Editing Gravestone

{{Short description|Stele or marker, usually stone, placed over a grave}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Tombstone|Headstone|the city in Arizona|Tombstone, Arizona|other uses|Tombstone (disambiguation)|and|Headstone (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}

[[File:Gravestone of Andrew Drake.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Captain Andrew Drake (1684–1743) sandstone gravestone from the [[Stelton Baptist Church, Edison|Stelton Baptist Church]] in [[Edison, New Jersey]]]]
A '''gravestone''' or '''tombstone''' is a marker, usually [[stone]], that is placed over a [[grave]]. A marker set at the head of the grave may be called a '''headstone'''. An especially old or elaborate stone slab may be called a '''funeral stele''', '''stela''', or '''slab'''. The use of such markers is traditional for [[Chinese burial|Chinese]], [[Jewish burial|Jewish]], [[Christian burial|Christian]], and [[Islamic burial|Islamic]] [[burial]]s, as well as other traditions. In East Asia, the tomb's [[spirit tablet]] is the focus for [[Chinese ancestral veneration|ancestral veneration]] and may be removable for greater protection between rituals. Ancient grave markers typically incorporated [[funerary art]], especially details in stone [[relief]]. With greater literacy, more markers began to include inscriptions of the deceased's name, date of birth, and date of death, often along with a personal message or [[prayer]]. The presence of a frame for photographs of the deceased is also increasingly common.

== Use ==
The [[stele]] (plural: [[stelae]]), as it is called in an archaeological context, is one of the oldest forms of [[funerary art]]. Originally, a tombstone was the stone lid of a stone [[coffin]], or the coffin itself, and a gravestone was the [[stone slab]] (or [[ledger stone]]) that was laid flat over a [[grave]]. Now, all three terms ("stele", "tombstone" or "gravestone") are also used for markers set (usually upright) at the head of the grave. Some graves in the 18th century also contained [[footstone]]s to demarcate the foot end of the grave. This sometimes developed into full kerb sets that marked the whole perimeter of the grave. Footstones were rarely annotated with more than the deceased's initials and year of death, and sometimes a memorial mason and plot reference number. Many [[cemeteries]] and [[churchyard]]s have removed those extra stones to ease grass cutting by machine mower. In some UK cemeteries, the principal, and indeed only, marker is placed at the foot of the grave.

Owing to soil movement and [[downhill creep]] on gentle slopes, older headstones and footstones can often be found tilted at an angle. Over time, this movement can result in the stones being sited several metres away from their original location.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

Graves and any related memorials are a focus for [[mourning]] and remembrance. The names of relatives are often added to a gravestone over the years, so that one marker may chronicle the passing of an entire family spread over decades. Since gravestones and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were still living, as a testament to their wealth and status. In a [[Christianity|Christian context]], the very wealthy often erected elaborate [[church monument|memorials]] within [[Church (building)|churches]] rather than having simply external gravestones. [[Crematorium|Crematoria]] frequently offer similar alternatives to families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for [[Memorial|remembrance]]. Carved or cast [[commemorative plaque]]s inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose.

== Materials ==
[[File:P. Ruotsalainen grave 1.jpg|thumb|upright|A tombstone at the grave of [[Paavo Ruotsalainen]] (1777–1852) in [[Nilsiä]], [[Kuopio]], Finland]]
A [[cemetery]] may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting. Headstones of [[granite]], [[marble]] and other kinds of [[stone]] are usually created, installed, and repaired by [[monumental masons]]. Cemeteries require regular inspection and maintenance, as stones may settle, topple and, on rare occasions, fall and injure people;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/services/localgovernment/cemletter.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611091332/http://www.hse.gov.uk/services/localgovernment/cemletter.htm|url-status=dead|title=Memorial safety|archivedate=11 June 2007}}</ref> or graves may simply become overgrown and their markers lost or [[vandalised]].

