Editing Grape

{{short description|Fruit growing on woody vines in clusters}}
{{Distinguish|Grapefruit}}
{{about|the fruits of the genus ''Vitis''|other uses|Grape (disambiguation)}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
[[File:Abhar-iran.JPG|thumb|upright|Grapes]]
[[File:Grapes, Rostov-on-Don, Russia.jpg|thumb| "Black" (dark blue) and "white" (light green) [[table grape]]s]]
A '''grape''' is a [[fruit]], [[Berry (botany)|botanically a berry]], of the [[deciduous]] woody [[vine]]s of the flowering plant genus ''[[Vitis]]''. Grapes are a non-[[Climacteric (botany)|climacteric]] type of fruit, generally occurring in [[Grape cluster|clusters]].

The cultivation of grapes began approximately 8,000 years ago, and the fruit has been used as human food throughout its history. Eaten fresh or in dried form (as [[raisin]]s, [[Zante currant|currants]] and [[Sultana (grape)|sultanas]]), grapes also hold cultural significance in many parts of the world, particularly for their role in [[winemaking]]. Other grape-derived products include various types of [[grape jam|jam]], [[grape juice|juice]], vinegar and oil.

== History ==
[[File:Countries by grape production in 2020.png|thumb|Grape producing countries in 2020]]
The [[Middle East]] is generally described as the homeland of grapes and the cultivation of this plant began there 6,000–8,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ANGŪR – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/angur-grapes |access-date=2021-04-06 |website=iranicaonline.org |quote=According to A. de Candolle (L’Origine des plantes cultivées, Paris, 5th ed., 1912, p. 152) the grape-vine is at home in the region south of the Caucasus, from the Black Sea to the Caspian region of Iran, where “it has the shape of a strong liana climbing over high trees and producing abundant fruit without any pruning or cultivation.” His statement is still generally accepted, since the greatest diversity in varieties can be observed there.}}</ref><ref name=This>{{cite journal|author1=This, Patrice |author2=Lacombe, Thierry |author3=Thomash, Mark R. |title=Historical Origins and Genetic Diversity of Wine Grapes |journal=Trends in Genetics |volume=22 |issue=9 |url=https://www.rz.uni-karlsruhe.de/~db45/Studiendekanat/Lehre/Master/Module/Botanik_1/M1401/Evolution_Zellbiologie/This%20et%20al%202006.pdf |pages=511–519 |year=2006 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2006.07.008 |pmid=16872714 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004224603/https://www.rz.uni-karlsruhe.de/~db45/Studiendekanat/Lehre/Master/Module/Botanik_1/M1401/Evolution_Zellbiologie/This%20et%20al%202006.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-04}}</ref> [[Yeast (wine)|Yeast]], one of the earliest domesticated [[microorganism]]s, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the discovery of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest [[archeological]] evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/Georgia%20Wine.pdf |title=Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture|author=McGovern, Patrick E. |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004231457/http://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/Georgia%20Wine.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://winehistory.com/2i.htm |author=McGovern, P. E. |title=Georgia: Homeland of Winemaking and Viticulture |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530202942/http://winehistory.com/2i.htm |archive-date=2013-05-30}}</ref><ref>Keys, David (2003-12-28) [http://www.archaeology.ws/2004-1-2.htm Now that's what you call a real vintage: professor unearths 8,000-year-old wine] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603094312/http://www.archaeology.ws/2004-1-2.htm |date=2013-06-03}}. archaeology.ws.</ref>

The oldest known winery, the [[Areni-1 winery]], was found in [[Armenia]] and dates back to around 4000 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/|title=Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave|last=Owen|first=James|date=12 January 2011|website=National Geographic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603205116/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/|archive-date=2017-06-03|url-status=dead|access-date=8 July 2017}}</ref> By the 9th century AD, the city of [[Shiraz]] was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that [[Syrah]] red wine is named after [[Shiraz]], a city in Persia where the grape was used to make [[Shirazi wine]].<ref name="Hugh J">Hugh Johnson, ''"The Story of Wine"'', New Illustrated Edition, pp. 58, 131, Mitchell Beazley 2004, {{ISBN|1-84000-972-1}}.</ref>

