passive verb), as well as the prepositions ''in'', ''at'' and ''from''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foster|first=John|title=He Whakamarama: A Short Course in Maori}}</ref>

=== Tokelauan ===
In [[Tokelauan language|Tokelauan]], {{lang|tkl|ia}} is used when describing personal names, month names, and nouns used to describe a collaborative group of people participating in something together.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Simona|first1=Ropati|title=Tokelau Dictionary|date=1986|publisher=Office of Tokelau Affairs|location=New Zealand|page=Introduction}}</ref> It also can be used when a verb does not directly precede a pronoun to describe said pronouns.<ref name=":0" /> Its use for pronouns is optional but mostly in this way. {{lang|tkl|Ia}} cannot be used if the noun it is describing follows any of the prepositions {{lang|tkl|e, o, a}}, or {{lang|tkl|ko}}.<ref name=":0" /> A couple of the other ways unrelated to what is listed above that {{lang|tkl|ia}} is used is when preceding a locative or place name.<ref name=":0" /> However, if {{lang|tkl|ia}} is being used in this fashion, the locative or place name must be the subject of the sentence.<ref name=":0" /> Another particle in Tokelauan is {{lang|tkl|a}}, or sometimes {{lang|tkl|ā}}.<ref name=":0" /> This article is used before a person's name as well as the names of months and the particle {{lang|tkl|a te}} is used before pronouns when these instances are following the prepositions {{lang|tkl|i}} or {{lang|tkl|ki}}. {{lang|tkl|Ia te}} is a particle used if following the preposition {{lang|tkl|mai}}.<ref name=":0" />

== Russian ==
In [[Russian language|Russian]], particles sometimes play an important role making an additional nuance for a meaning of a phrase or of a whole sentence. One example is the particle {{lang|ru|бы}}, which imparts conditional mood (subjunctive) to a verb it is applied to or to a whole sentence. Other examples are {{lang|ru|-то}} and {{lang|ru|же}} which are usually used to emphasise or accent other words. Generally there are lots of different particles in Russian of many kinds. Some of them are complex, consisting of other particles, others are as simple as one letter ({{lang|ru|б, -с}}).

== Turkish ==
In some sources, exclamations and conjunctions are also considered Turkish particles. In this article, exclamations and conjunctions will not be dealt with, but only Turkish particles. The main particles used in Turkish are:
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* {{lang|tr|ancak}}<ref group="note">used with {{lang|tr|ama, fakat, lakin}} ('but').</ref>
* {{lang|tr|başka}}, another
* {{lang|tr|beri}}, since
* {{lang|tr|bir}}, one
* {{lang|tr|bir tek}}, only
* {{lang|tr|dair}}, regarding
* {{lang|tr|doğru}}, right
* {{lang|tr|değil}}, not
* {{lang|tr|değin}}, mention
* {{lang|tr|denli}}, as much
* {{lang|tr|dek}}, until
{{Column}}
* {{lang|tr|dolayı}}, due
* {{lang|tr|diye}}, so
* {{lang|tr|evvel}}, before
* {{lang|tr|gayri}}, informal
* {{lang|tr|gibi}}, like
* {{lang|tr|göre}}, by
* {{lang|tr|için}}, for
* {{lang|tr|ile}}, with<ref group="note">used with {{lang|tr|ve}} ('and')</ref>
* {{lang|tr|kadar}}, until
* {{lang|tr|karşı}}, against
* {{lang|tr|karşın}}, although or despite
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* {{lang|tr|mukabil}}, corresponding
* {{lang|tr|önce}}, prior to
* {{lang|tr|ötürü}}, due to
* {{lang|tr|öte}}, beyond
* {{lang|tr|rağmen}}, despite
* {{lang|tr|sadece}}, only
* {{lang|tr|sanki}}, as if
* {{lang|tr|sonra}}, then
* {{lang|tr|sıra}}, row
* {{lang|tr|üzere}}, to
* {{lang|tr|yalnız}}, alone
{{Columns-end}}

Particles can be used with the simple form of the names to which they are attached or in other cases. Some of particles uses with attached form, and some particles are always used after the relevant form. For examples, {{lang|tr|-den ötürü}}, {{lang|tr|-e dek}}, {{lang|tr|-den öte}}, {{lang|tr|-e doğru}}:

* {{lang|tr|Bu çiçekleri annem '''için''' alıyorum.}} ({{lang|tr|anne}} is nominative)
* {{lang|tr|Yarın'''a kadar''' bu ödevi bitirmem lazım.}} (dative)
* {{lang|tr|Düşük notların'''dan ötürü''' çok çalışman gerekiyor.}} (ablative)

Turkish particles according to their functions. {{lang|tr|Başka, gayrı, özge}} used for 'other, another, otherwise, new, diverse, either'.
* {{lang|tr|Senden gayrı kimsem yok. No one other than you.}}
* {{lang|tr|Yardım istemekten başka çaremiz kalmadı. We have no choice but to ask for help.}}

{{lang|tr|Göre, nazaran, dâir, rağmen}} used for 'by, in comparison, about, despite'.
* {{lang|tr|Çok çalışmama rağmen sınavda hedeflediğim başarıyı yakalayamadım.}}
* {{lang|tr|Duyduğuma göre bitirme sınavları bir hafta erken gerçekleşecekmiş.}}
* {{lang|tr|Şirketteki son değişikliklere dâir bilgi almak istiyorum.}}

{{lang|tr|İçin, üzere, dolayı, ötürü, nâşi, diye}} used for 'for, with, because, because of, how'.
* {{lang|tr|Açılış konuşmasını yapmak üzere kürsüye çıktı.}}
* {{lang|tr|Bu raporu bitirebilmek için zamana ihtiyacım var.}}
* {{lang|tr|Kardeşim hastalığından nâşi gelemedi.}}

== See also ==
* [[Ilocano particles]]
* [[Nobiliary particle]]
* [[Okinawan language#Particles (助詞)|Okinawan particles]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European particles]]
* [[Sentence-final particle]]
* [[Uninflected word]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Lexical categories|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grammatical Particle}}
[[Category:Parts of speech]]