Restoration is a specialized job for a monumental mason. Even overgrowth removal requires care to avoid damaging the carving. For example, ivy should only be cut at the base roots and left to naturally die off, never pulled off forcefully.

Many [[building materials|materials]] have been used as markers.

===Stone===
* '''Fieldstones'''. In many cultures markers for graves other than enclosed areas, such as planted with characteristic plants particularly in northern Europe the [[yew]], were natural [[fieldstone]]s, some [[Unmarked grave|unmarked]] and others decorated or incised using a metal [[bradawl|awl]]. Typical motifs for the carving included a symbol and the deceased's name and age.
* '''Granite'''. [[Granite]] is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand. Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and [[sandblasting]] over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers and emblems exposed on the stone, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
* '''Marble''' and '''limestone'''. Both [[limestone]] and [[marble]] take carving well. Marble is a recrystallised form of limestone. The mild acid in rainwater can slowly dissolve marble and limestone over time, which can make inscriptions unreadable. [[Portland stone]] was a type of limestone commonly used in England{{snd}}after weathering, fossiliferous deposits tend to appear on the surface. [[Marble]] became popular from the early 19th century, though its extra cost limited its appeal.
* '''Sandstone'''. [[Sandstone]] is durable, yet soft enough to carve easily. Some sandstone markers are so well preserved that individual chisel marks are discernible, while others have [[delamination|delaminated]] and crumbled to dust. Delamination occurs when moisture gets between the layers of the sandstone. As it freezes and expands the layers flake off. In the 17th century, sandstone replaced field stones in [[Colonial America]]. [[Yorkstone]] was a common sandstone material used in England.
* '''Slate'''. [[Slate]] can have a pleasing texture but is slightly porous and prone to delamination. Slate was commonly used by colonial New England carvers, especially in Boston where elaborate slate markers were shipped down the Atlantic coast as far south as Charleston and Savanah. It takes lettering well, often highlighted with white paint or [[gilding]]. 
* '''Schist'''. [[Schist]] Was a common material for grave making in the American Colonies during the 17th and 18th Century. While harder to Carve than Sandstone or Slate, lettering and symbols usually had to be carved deeper into the stone and therefore held up well over long periods of time.  While not as durable as most slate,  most have held up well against the elements.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="150px">
File:Maymūnah Stone, Gozo Museum of Archaeology, Victoria, Gozo 001.jpg|The [[Maymūnah Stone]], a tombstone with an Arabic inscription dated 1174 on a reused Roman marble block. Now exhibited at the [[Gozo Museum of Archaeology]] in [[Malta]].<ref>[[Giovanni Bonello|Bonello, Giovanni]] (2000). [https://books.google.com/books?id=-4doAAAAMAAJ&q=majmuna+malta "Histories of Malta, Volume 1"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031161316/https://books.google.com/books?id=-4doAAAAMAAJ&q=majmuna+malta |date=31 October 2022 }}. ''Fondazzjoni Patrimonju Malti''. {{ISBN|978-9993210016}}. pp. 9–11.</ref>
File:008-Josiah Leavitt (d. Dec 19th, 1717) grave, Hingham Center Cemetery, Hingham, Plymouth Co., MA.jpg|Slate gravestone of [[Josiah Leavitt]] (1679–1717), Hingham Center Cemetery, [[Hingham, Massachusetts|Hingham]], Plymouth County, Massachusetts
File:Jewish cemetery Otwock Karczew Anielin IMGP6721.jpg|Slate vestige of a Jewish gravestone depicting a [[tzedakah box]]. [[Jewish cemetery]] in [[Otwock]] (Karczew-Anielin), Poland.
File:GravestoneWormshill.JPG|Gravestone showing death date of 1639, [[Wormshill]], Kent, England
File:MountScopusHeadstone2.JPG|''HIS LAST MESSAGE: NO MORE WARS FOR ME''{{snd}}A headstone in the [[Jerusalem]] British [[World War I]] Cemetery on [[Mount Scopus]]
File:Shebbear Devon gravestone.jpg|Elaborately carved grave slab at [[Shebbear]] (Devon, England) showing a skull sprouting flowering shoots, as a symbol of resurrection
File:Victorian headstones, England.JPG|Tottering Victorian headstones<br>in [[Woolaton]], in [[Nottingham]], England
File:JosiahManningGravestoneMansfieldCT.jpg|[[Schist]] tombstone dated 1795, carved by Josiah Manning in Mansfield CT
</gallery>