[[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[hieroglyphics]] record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient [[Greeks (wine)|Greeks]], [[Cypriot wine|Cypriots]], [[Phoenicians (wine)|Phoenicians]], and [[Ancient Rome (wine)|Romans]] growing purple grapes for eating and wine production.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/ingredientsprofiles/Grape |title=Grape |date=October 2015 |website=Better Health Channel Victoria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109141333/https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/ingredientsprofiles/Grape |archive-date=2018-01-09 |url-status=live |access-date=8 July 2017}}</ref> The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, North Africa, and eventually in [[North America]].

In 2005, a team of archaeologists concluded that [[Chalcolithic]] wine jars discovered in [[Cyprus]] in the 1930s dated back to 3500 BC, making them the oldest of their kind in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://gillhamvineyard.com/wine-history-cyprus/#:~:text=The%20history%20of%20winemaking%20in,dating%20back%20to%203%2C500%20BC. |title=Wine History Cyprus}}</ref> [[Commandaria]], a sweet [[dessert wine]] from Cyprus, is the oldest manufactured wine in the world with origins as far back as 2000 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-manufactured-wine/ |title=Oldest manufactured wine |website=Guinness World Records}}</ref>

In North America, native grapes belonging to various species of the genus ''Vitis'' proliferate in the wild across the continent and were a part of the diet of many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], but early European colonists considered them to be unsuitable for wine. In the 19th century, [[Ephraim Bull]] of [[Concord, Massachusetts]], cultivated seeds from wild ''[[Vitis labrusca]]'' vines to create the [[Concord grape]], which would become an important agricultural crop in the United States.<ref name="Robinson">Jancis Robinson, ''Vines, Grapes & Wines'' (Mitchell Beazley, 1986, {{ISBN|1-85732-999-6}}), pp. 8, 18, 228.</ref>

{{nutritional value | name=Grapes, red or green
| kJ=288
| water=81 g
| protein=0.72&nbsp;g
| fat=0.16&nbsp;g
| carbs=18.1&nbsp;g
| fiber=0.9&nbsp;g
| sugars=15.48&nbsp;g
| calcium_mg=10
| iron_mg=0.36
| magnesium_mg=7
| phosphorus_mg=20
| potassium_mg=191
| sodium_mg=2
| zinc_mg=0.07
| manganese_mg=0.071
| vitC_mg=3.2
| thiamin_mg=0.069
| riboflavin_mg=0.07
| niacin_mg=0.188
| pantothenic_mg=0.05
| vitB6_mg=0.086
| folate_ug=2
| choline_mg=5.6
| vitE_mg=0.19
| vitK_ug=14.6
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/174683/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
== Description ==
Grapes are a type of [[fruit]] that grow in clusters of 15 to 300 and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. [[Mutation]]s in two [[regulatory genes]] of white grapes turn off production of [[anthocyanin]]s, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Walker | first1 = A. R.
| last2 = Lee | first2 = E.
| last3 = Bogs | first3 = J.
| last4 = McDavid | first4 = D. A. J.
| last5 = Thomas | first5 = M. R.
| last6 = Robinson | first6 = S. P.
| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02997.x
| title = White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes
| journal = The Plant Journal
| volume = 49
| issue = 5
| pages = 772–785
| year = 2007
| pmid = 17316172
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> Anthocyanins and other [[pigment]] chemicals of the larger family of [[Polyphenols in grape|polyphenols]] in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb02903.x
| last1 = Waterhouse | first1 = A. L.
| title = Wine phenolics
| journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
| volume = 957
| issue = 1 | pages = 21–36
| year = 2002
| pmid = 12074959
| bibcode = 2002NYASA.957...21W | s2cid = 36937910}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00518-1
| last1 = Brouillard | first1 = R.
| last2 = Chassaing | first2 = S.
| last3 = Fougerousse | first3 = A.
| title = Why are grape/fresh wine anthocyanins so simple and why is it that red wine color lasts so long?
| journal = Phytochemistry
| volume = 64
| issue = 7
| pages = 1179–1186
| year = 2003
| pmid = 14599515
| bibcode = 2003PChem..64.1179B }}</ref> Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a [[prolate spheroid]].

