Editing Halicarnassus

{{Short description|Ancient Carian city, present day Bodrum in Turkey}}
{{Infobox ancient site
  |name = Halicarnassus
  |native_name = ''alos k̂arnos'' 𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰 (in Carian)<br>Ἁλικαρνασσός {{in lang|grc}}<br>Halikarnas {{in lang|tr}}
  |alternate_name = 
  |image = The ruins of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.jpg
  |alt = 
  |caption = The ruins of the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].
  |map_type = Turkey#Aegean
  |map_alt = 
  |map_size = 270
| relief=yes
  |coordinates = {{coord|37|02|16|N|27|25|27|E|type:landmark_region:TR-48|display=inline,title}}
  |location = [[Bodrum]], [[Muğla Province]], [[Turkey]]
  |region = [[Caria]]
  |type = Settlement
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  |abandoned = 
  |epochs = <!-- actually displays as "Periods" -->
  |cultures = 
  |dependency_of = 
  |occupants = [[Herodotus]]
  |event = 
  |excavations = 
  |archaeologists = 
  |condition = 
  |ownership = 
  |management = 
  |public_access = 
  |website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
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}}
[[File:MapaTopográficoDeAsiaMenor-Caria.png|thumb|Ancient cities of [[Caria]]|alt=Map of ancient cities of Caria]]

'''Halicarnassus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|æ|l|ᵻ|k|ɑːr|ˈ|n|æ|s|ə|s}} {{respell|HAL|ih|kar|NASS|əs}}; [[Latin]]: ''Halicarnassus'' or ''Halicarnāsus''; {{langx|grc|Ἁλικαρνασσός}} {{IPA|grc|ha.li.kar.naːs.sós}} ''Halikarnāssós''; {{langx|tr|Halikarnas}}; [[Carian language|Carian]]: 𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰 ''alos k̂arnos'') was an [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] city in [[Caria]], in [[Anatolia]].<ref name="halicarnassus-bodrum">[https://www.livius.org/articles/place/halicarnassus-bodrum/ Livius.org Halicarnassus/Bodrum] "Usually, Greek settlers first occupied an island near a native settlement; later, they settled on the mainland. We may assume that the first Greeks built their houses on the island that was later known as the Royal Island. Today, it is no longer an island, but an impressive castle built in the age of the Crusades. The native settlement probably was at the Salmacis hill, which was crowned by a sanctuary of Hermaphroditus.", "Later, the Greeks settled on the mainland. To the northeast of the island, they founded a marketplace to trade with the natives. The new Greek settlement itself was to the northwest.", "The Greeks thought that Halicarnassus was a "[[Dorians|Dorian]]" city: its first settlers were from the Peloponnese and belonged to this tribe. The city was really proud of this descent, but in fact, the Dorian nature of the population was soon forgotten."</ref> It was located in southwest [[Caria]], on an advantageous site on the [[Gulf of Gökova]], which is now in [[Bodrum]], [[Turkey]].<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911 |wstitle=Halicarnassus |volume=12 |pages=837–838 |first=David George |last=Hogarth |inline=1}}</ref> The city was famous for the [[Mausoleum of Halicarnassus]], also known simply as the Tomb of [[Mausolus]], whose name provided the origin of the word "[[mausoleum]]". The mausoleum, built from 353 to 350&nbsp;BC, ranked as one of the [[seven wonders of the ancient world]].

Halicarnassus' history was unique on two interlinked issues. Halicarnassus retained a monarchical system of government at a time when most other Greek city states had long since rid themselves of their kings. Secondly, while their Ionian neighbours rebelled against Persian rule, Halicarnassus remained loyal to them. It formed part of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]] until [[Alexander the Great]] captured it at the [[siege of Halicarnassus]] in 333&nbsp;BC.

Zephyria was the original name of the settlement, and the present site of the great [[Bodrum Castle|Castle of St. Peter]] built by the [[Knights of Rhodes]] in 1404 AD.<ref name=EB1911/> It was built on what was originally an island, which gradually expanded to include several Carian settlements on the mainland.<ref name="halicarnassus-bodrum"/> However, in the course of time, the island topographically united with the mainland, and the city was extended to combine with the existing [[Salmacis (Caria)|Salmacis]], an older town of the native [[Leleges]] and [[Carians]],<ref name=EB1911/> and site of the later citadel. The first settlers were originally Dorians from the Peloponnese, but this was soon forgotten.