===Metal, wood and plants===
[[File:Grave Marker in the Form of a Copper, late 19th century, 08.491.8895.jpg|thumbnail|upright|''Grave Marker'', Gwa'sala Kwakwaka'wakw (Native American), late 19th century, wood, pigment, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
[[File:Maggie mcleod syllabics.JPG|left|thumb|upright|Wood grave marker using [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics|Canadian Syllabics]]]]
[[File:Ekshärad kyrka garvkors.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Iron cross on a grave in [[Ekshärad]] cemetery]]
[[File:Grave markers in Heidal Church, Norway.jpg|left|thumb|Wooden grave markers stored at Heidal Church, Norway]]
* '''Iron'''. [[Iron]] grave markers and decorations were popular during the [[Victorian era]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and elsewhere, often being produced by specialist [[foundries]] or the local [[blacksmith]]. [[Cast iron]] headstones have lasted for generations while [[wrought iron]]work often only survives in a rusted or eroded state. In eastern [[Värmland]], Sweden, iron crosses instead of stones have been popular since the 18th century.
* '''White bronze'''. Actually sand cast [[zinc]], but called white bronze for marketing purposes. Almost all, if not all, zinc grave markers were made by the Monumental Bronze Company of Bridgeport, CT, between 1874 and 1914. The company set up subsidiaries in Detroit, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Des Moines; a Chicago subsidiary was named the American Bronze Company, while the St. Thomas White Bronze Monument Company was set up in Ontario, Canada.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jarvis|first1=Dale Gilbert|last2=Drover|first2=Kelly|date=2018|title=A Survey of White Bronze Mortuary Monuments in St. Johns's|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1RJLZRMgsuLy_p3G6farp9I49Gcw5Ih2V/view|journal=The Newfoundland Ancestor|volume=34|issue=1|pages=27–38|access-date=28 June 2020|archive-date=1 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701175332/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1RJLZRMgsuLy_p3G6farp9I49Gcw5Ih2V/view|url-status=live}}</ref> They are in cemeteries of the period all across the U.S. and Canada. They were sold as more durable than marble, about 1/3 less expensive and progressive.
* '''Wood'''. This was a popular material during the [[Georgian era|Georgian]] and [[Victorian era]], and almost certainly before, in [[Great Britain]] and elsewhere. Some could be very ornate, although few survive beyond 50–100 years due to natural decomposition or termites and other wood boring insects.  In [[Hungary]], the ''kopjafa'' is a traditional carved wooden grave marker.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cunningham |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pxGByL8V24EC&dq=%22kopjafa%22&pg=PA213 |title=Hungarian Cinema: From Coffee House to Multiplex |date=2004 |publisher=Wallflower Press |isbn=978-1-903364-79-6 |pages=213 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kunt |first=Ernő |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJTfAAAAMAAJ |title=Folk Art in Hungarian Cemeteries |date=1983 |publisher=Corvina Kiadó |isbn=978-963-13-1359-8 |pages=52 |language=en}}</ref>
* '''Planting'''. Trees or shrubs, particularly roses, may be planted, especially to mark the location of ashes. This may be accompanied by a small inscribed metal or wooden marker.