== Nutrition ==
Raw grapes are 81% water, 18% [[carbohydrate]]s, 1% [[protein]], and have negligible [[fat]] (table). A {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off|adj=on}} reference amount of raw grapes supplies {{convert|288|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and a moderate amount of [[vitamin K]] (12% of the [[Daily Value]]), with no other [[micronutrient]]s in significant amounts (table).

== Grapevines ==
{{Main|Vitis}}
[[File:ConcordGrapes.jpg|thumb|upright|Concord is a variety of North American ''labrusca'' grape]]
Most domesticated grapes come from [[List of grape varieties|cultivars]] of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', a grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:

* ''[[Vitis amurensis]]'', the most important Asian species
* ''[[Vitis labrusca]]'', the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the [[Concord (grape)|Concord]] [[cultivar]]), sometimes used for wine, are native to the Eastern United States and Canada.
* ''[[Vitis mustangensis]]'' (the mustang grape), found in Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma
* ''[[Vitis riparia]]'', a wild vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking and jam. It is native to the entire Eastern United States and north to [[Quebec]].
* ''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]'' (the muscadine), used for jams and wine, is native to the Southeastern United States from [[Delaware]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Grape production <br>{{small|2023, millions of tonnes}}
|-
|{{CHN}} ||13.5
|-
|{{ITA}} ||6.7
|-
|{{FRA}} ||6.2
|-
|{{USA}} ||5.4
|-
|{{ESP}} ||4.8
|-
|{{TUR}} ||3.4
|-
|{{CHI}} ||2.3
|-
|'''World''' ||'''72.5'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Grape production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=9 April 2025}}</ref>
|}
== Distribution of agriculture==

In 2023, the world total of land dedicated to grape growing (in [[hectare]]s, ha) was {{cvt|6595680|ha}}.<ref name="faostat-ha">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=World acreage for grape growing in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Area harvested/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=9 April 2025}}</ref> By country dedicating farmland for grape growing in 2023, Spain had {{cvt|913000|ha}}, France {{cvt|753340|ha}}, Italy {{cvt|713350|ha}}, and China {{cvt|607030|ha}}.<ref name=faostat-ha/> Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as [[dried fruit]].{{cn|date=April 2025}}

There are no reliable statistics that break down grape production by variety. It is believed that the most widely planted variety is [[Sultana (grape)|Sultana]], also known as Thompson Seedless, with at least 3,600&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (880,000 acres) dedicated to it. The second most common variety is [[Airén]]. Other popular varieties include [[Cabernet Sauvignon]], [[Sauvignon blanc]], [[Cabernet Franc]], [[Merlot]], [[Grenache]], [[Tempranillo]], [[Riesling]], and [[Chardonnay]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freshplaza.com/news_detail.asp?id=29614 |title=The most widely planted grape in the world |work=freshplaza.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510092055/http://www.freshplaza.com/news_detail.asp?id=29614 |archive-date=2013-05-10 |access-date=2010-04-10}}</ref>

==Production==
In 2023, world production of grapes was 72.5 million [[tonne]]s, led by China with 19% of the total, with Italy and France as major secondary producers (table).

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Grape exports <br>{{small|2023, tonnes}}
|-
|{{PER}} ||647,967
|-
|{{CHI}} ||529,470
|-
|{{CHN}} ||483,373
|-
|{{ITA}} ||386,672
|-
|{{NED}} ||346,128
|-
|{{RSA}} ||318,126
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat-exp">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity_exports|title=Grape exports in 2023|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=9 April 2025}}</ref>
|}
==Exports==
In 2023, the leading exporters of grapes were Peru and Chile, each with more than half a million tonnes (table).

