Editing Green manure

{{short description|Organic material left on an agricultural field to be used as a mulch or soil amendment}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox
| title            = Green manure plants 
| image            = [[File:Green manure crop - geograph.org.uk - 494809.jpg|200px|alt=image of different plants commonly used for green manure crops]]
| caption          = A field of [[clover]], a green manure crop
}}

In [[agriculture]], a '''green manure''' is a crop specifically cultivated to be incorporated into the soil while still green.<ref name="Pieters-1927">{{Cite book|last=Pieters|first=Adrian J|title=Green Manuring|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, NY|year=1927|url=http://sustainablefarmer.net/pdflibrary/library-greenmanuring.pdf|access-date=2021-09-24|archive-date=2012-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202134500/http://sustainablefarmer.net/pdflibrary/library-greenmanuring.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>  Typically, the green manure's [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] is incorporated with a plow or disk, as is often done with (brown) [[manure]]. The primary goal is to add [[Soil organic matter|organic matter]] to the soil for its benefits. Green manuring is often used with [[legume]] crops to add nitrogen to the soil for following crops, especially in [[organic farming]], but is also used in [[Intensive farming|conventional farming]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Larkin|first1=Robert P.|last2=Honeycutt|first2=C. Wayne|last3=Olanya|first3=O. Modesto|date=2011-05-01|title=Management of Verticillium Wilt of Potato with Disease-Suppressive Green Manures and as Affected by Previous Cropping History|journal=Plant Disease|volume=95|issue=5|pages=568–576|doi=10.1094/PDIS-09-10-0670|pmid=30731947 |issn=0191-2917|doi-access=}}</ref>

== Method of application ==
Farmers apply green manure by blending available plant discards into the soil.<ref name="Fageria-2007">{{Cite journal |last=Fageria |first=N. K. |date=2007-05-07 |title=Green Manuring in Crop Production |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01904160701289529 |journal=Journal of Plant Nutrition |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=691–719 |doi=10.1080/01904160701289529 |bibcode=2007JPlaN..30..691F |s2cid=93807349 |issn=0190-4167|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Farmers begin the process of green manuring by growing legumes or collecting tree/shrub clippings.   Harvesters gather the green manure crops and mix the plant material into the soil. The un-decomposed plants prepare the ground for cash crops by slowly releasing nutrients like nitrogen into the soil.<ref name="Fageria-2007" />  

Farmers may decide to add the green manure into the soil before or after cash crop planting.  This variety in planting schedules can be seen in rice farming.<ref name="Becker-1995">{{Cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=M. |last2=Ladha |first2=J. K. |last3=Ali |first3=M. |date=1995-07-01 |title=Green manure technology: Potential, usage, and limitations. A case study for lowland rice |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00032246 |journal=Plant and Soil |language=en |volume=174 |issue=1 |pages=181–194 |doi=10.1007/BF00032246 |bibcode=1995PlSoi.174..181B |s2cid=28306230 |issn=1573-5036|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Functions==
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2021}}
{{cleanup section|reason=should be split between general cover crop functions and specific improvements due to burying biomass into soil |date=February 2022}}
[[File:Nitrogen fixation Fabaceae en.svg|thumb|Nitrogen Fixation by Green Manure Legumes ]]
Green manures usually perform multiple functions that include soil improvement and soil protection:

[[Leguminous]] green manures such as [[clover]] and [[vetch]] contain [[Nitrogen fixation|nitrogen-fixing]] [[symbiotic]] [[bacteria]] in [[root nodules]] that fix atmospheric nitrogen in a form that plants can use. This performs the vital function of [[Fertilizer|fertilization]].

Depending on the species of [[cover crop]] grown, the amount of nitrogen released into the soil lies between 40 and 200 pounds per acre. With green manure use, the amount of nitrogen that is available to the succeeding crop is usually in the range of 40-60% of the total amount of nitrogen that is contained within the green manure crop.<ref name="Sullivan" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+Average biomass and nitrogen yields of several legumes<ref name="Pieters-1927" />
! Crop
! Biomass (tons acre<sup>−1</sup>)
! N (lbs acre<sup>−1</sup>)
|-
| [[Sweet clover]]
| 1.75
| 120
|-
| [[Trifolium alexandrinum|Berseem clover]]
| 1.10
| 70
|-
| [[Crimson clover]]
| 1.40
| 100
|-
| [[Hairy vetch]]
| 1.75
| 110
|}

Green manure acts mainly as [[Soil acidification|soil-acidifying]] matter to decrease the alkalinity/pH of [[alkali soils]] by generating [[humic acid]] and [[acetic acid]].

Incorporation of [[cover crops]] into the soil allows the [[Nutrient management|nutrients]] held within the green manure to be released and made available to the succeeding crops. This results immediately from an increase in abundance of soil microorganisms from the degradation of plant material that aid in the decomposition of this fresh material.  This additional decomposition also allows for the re-incorporation of nutrients that are found in the soil in a particular form such as [[nitrogen]] (N), [[potassium]] (K), [[phosphorus]] (P), [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S).