== Inscriptions ==
Markers sometimes bear [[monumental inscription|inscriptions]]. The information on the headstone generally includes the name of the deceased and their date of birth and death. Such information can be useful to [[genealogists]] and [[local history|local historians]]. Larger cemeteries may require a discreet reference code as well to help accurately fix the location for maintenance. The cemetery owner, church, or, as in the [[UK]], national guidelines might encourage the use of 'tasteful' and accurate wording in inscriptions. The placement of inscriptions is traditionally placed on the forward-facing side of the memorial but can also be seen in some cases on the reverse and around the edges of the stone itself. Some families request that an inscription be made on the portion of the memorial that will be underground.<ref>{{cite web |author=Fergus Wessell |url=http://www.stoneletters.com/gallery/photo/headstone-epitaph/ |title=Headstone Gallery |access-date=2013-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707033126/http://www.stoneletters.com/gallery/photo/headstone-epitaph |archive-date=7 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In addition, some gravestones also bear [[epitaph]]s in praise of the deceased or quotations from religious texts, such as "''[[requiescat in pace]]''". In a few instances the inscription is in the form of a plea, admonishment, testament of faith, claim to fame or even a curse{{snd}}[[William Shakespeare]]'s inscription famously declares

{{poemquote|Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosèd here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be he that moves my bones.}}

Or a warning about [[Death|mortality]], such as this [[Persian Empire|Persian]] poetry carved on an ancient tombstone in the [[Tajiki]] capital of [[Dushanbe]].<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/fisk/article2941871.ece Robert Fisk: "An urge to smash history into tiny pieces"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215021234/http://news.independent.co.uk/fisk/article2941871.ece |date=15 December 2007 }} [[The Independent]], 8 September 2007</ref>

[[File:Moses roberts syllabics.JPG|thumb|Gravestone in Canada with indigenous language inscription in [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]]]
{{poemquote|I heard that mighty Jamshed the King
Carved on a stone near a spring of water these words:
: "Many{{snd}}like us{{snd}}sat here by this spring
: And left this life in the blink of an eye.
: We captured the whole world through our courage and strength,
: Yet could take nothing with us to our grave."}}

Or a simpler warning of inevitability of death:
[[File:Jewish cemetery Sobědruhy 06.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Hebrew]] inscriptions on gravestones in [[Sobědruhy]], Czech Republic]]

{{poemquote|Remember me as you pass by,
As you are now, so once was I,
As I am now, so you will be,
Prepare for death and follow me.}}

[[File:Carreg Fedd Ddwyieithog - Bilingual Gravestone - geograph.org.uk - 576196.jpg|thumb|left|Multilingual gravestone in [[Llangybi, Gwynedd]], Wales: Welsh, English, French]]
[[File:A Gurkha soldier's tombstone at Kranji War Cemetery, Singapore.jpg|thumb|left|Gurkha soldier's stone in Singapore]]
[[File:Headstone, Gornja Gorevnica, Serbia.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Serbian women's stone in [[Gornja Gorevnica]], [[Serbia]]]]
[[File:English-German tombstone in Texas.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Information in English, Bible verse in German (Dallas, TX)]]
Headstone engravers faced their own "[[year 2000 problem]]" when still-living people, as many as 500,000 in the United States alone, pre-purchased headstones with pre-carved death years beginning with 19–.<ref name=reason>{{cite journal|last1=Lynch|first1=Michael W.|title=Grave Problem|journal=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]|date=July 1999|url=http://reason.com/archives/1999/07/01/grave-problem|access-date=7 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811124405/http://reason.com/archives/1999/07/01/grave-problem|archive-date=11 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Bas-relief]] carvings of a religious nature or of a profile of the deceased can be seen on some headstones, especially up to the 19th century. Since the invention of photography, a gravestone might include a framed [[photograph]] or [[cameo (carving)|cameo]] of the deceased; photographic images or artwork (showing the loved one, or some other image relevant to their life, interests or achievements) are sometimes now [[engraved]] onto smooth stone surfaces.