== Table and wine grapes ==
{{See also|Wine}}

Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either [[Table grape|table]] or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make [[wine]] (wine grapes). The sweetness of grapes depends on when they are harvested, as they do not continue to ripen once picked.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/13/dining/ottolenghi-grape-recipes.html Grapes, Sour or Sweet, Are Ripe for Dessert]</ref> While almost all belong to the same species, ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through [[selective breeding]]. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.<ref name="wineloverspage_com">{{cite web |url=http://www.wineloverspage.com/dibbern/grapetaste07.phtml |title=WineLoversPage – Straight talk in plain English about fine wine |website=WineLoversPage |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716153541/http://www.wineloverspage.com/dibbern/grapetaste07.phtml |archive-date=2011-07-16}}</ref>
[[File:Wine grapes03.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Wine grapes on the vine]]
== Seedless grapes ==
Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetatively propagated]] by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using [[Plant tissue culture|tissue culture]] techniques.

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: [[Thompson Seedless]], Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]''.{{cn|date=April 2025}} There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes, Reliance, and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern [[Ontario]].<ref>Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. [http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/reisch/bulletin/table/tabletext3.html "Seedless Grapes"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619010322/http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/reisch/bulletin/table/tabletext3.html |date=2008-06-19 }}, in "Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates", Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, retrieved December 30, 2008.</ref>

An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched [[phytochemical]] content of grape seeds (see [[#Health claims|Health claims]], below).<ref>{{Cite journal
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| title = Polyphenolics in Grape Seeds—Biochemistry and Functionality
| doi = 10.1089/109662003772519831
| journal = Journal of Medicinal Food
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| title = Chemical Compositions, Antioxidant Capacities, and Antiproliferative Activities of Selected Fruit Seed Flours
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 54
| issue = 11
| pages = 3773–3778
| year = 2006
| pmid = 16719495
}}</ref>

== Uses ==
[[File:Armenian dolma.jpeg|upright=0.9|thumb|Grape leaves in cuisine ([[dolma]])]]
=== Culinary ===
Grapes are eaten raw, dried (as raisins, currants and sultanas), or cooked. Also, depending on the grape cultivar, grapes are used in winemaking. Grapes can be processed into a multitude of products such as jams, juices, vinegars and oils.
Commercially cultivated grapes are classified as either table or wine grapes. These categories are based on their intended method of consumption: grapes that are eaten raw (table grapes), or grapes that are used to make wine (wine grapes).
Table grape cultivars normally have large, seedless fruit and thin skins. Wine grapes are smaller (in comparison to table grapes), usually contains seeds, and have thicker skins (a desirable characteristic in making wine). Most of the aroma in wine is from the skin. Wine grapes tend to have a high sugar content. They are harvested at peak sugar levels (approximately 24% sugar by weight.) In comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice" made from table grapes are normally around 15% sugar by weight.<ref name="wineloverspage_com" />

==== Raisins, currants and sultanas ====
{{Main|Raisin}}
[[File:Raisins 01.jpg|thumb|right|[[Raisin]]s]]

In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "dried vine fruit" in official documents.

A ''[[raisin]]'' is any dried grape. While ''raisin'' is a French [[loanword]], the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; ''grappe'' (from which the English ''grape'' is derived) refers to the bunch (as in ''une grappe de raisins''). A raisin in French is called ''raisin sec'' ("dry grape").

A ''[[Zante currant|currant]]'' is a dried [[Zakynthos|Zante]] Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French ''raisin de Corinthe'' ([[Corinth]] grape). The names of the black and red currant, now more usually [[blackcurrant]] and [[redcurrant]], two berries unrelated to grapes, are derived from this use. Some other fruits of similar appearance are also so named, for example, Australian currant, native currant, Indian currant.<ref>{{Cite OED|currant|id=46089}}</ref>

A ''sultana'' was originally a raisin made from [[Sultana (grape)|Sultana grapes]] of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana.