Microbial activity from incorporation of cover crops into the soil leads to the formation of [[mycelium]] and viscous materials which benefit the health of the soil by increasing its [[soil structure]] (i.e. by aggregation).<ref name="Sullivan" /> The increased percentage of organic matter ([[biomass]]) improves [[water]] infiltration and retention, aeration, and other soil characteristics. The soil is more easily turned or tilled than non-aggregated soil. Further aeration of the soil results from the ability of the root systems of many green manure crops to efficiently penetrate compact soils. The amount of [[humus]] found in the soil also increases with higher rates of decomposition, which is beneficial for the growth of the crop succeeding the green manure crop. Non-leguminous crops are primarily used to increase biomass.

The [[root]] systems of some varieties of green manure grow deep in the soil and bring up nutrient resources unavailable to shallower-rooted crops.

Common [[Cover crop#Weed management|cover crop functions of weed suppression]]. Non-leguminous crops are primarily used (e.g. [[buckwheat]]).<ref name="Lawrence 1980 145"/> The deep rooting properties of many green manure crops make them efficient at suppressing [[weed]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Vasilakoglou, Ioannis |author2=Dhima, Kico |author3=Anastassopoulos, Elias |author4=Lithourgidis, Anastasios |author5=Gougoulias, Nikolaos |author6=Chouliaras, Nikolaos |date=24 February 2011 |title=Oregano green manure for weed suppression in sustainable cotton and corn fields |journal=Weed Biology and Management |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=38–48 |doi=10.1111/j.1445-6664.2011.00403.x}}</ref>

Some green manure crops, when allowed to [[flower]], provide [[Forage (honeybee)|forage]] for pollinating [[insect]]s. Green manure crops also often provide habitat for predatory beneficial insects, which allow for a reduction in the application of insecticides where cover crops are planted.

Some green manure crops (e.g. [[winter wheat]] and [[winter rye]]) can also be used for grazing.<ref name="Lawrence 1980 145"/>

[[Erosion control]] is often also taken into account when selecting which green manure cover crop to plant.

Some [[Cover crop#Pest management|green crops reduce plant insect pests]] and [[Cover crop#Disease management|diseases]]. [[Verticillium wilt]] is especially reduced in potato plants.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Larkin, Robert P. |author2=Honeycutt, Wayne |author3=Olanya Modesto, O. |date=May 2011 |title= Management of Verticillium Wilt of Potato with Disease-Suppressive Green Manures and as Affected by Previous Cropping History |journal=Plant Dis. |volume=95 |number=5 |pages=568–576 |issn=0191-2917 |eissn= 1943-7692 |doi=10.1094/PDIS-09-10-0670|pmid=30731947 }}</ref>

Incorporation of green manures into a farming system can drastically reduce the need for additional products such as supplemental fertilizers and pesticides.

Limitations to consider in the use of green manure are time, energy, and resources (monetary and natural) required to successfully grow and utilize these cover crops. Consequently, it is important to choose green manure crops based on the growing region and annual precipitation amounts to ensure efficient growth and use of the cover crop(s).

==Nutrient release==
Green manure is broken down into plant nutrient components by [[heterotrophic]] bacteria that consumes organic matter. Warmth and moisture contribute to this process, similar to creating [[compost]] fertilizer. The plant matter releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and weak acids that react with insoluble soil minerals to release beneficial nutrients. Soils that are high in [[calcium]] minerals, for example, can be given green manure to generate a higher [[phosphate]] content in the soil, which in turn acts as a fertilizer.<ref name="Lawrence 1980 145">{{cite book|last=Lawrence|first=James|title=The Harrowsmith Reader, Volume II|year=1980|publisher=Camden House Publishing Ltd.|isbn=0920656102|pages=145}}</ref>

{{main|Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio}}
The ratio of carbon to [[nitrogen]] in a plant is a crucial factor to consider, since it will impact the nutrient content of the soil and may starve a crop of nitrogen, if the incorrect plants are used to make green manure. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen will differ from species to species, and depending upon the age of the plant. The ratio is referred to as C:N. The value of N is always one, whereas the value of carbon or carbohydrates is expressed in a value of about 10 up to 90; the ratio must be less than 30:1 to prevent the manure bacteria from depleting existing nitrogen in the soil. [[Rhizobium]] are soil organisms that interact with green manure to retain atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lawrence|first=James|title=The Harrowsmith Reader, Volume II|year=1980|publisher=Camden House Publishing Ltd.|isbn=0920656102|pages=146}}</ref> [[Legume]]s, such as beans, alfalfa, clover and lupines, have root systems rich in rhizobium, often making them the preferred source of green manure material.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

==Crops==
Many green manures are planted in autumn or winter to cover the ground before spring or summer sowing.<ref name="mofga">{{cite web| title=Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association| url=http://www.mofga.org/portals/2/Fact%20Sheets/FS%2010%20Green%20Manures%20web.pdf| website=mofga.org| date=November 2007| access-date=2015-02-27| archive-date=2015-03-21| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321211015/http://www.mofga.org/Portals/2/Fact%20Sheets/FS%2010%20Green%20Manures%20web.pdf| url-status=dead}}</ref>