Some headstones use lettering made of white metal fixed into the stone, which is easy to read but can be damaged by ivy or frost. Deep carvings on a hard-wearing stone may weather many centuries exposed in graveyards and still remain legible. Those fixed on the inside of [[Church (building)|churches]], on the [[Commemorative plaque|walls]], or on the [[ledger stone|floor]] (often as near the [[altar]] as possible) may last much longer: such memorials were often embellished with a [[monumental brass]]. Irish geologist Patrick Wyse Jackson mused on gravestone legibility in 1993 with regards to the different types of stone available:
{{blockquote|The use of [[slate]] for this plaque was a good choice as it weathers very slowly and the quality of the carved lettering remains good for many years. Many (Irish) gravestones from the mid 1700s and 1800s are made of slate. This is fortunate for those interested in tracing [[genealogies]], as many of the inscriptions can still be read after two hundred years. This contrasts sharply with lettering cut into granite, which is illegible after about a hundred years... For those of you who seek a degree of [[immortality]], a slate headstone, or as a second choice, one carved from an Irish limestone, should ensure that your name will remain on view for several centuries to come!{{sfn|Wyse Jackson|1993|page=53}}}}

The choice of language and/or script on gravestones has been studied by [[sociolinguists]] as indicators of language choices and language loyalty. For example, by studying cemeteries used by immigrant communities,<ref>Doris Francis, Georgina Neophytu, Leonie Kellaher. 2005. ''The Secret Cemetery''. Oxford: Berg.</ref> some languages were found to be carved "long after the language ceased to be spoken" in the communities.<ref>p. 42. Kara VanDam. 2009. Dutch–American language shift: evidence from the grave. ''LACUS Forum XXXIV'' 33–42.</ref> In other cases, a language used in the inscription may indicate a religious affiliation.

== Form and decoration ==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2011}}
[[File:DeathsHeadTombstoneBoston.jpg|thumb|Typical Death's Head design, often used on tombstones in [[Colonial America]] (Boston MA)]]
[[File:Husaby Church 2013 horses on 11th century gravestone.jpg|thumb|An [[Horse|equestrian]] motif on an 11th-century [[Sweden|Swedish]] gravestone]]
[[File:Islamic cemetery in Sarajevo.jpg|thumb|upright|Islamic cemetery in [[Sarajevo]], with columnar headstones]]

Gravestones may be simple upright slabs with semi-circular, rounded, gabled, pointed-arched, pedimental, square or other shaped tops. During the 18th century, they were often decorated with ''[[memento mori]]'' (symbolic reminders of [[death]]) such as [[Human skull|skulls]] or winged skulls, winged cherub heads, heavenly crowns, or the picks and shovels of the [[gravedigger]]. Somewhat unusual were more elaborate [[Allegorical sculpture|allegorical figures]], such as Old [[Father Time]], or [[emblem]]s of [[trade]] or [[social status|status]], or even some event from the life of the deceased (particularly how they died). Large tomb chests, false [[sarcophagi]] as the actual remains were in the earth below, or smaller coped chests were commonly used by the [[gentry]] as a means of commemorating a number of members of the same family. In the 19th century, headstone styles became very diverse, ranging from plain to highly decorated, and often using crosses on a base or other shapes differing from the traditional slab. By this time popular designs were shifting from symbols of death like Winged heads and Skulls to Urns and Willow trees. Marble also became overwhelmingly popular as a grave material during the 1800s in the United States.  More elaborately carved markers, such as [[cross]]es or [[angels]] also became popular during this time. Simple curb surrounds, sometimes filled with glass chippings, were popular during the mid-20th century.

Islamic headstones are traditionally more a rectangular upright shaft, often topped with a carved topknot symbolic of a [[turban]]; but in Western countries more local styles are often used.