==== Juice ====
[[File:Grape Juice.jpg|thumb|upright|Grape juice]]
{{Main|Grape juice}}
Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or [[fermentation (wine)|fermented]] and made into [[wine]], [[brandy]], or [[vinegar]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2025-02-09 |title=Wine - Fermentation, Aging, Varietals {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/wine/The-wine-making-process |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Grape juice that has been pasteurized, removing any naturally occurring yeast, will not ferment if kept sterile, and thus contains no alcohol.  In the [[wine]] industry, grape juice that contains 7–23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "[[must]]".<ref name=":1" /> 

In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from [[Concord (grape)|Concord grapes]], while white grape juice is commonly made from [[Niagara (grape)|Niagara grapes]], both of which are varieties of {{Not a typo|native American}} grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sweetwatercellars.com/thompsonseedless.html |title=Thompson Seedless Grape Juice |work=sweetwatercellars.com |url-status= dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325155101/http://sweetwatercellars.com/thompsonseedless.html |archive-date=2012-03-25 |access-date=2012-02-17}}</ref>

==== Vinegars ====
''Husrum'', also known as ''[[verjuice]]'', is a type of vinegar made from sour grapes in the Middle East. It is produced by crushing unripened grapes, collecting and salting the juice, simmering it to remove foam, and then storing it with a layer of olive oil to prevent contamination and oxidation. It is then used as an acidic ingredient in salads and stuffed vegetables.<ref>Cosme, F., Pinto, T., & Vilela, A. (2018). Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in grape juices: A chemical and sensory view. ''Beverages'', ''4''(1), 22, p. 9</ref> Unripened ''husrum'' grapes sent from [[Tel Ashkelon|Ashkelon]] to [[Egypt]] are mentioned in a 12th-century document found in the [[Cairo Geniza]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Amar |first=Zohar |author-link=Zohar Amar |title=Agricultural Produce in the Land of Israel in the Middle Ages |publisher=Yad Izhak Ben Zvi |year=2000 |location=Jerusalem |pages=116 |language=he}}</ref> In Iran, a sour grape vinegar is used for making [[Shirazi salad]].

==Pomace and phytochemicals==
Winemaking from red and white grape flesh and skins produces substantial quantities of organic residues, collectively called [[pomace]] (also "marc"), which includes crushed skins, seeds, stems, and leaves generally used as [[compost]].<ref name="gomez">{{cite journal | last1=Gómez-Brandón | first1=María | last2=Lores | first2=Marta | last3=Insam | first3=Heribert | last4=Domínguez | first4=Jorge | title=Strategies for recycling and valorization of grape marc | journal=Critical Reviews in Biotechnology | volume=39 | issue=4 | date=2019-04-02 |issn=0738-8551 | doi=10.1080/07388551.2018.1555514 | pages=437–450|pmid=30939940| s2cid=93000616}}</ref> Grape pomace &ndash; some 10–30% of the total mass of grapes crushed &ndash; contains various [[phytochemical]]s, such as unfermented sugars, alcohol, [[polyphenol]]s, [[tannin]]s, [[anthocyanin]]s, and numerous other compounds, some of which are harvested and [[extract]]ed for commercial applications (a process sometimes called "valorization" of the pomace).<ref name=gomez/><ref name="Muhlack">{{cite journal |last1=Muhlack |first1=Richard A. |last2=Potumarthi |first2=Ravichandra |last3=Jeffery |first3=David W. |title=Sustainable wineries through waste valorisation: A review of grape marc utilisation for value-added products |journal=Waste Management |volume=72 |year=2018 |issn=0956-053X |doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2017.11.011 |pages=99–118 |pmid=29132780|bibcode=2018WaMan..72...99M }}</ref>

=== Skin ===
[[File:Wine grape diagram en.svg|right|thumb|Grape cross-section|upright=1.35|alt=Anatomical-style diagram of three grapes on their stalks. Two of the grapes are shown in cross-section with all their internal parts labeled.]]