* [[Alfalfa]], which sends roots deep to bring nutrients to the surface.{{#tag:ref|This is one of many [[legume]]s that may be used as a green manure crop.<ref name="Sullivan"/>|group=note|name=legume}}
* [[Buckwheat]]{{#tag:ref|This is one of many non-legumes that may be used as a green manure crop.<ref name="Sullivan">{{cite web |author1=Sullivan, Preston |date=July 2003 |title=Overview of Cover Crops and Green Manures: Fundamentals of Sustainable Agriculture |url=https://attra.ncat.org/publication/overview-of-cover-crops-and-green-manures/ |publisher=ATTRA}}</ref>|group=note|name=non_legume}}  in temperate regions
* [[Cowpea]]<ref group="note" name="legume"/>
* [[Clover]] (e.g. annual [[sweet clover]])<ref group="note" name="legume"/>
* [[Fava beans]]<ref group="note" name="legume"/>
* [[Fenugreek]]
*Ferns of the genus ''[[Azolla]]'' have been used as a green manure in southeast [[Asia]].
* [[Lupin]]
* [[Millet]]<ref group="note" name="non_legume"/>
* [[Mustard plant|Mustard]]
* [[Peanut]]
* ''[[Phacelia tanacetifolia]]''<ref name="RHS" />
* [[Radish]] such as tillage radish or daikon radish.
* [[Sesbania]]<ref group="note" name="legume"/>
* [[Sorghum]]
* [[Soybean]]<ref group="note" name="legume"/>
* [[Sudangrass]]<ref group="note" name="non_legume"/>
* [[Sunn hemp]], a legume widely grown throughout the tropics and subtropics
* Velvet bean<ref group="note" name="legume"/> (''[[Mucuna pruriens]]''), common in the southern US during the early part of the 20th century, before being replaced by soybeans, popular today in most tropical countries, especially in Central America, where it is the main green manure used in slash/mulch farming practices
* Vetch (''[[Vicia sativa]]'', ''[[Vicia villosa]]'')<ref group="note" name="legume"/><ref>{{Cite news
| last = Philpott
| first = Tom
| title = One Weird Trick to Fix Farms Forever
| work = Mother Jones
| access-date = 2014-03-14
| date = 2013-09-09
| url = https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/09/cover-crops-no-till-david-brandt-farms
}}</ref>
* [[Vicia faba|Winter field bean]]<ref name="RHS">{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/soil-composts-mulches/green-manures|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society|access-date=18 October 2022|title=Green Manures}}</ref>
{{Reflist|group="note"|colwidth=35em|refs=
<!--Sullivan defined above because of nested ref tags-->
This is one of many [[legumes]] that may be used as a green manure crop.
}}

==History==
Green manures have been used since ancient times. Farmers could only use organic fertilizers before the invention of chemical nitrogen fertilizer.  There is evidence for the Greeks plowing broad beans and faba beans into the soil around 300 B.C. The Romans also used green manures like faba beans and lupines to make their soil more fertile.<ref name="Fageria-2007" /> Chinese agricultural texts dating back hundreds of years refer to the importance of grasses and weeds in providing nutrients for farm soil. It was also known to early North American colonists arriving from Europe. Common colonial green manure crops were rye, buckwheat and oats.<ref name="Lawrence 1980 145"/> 

Traditionally, the incorporation of green manure into the soil is known as the [[fallow]] cycle of [[crop rotation]], which was used to allow the soil to regain its fertility after the harvest.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

== Limitations of green manure ==
Managing green manure improperly or without additional chemical inputs may limit crop production. Mixing green manures into the soil without enough time before crop planting could stop the flow of nitrogen (nitrogen immobilization). When nitrogen stops flowing there won't be enough nutrients for the next crop planting.<ref name="Fageria-2007" /> Farming systems with short growth spans for green manure are not usually efficient. Farmers must weigh the cost of green manures with their productivity to determine suitability.<ref name="Becker-1995" />

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*{{annotated link|Organic gardening}}
*{{annotated link|Soil inoculant}}
*{{annotated link|Soil defertilisation}}
*{{annotated link|Cover crop}}
*{{annotated link|Soil acidification}}
*{{annotated link|Vegan organic gardening}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110515002807/http://attra.org/attra-pub/covercrop.html Overview of cover crops and green manures]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930080740/http://www.organicfarmingworld.com/greenmanuring.html Methods of Green Manuring]
*Using green manure to grow rice [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317161034/http://www.irri.org/donors/SDC/pdfs/NutMgmtRnfedLwlndRiceLaoPDR.pdf]
*[http://asi.ucdavis.edu/programs/sarep/research-initiatives/are/nutrient-mgmt/cover-crops-database1 University of California cover crops database]

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