Some form of simple decoration may be employed.<ref>Snider, Tui. ''Understanding cemetery symbols: a field guide for historic graveyards.'' Castle Azle Press, 2017.</ref> Special emblems on tombstones indicate several familiar themes in many faiths. Some examples are:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* '''[[Anchor]]''': Steadfast hope
* '''[[Angel of grief]]''': Sorrow
* '''[[Arch]]''': Rejoined with partner in [[Heaven]]
* '''[[Bird]]s''': The [[soul]]
* '''[[Book]]''': Faith, wisdom
* '''[[Cherub]]''': Divine [[wisdom]] or [[justice]]
* '''[[Column]]''': Noble life
* '''Broken [[column]]''': Early [[death]]
* '''[[Conch shell]]''': [[Wisdom]]
* '''[[Cross]], [[anchor]] and [[Bible]]''': Trials, victory and reward
* '''[[Crown]]''': Reward and glory
* '''[[Dolphin]]''': Salvation, bearer of souls to Heaven
* '''[[Dove]]''': Purity, [[love]] and [[Holy Spirit]]
* '''[[Evergreen]]''': Eternal life
* '''[[Garland]]''': Victory over death
* '''[[Gourd]]s''': Deliverance from grief
* '''[[Hands]]''': A relation or partnership (see Reference 3)
* '''[[Heart symbol|Heart]]''': [[wikt:devotion|Devotion]]
* '''[[Horseshoe]]''': Protection against [[evil]]
* '''[[Hourglass]]''': Time and its swift flight
* '''[[Christogram|IHS]]''': Stylized version of [[iota]]-[[eta]]-[[sigma]], a Greek abbreviation of "''Iesus Hominum Salvator''" ("Jesus, savior of mankind"); alternatively treated as an initialism for "''in Hoc Signo (Vinces)''": "In this sign you shall conquer." Commonly indicates [[Roman Catholic]] faith, the latter especially [[Society of Jesus]].
* '''[[Ivy]]''': Faithfulness, memory, and undying friendship
* '''[[domestic sheep|Lamb]]''': [[Innocence]], young age
* '''[[Oil lamp|Lamp]]''': [[Immortality]]
* '''[[Bay laurel|Laurel]]''': Victory, fame
* '''[[Lily]]''': Purity and [[resurrection]]
* '''[[Lion]]''': Strength, [[resurrection]]
* '''[[Mermaid]]''': Dualism of [[Christ]]{{snd}}fully [[God]], fully [[man]]
* '''[[Oak]]''': Strength
* '''[[Olive branch]]''': Forgiveness, and peace
* '''[[arecaceae|Palm]]s''': [[Martyr]]dom, or victory over death
* '''[[Peacock]]''': Eternal life
* '''[[Pillow]]''': a deathbed, eternal sleep
* '''[[Poppy]]''': Eternal sleep
* '''[[Rooster]]''': Awakening, courage and vigilance
* '''[[seashell|Shell]]''': [[Childbirth|Birth]] and [[resurrection]]
* '''[[Skeleton]]''': Life's brevity
* '''[[Snake]] in a circle''': Everlasting life in Heaven
* '''[[Square and Compasses]]''': [[Freemasonry]]
* '''[[Star of David]]''': [[Judaism]]
* '''[[Swallow]]''': [[Motherhood]]
* '''Broken [[sword]]''': Life cut short
* '''[[Sword#Crossed swords symbol|Crossed swords]]''': Life lost in battle
* '''[[Torch]]''': Eternal life if upturned, death if extinguished
* '''[[Tree trunk]]''': The beauty of life
* '''[[Triangle]]''': Truth, [[egalitarianism|equality]], or the [[trinity]]
* '''[[Tzedakah]] box (pushke)''': Righteousness, for it is written "...to do righteousness and justice" (Gen 18:19) and "the doing of righteousness and justice is preferable to the Lord than sacrificial offering" (Proverbs 21:3).
* '''Shattered [[urn]]''': Old age, mourning if draped
* '''[[Salix babylonica|Weeping willow]]''': [[Mourning]], grief
{{div col end}}

Greek letters might also be used:

* '''<math>\alpha \omega</math>''' ([[alpha]] and [[omega]]): The beginning and the end
* '''<math>\chi \rho</math>''' ([[Chi (letter)|chi]] [[rho]]): The first letters spelling the name of Christ

== Safety ==
Over time a headstone may settle or its fixings weaken. After several instances where unstable stones have fallen in dangerous circumstances, some burial authorities "topple test" headstones by firm pressure to check for stability. They may then tape them off or flatten them.