[[Anthocyanin]]s tend to be the main [[Polyphenols in grape|polyphenolics]] in purple grapes, whereas [[flavan-3-ol]]s (i.e. [[catechin]]s) are the more abundant class of polyphenols in white varieties.<ref name="hozczp">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1021/jf0204102
| last1 = Cantos | first1 = E.
| last2 = Espín | first2 = J. C.
| last3 = Tomás-Barberán | first3 = F. A.
| title = Varietal differences among the polyphenol profiles of seven table grape cultivars studied by LC-DAD-MS-MS
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 50
| issue = 20
| pages = 5691–5696
| year = 2002
| pmid = 12236700
}}</ref> Total phenolic content is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.<ref name="hozczp" /> Phenolic content of grape skin varies with [[cultivar]], soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

[[Muscadine]] grapes contain a relatively high phenolic content among dark grapes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ector BJ, Magee JB, Hegwood CP, Coign MJ |title=Resveratrol Concentration in Muscadine Berries, Juice, Pomace, Purees, Seeds, and Wines |url=http://www.ajevonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/1/57 |journal=Am. J. Enol. Vitic. |year=1996 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |doi=10.5344/ajev.1996.47.1.57 |s2cid=98822789 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061119045158/http://www.ajevonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/1/57 |archive-date=2006-11-19 |access-date=2006-11-21|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Xu">{{cite journal | last1=Xu | first1=Changmou | last2=Yagiz | first2=Yavuz | last3=Zhao | first3=Lu | last4=Simonne | first4=Amarat | last5=Lu | first5=Jiang | last6=Marshall | first6=Maurice R. | title=Fruit quality, nutraceutical and antimicrobial properties of 58 muscadine grape varieties (Vitis rotundifolia Michx.) grown in United States | journal=Food Chemistry |volume=215 | year=2017 | issn=0308-8146 | doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.163 | pages=149–156|pmid=27542461}}</ref> In muscadine skins, [[ellagic acid]], [[myricetin]], [[quercetin]], [[kaempferol]], and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Pastrana-Bonilla | first1 = E.
| last2 = Akoh | first2 = C. C.
| last3 = Sellappan | first3 = S.
| last4 = Krewer | first4 = G.
| title = Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of muscadine grapes
| doi = 10.1021/jf030113c
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 51
| issue = 18
| pages = 5497–5503
| year = 2003
| pmid = 12926904
}}</ref>

The flavonols [[syringetin]], syringetin 3-O-galactoside, [[laricitrin]] and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape.<ref name=Mattivi>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Mattivi | first1 = F.
| last2 = Guzzon | first2 = R.
| last3 = Vrhovsek | first3 = U.
| last4 = Stefanini | first4 = M.
| last5 = Velasco | first5 = R.
| title = Metabolite Profiling of Grape: Flavonols and Anthocyanins
| doi = 10.1021/jf061538c
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 54
| issue = 20
| pages = 7692–7702
| year = 2006
| pmid = 17002441
}}</ref>

=== Seeds ===
{{Main|Grape seed extract|Grape seed oil}}

Muscadine grape seeds contain about twice the total polyphenol content of skins.<ref name=Xu/> [[Grape seed oil]] from crushed seeds is used in [[cosmeceutical]]s and [[skincare]] products. Grape seed oil, including [[tocopherol]]s ([[vitamin E]]) and high contents of [[phytosterol]]s and [[polyunsaturated fatty acid]]s such as [[linoleic acid]], [[oleic acid]], and [[alpha-linolenic acid]].<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Beveridge | first1 = T. H. J.
| last2 = Girard | first2 = B.
| last3 = Kopp | first3 = T.
| last4 = Drover | first4 = J. C. G.
| title = Yield and Composition of Grape Seed Oils Extracted by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide and Petroleum Ether: Varietal Effects
| doi = 10.1021/jf040295q
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 53
| issue = 5
| pages = 1799–1804
| year = 2005
| pmid = 15740076
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
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| last2 = Hough | first2 = P.
| last3 = Godward | first3 = J.
| last4 = Brereton | first4 = P.
| last5 = Lees | first5 = M.
| last6 = Guiet | first6 = S.
| last7 = Winkelmann | first7 = W.
| doi = 10.1021/jf060338y
| title = Quantitation of the Main Constituents of Some Authentic Grape-Seed Oils of Different Origin
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 54
| issue = 17
| pages = 6261–6265
| year = 2006
| pmid = 16910717
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Tangolar | first1 = S. G. K.
| last2 = Özoğul | first2 = Y. I.
| last3 = Tangolar | first3 = S.
| last4 = Torun | first4 = A.
| title = Evaluation of fatty acid profiles and mineral content of grape seed oil of some grape genotypes
| doi = 10.1080/09637480701581551
| journal = International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition
| volume = 60
| issue = 1
| pages = 32–39
| year = 2009
| pmid = 17886077
| s2cid = 29294873
}}</ref>

=== Resveratrol ===
{{Main|Resveratrol}}
Resveratrol, a [[stilbene]] compound, is found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds.<ref name="lpi">{{cite web | title = Resveratrol | publisher = Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR |date=11 June 2015 | url = http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/phytochemicals/resveratrol/ |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref> [[Muscadine]] grapes have about one hundred times higher concentration of stilbenes than pulp. Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Li | first1 = X.
| last2 = Wu | first2 = B.
| last3 = Wang | first3 = L.
| last4 = Li | first4 = S.
| title = Extractable Amounts of trans-Resveratrol in Seed and Berry Skin in Vitis Evaluated at the Germplasm Level
| doi = 10.1021/jf061722y
| journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
| volume = 54
| issue = 23
| pages = 8804–8811
| year = 2006
| pmid = 17090126
}}</ref>

=== Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs ===
{{Main|Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs}}
The consumption of grapes and raisins presents a potential health threat to dogs. Their toxicity to dogs can cause the animal to develop [[acute kidney failure]] (the sudden development of kidney failure) with [[anuria]] (a lack of urine production) and may be fatal.<ref>[http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/211106.htm Raisins/Grapes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929143344/http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm%2Fbc%2F211106.htm |date=2007-09-29}}. The Merck Veterinary Manual.</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:GrapesBuds.JPG|Flower buds
File:GrapesFlowers.JPG|Flowers
File:TenderGrapes.JPG|Immature fruit
File:Grapes Angoor.JPG|Grapes in Iran
File:Grapes.jpg|Wine grapes
File:Cyprusgrapefarm.jpg|Vineyard in the [[Troodos Mountains]]
File:Seedless grapes of Kallidaikurichi.jpg|seedless grapes
File:Grapes in the Philippines 1.jpg|Grapes in the [[Philippines|La Union, Philippines]]
File:Beschimmelde druiven.jpg|Moldy grapes.
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{portal|Food|Wine}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Annual growth cycle of grapevines]]
* [[Drakshasava]], a traditional Ayurvedic tonic made from grapes
* [[Grape syrup]]
* [[List of grape dishes]]
* [[List of grape varieties]]
* ''[[Menispermum canadense]]'', a poisonous species resembling wild grapes
* [[Propagation of grapevines]]
* [[The Fox and the Grapes]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Creasy, G. L. and L. L. Creasy (2009). ''Grapes'' (Crop Production Science in Horticulture). CABI. {{ISBN|978-1-84593-401-9}}.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Grapes}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|grape}}
* {{commons category-inline|Grapes}}

{{Grape varieties}}
{{Viticulture}}
{{Fruit juice}}
{{Tannin source}}
{{Bioenergy}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Grape| ]]
[[Category:Berries]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Europe]]
[[Category:Edible fruits]]
[[Category:Plants in the Bible]]
[[Category:Flora of Palestine (region)]]
[[Category:Flora of Israel]]