[[File:September sun in a cemetery. The fallen bough of a tree rests on top of a gravestone in Southern Cemetery, Manchester 02.jpg|thumb|A gravestone is supported after being damaged by the bough of a tree in [[Southern Cemetery, Manchester]]]]
This procedure has proved controversial in the UK, where an authority's [[duty of care]] to protect visitors is complicated because it often does not have any ownership rights over the dangerous marker. Authorities that have knocked over stones during testing or have unilaterally lifted and laid flat any potentially hazardous stones have been criticised, after grieving relatives have discovered that their relative's marker has been moved.<ref>[https://www.cemeteryfriends.com/articles/safety.php National Federation of Cemetery Friends] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925102034/https://www.cemeteryfriends.com/articles/safety.php |date=25 September 2019 }} Safety in cemeteries guidance</ref> Since 2007 [[consistory court]] and local authority guidance now restricts the force used in a topple test and requires an authority to consult relatives before moving a stone. In addition, before laying a stone flat, it must be recorded for posterity.<ref>[http://www.ecclawsoc.org.uk/cases/case47.shtml Ecclesiastical Case Reports] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012150458/http://www.ecclawsoc.org.uk/cases/case47.shtml |date=12 October 2008 }} Re Keynsham Cemetery Gravestones</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lgo.org.uk/pdf/LGO-612-Special-Report-final.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907053910/http://www.lgo.org.uk/pdf/LGO-612-Special-Report-final.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Advice and guidance from The Local Government Ombudsmen|archivedate=7 September 2008}}</ref>

==Gravestone cleaning==
Gravestone cleaning can preserve gravestones and increase their lifespans. A gravestone can be cleaned to remove vandalism and graffiti, biological growth such as algae or [[lichen]], and other minerals, soiling, or staining.

In the United States, the [[National Park Service]] has published guidelines for gravestone cleaning—generally recommending careful and deliberate work.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleaning Grave Markers (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/cemetery-preservation-course-cleaning-grave-markers.htm#:~:text=Even%20with%20the%20most%20careful,harsh%20cleaners%2C%20such%20as%20bleach |website=www.nps.gov |access-date=9 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref> An organization that advocates for and undertakes cemetery restorations recommends seeking permission to clean the grave marker from a "descendant, the [[Sexton (office)|sexton]], cemetery superintendent or the town, in that order."<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleaning |url=https://cemeteryconservatorsunitedstandards.org/cleaning/ |website=Cemetery Conservators for United Standards |access-date=9 July 2024}}</ref>

== Image gallery ==
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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:BuelowHeadstoneSep2003.jpg|Typical late-20th-century headstone, [[Dubuque, Iowa]]
File:Gravestonesherrillia.jpg|19th-century marble headstone, [[Saints Peter and Paul Catholic Church (Sherrill, Iowa)]]
File:HNB-tombstone.jpg|Grave marker for Horatio Nelson Ball and father, Joseph Ball Jr., Grandville Cemetery, MI, US
File:AnimalGraveTattonPark.jpg|Headstone for a dog, [[Tatton Park]], [[Cheshire]], [[England]]
File:Phebe%26TimothyPeckGravestones.jpg|Winged skull & winged soul effigies, Morristown, NJ
File:Grabstein Friedhofspark Freireligioese Gemeinde Berlin Prenzlauer Berg.jpg|Unconventional tombstone in the Cemetery Park of the "Freireligiöse Gemeinde" in [[Berlin]], [[Prenzlauer Berg]]. Tree stump headstones in U.S. cemeteries are often associated with fraternal organization [[Woodmen of the World]].
File:SculptureGraveyardBerlinSchoeneberg1.jpg|''Der Schlaf'' (The Sleep), 1907, sculpture by {{Interlanguage link|Hermann Hosaeus|de}} at the {{Interlanguage link|I. Städtischer Friedhof Eisackstraße|de}}
File:Free Mason Stone.JPG|A late-19th-century headstone adorned with the [[Masonic]] [[square and compass]]
File:Radimlja, Nekropola2.JPG|[[Stećak]] tombstones in [[Bosnia]], burial practice of all religious communities until mid to late 16th century, probably spread through [[Vlachs in medieval Bosnia|Vlach]] funerary practice
File:Uchida Hyakken Grave.JPG|The grave of [[Uchida Hyakken]] in [[Okayama]], [[Japan]]. The headstone is columnar, which is a particularly common configuration for headstones in Japan.
File:Tombstone topped with orb symbol.jpg|Tombstone topped with orb symbolizing a celestial body and the reward of resurrection, churchyard of [[St. Peter's Church in the Great Valley]], [[East Whiteland Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania|Malvern]], [[Chester County, Pennsylvania|Chester County]], [[Pennsylvania]]
File:Six Pack Kinney.png|Personalized gravestone inscription, [[Berwick, PA]]
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Gravestone rubbing]]
* [[Khachkar]]
* [[Mausoleum]]
* [[Megalith]]
* [[Murder stone]]
* [[Sarcophagus]]
* [[Scottish gravestones]]
* [[The Devil's Chair (urban legend)]]
* [[Tombstone tourist]]
* [[Viewlogy]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Wyse Jackson |first=Patrick |title= The Building Stones of Dublin: A Walking Guide |url= https://archive.org/details/buildingstonesof0000wyse/mode/2up|year=1993 |publisher= Town House and Country House |location=Donnybrook, Dublin |isbn=0-946172-32-3}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Gravestones}}
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12978 In Search Of Gravestones Old And Curious] by W.T. Vincent, 1896, from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://azeri.org/Azeri/az_latin/latin_articles/latin_text/latin_131/eng_131/131_sofi_hamid.html Azeri.org], Sofi Hamid Cemetery {{in lang|az}}
* [http://www.worldburialindex.com/of_interest.php World Burial Index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608110226/http://www.worldburialindex.com/of_interest.php |date=8 June 2010 }} Photographs of memorial inscriptions plus free surname search
* [http://www.gravematter.com A Very Grave Matter] Old New England gravestones
* [http://www.historicheadstones.com Historic Headstones Online] Project to transcribe content from historic headstones
* [http://www.pagstones.com Pennsylvania German tombstones] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211032835/http://www.pagstones.com/ |date=11 February 2021 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927130701/http://www.ettc.net/njarts/details.cfm?ID=956 Stockton University] includes gravestone imagery in New Jersey
* [http://www.memorials.com/Headstones-Cleaning-and-Preservations-of-Tombstones-information.php How to clean a Grave marker by Ralf Heckenbach]
* [http://quarriesandbeyond.org/ Stone Quarries and Beyond]
* [http://quarriesandbeyond.org/cemeteries_and_monumental_art/quarry_to_cemetery_stone/pdf/memorializing_the_civil_war_dead-bruce_s_elliott_2011.pdf "Memorializing the Civil War Dead:  Modernity and Corruption under the Grant Administration"], by Bruce S. Elliott, in ''Markers XXVI'', Association for Gravestone Studies, 2011, pp.&nbsp;15–55.  (Reprinted with permission of the [http://www.gravestonestudies.org/  "Association for Gravestone Studies"]. (Details the beginning of the mass production of cemetery stones and the increased use of the sand blast process.)
* [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=BF01AFFC-1C31-4A23-89F3-3CC48275A8D7 Cleaning Grave Markers] (a video created by the United States National Park Service on how to clean gravestones and other monuments)

{{Stonemasonry}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Burial monuments and structures]]
[[Category:Monumental masons]]
[[Category:Stone monuments and memorials]]
[[Category:Stones]]