== Etymology ==
The suffix -ασσός (-assos) of Greek Ἁλικαρνασσός is indicative of a [[Pre-Greek substrate|substrate]] toponym, meaning that an original non-Greek name influenced, or established the place's name (compare [[Parnassus]]). In a 2015 article, linguist and philologist Ilya Yakubovich proposed that the element -καρνασσός is [[cognate]] with [[Luwian language|Luwian]] (CASTRUM)ha+ra/i-na-sà / (CASTRUM)ha+ra/i-ni-sà 'fortress'.<ref>Yakubovich, Ilya. "[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/anatolian-studies/article/phoenician-and-luwian-in-early-iron-age-cilicia/A0B118B2157EE820FA657A28160B0A21 Phoenician and Luwian in Early Age Cilicia]". In: ''Anatolian Studies'' '''65''' (2015): 44. doi:10.1017/S0066154615000010. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923122933/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/anatolian-studies/article/phoenician-and-luwian-in-early-iron-age-cilicia/A0B118B2157EE820FA657A28160B0A21 |date=2016-09-23 }}.</ref> If so, the toponym is probably borrowed from [[Carian language|Carian]], a [[Anatolian languages#Luwic branch|Luwic language]] spoken alongside Greek in Halicarnassus. The Carian name for Halicarnassus has been tentatively identified with 𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰 (''alos k̂arnos)'' in inscriptions.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=alQqw2IxJO0C&pg=228|title=The Carian Language|last=Lajara|first=Ignacio-Javier Adiego|date=2007|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004152816|language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Slab_from_the_Amazonomachy_frieze_from_the_Mausoleum_at_Halikarnassos,_Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus,_British_Museum.jpg|thumb|right|Relief of an Amazonomachy from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.]]

===Late Bronze===
====Mycenaean period====
Some large [[Mycenae]]an tombs have been found at Musgebi (or Muskebi, modern [[Ortakent]]), not far from Halicarnassus. According to Turkish archaeologist Yusuf Boysal, the Muskebi material, dating from the end of the fifteenth century BC to ca. 1200 BC, provides evidence of the presence, in this region, of a Mycenaean settlement.<ref name=Yusuf>Yusuf Boysal, [http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/14/701/8862.pdf New Excavations in Caria (PDF)], Anadolu, (1967), pp. 32–56.</ref>

More than forty burial places dating back to that time have been discovered. A rich collection of artifacts found in these tombs is now housed in the [[Bodrum Castle]]. These finds cast some light on the problem of determining the territories of ancient [[Arzawa]] and [[Achaeans (Homer)|Ahhiyawa]].<ref name =Yusuf />

===Iron Age===
[[Image:Bodrum,_porta_di_myndos_01.JPG|thumb|200px|Myndos Gate. Ruins of the fortifications of Halicarnassus (modern [[Bodrum]]); 4th c. BC;]]
[[Image:herodotusstatue.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Herodotus]] (Greek: Ἡρόδοτος) is honored with a statue in his home of Halicarnassus (modern [[Bodrum]]).]]
The founding of Halicarnassus is debated among various traditions; but they agree in the main point as to its being a [[Dorians|Dorian]] colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]], [[Athena]] or [[Poseidon]], or the trident, support the statement that the mother cities were [[Troezen]] and [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]]. The inhabitants appear to have accepted Anthes, a son of Poseidon, as their legendary founder, as mentioned by [[Strabo]], and were proud of the title of ''Antheadae''.<ref name=EB1911/>

At an early period Halicarnassus was a member of the [[Doric Hexapolis]], which included [[Kos]], [[Cnidus]], [[Lindos]], [[Kameiros]] and [[Ialysus]]; but it was expelled from the league when one of its citizens, Agasicles, took home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian games, instead of dedicating it according to custom to the Triopian Apollo. In the early 5th century BC Halicarnassus was under the sway of [[Artemisia I of Caria]] (also known as Artemesia of Halicarnassus), who made herself famous as a naval commander at the [[battle of Salamis]]. Of Pisindalis, her son and successor, little is known. Artemisia's grandson [[Lygdamis II of Halicarnassus]], is notorious for having put to death the poet [[Panyasis]] and causing [[Herodotus]], possibly the best known Halicarnassian, to leave his native city ({{Circa|457&nbsp;BC}}).<ref>{{cite book|title=Suda|chapter=Herodotus|chapter-url=http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&searchstr=herodotus&field=hw_eng|title-link=Suda}} At the Suda On Line Project.</ref><ref name=EB1911/>

=== Hekatomnid dynasty===
[[Hecatomnus]] became king of Caria, at that time part of the Persian Empire, ruling from 404&nbsp;BC to 358&nbsp;BC and establishing the Hekatomnid dynasty. He left three sons, Mausolus, [[Idrieus]] and [[Pixodarus of Caria|Pixodarus]]—all of whom—in their turn, succeeded him in the sovereignty; and two daughters, [[Artemisia II of Caria|Artemisia]] and [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who were married to their brothers Mausolus and Idrieus.

[[File:Mausoleum at Halicarnassus at the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology.jpg|thumb|left|Model of the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]], at the [[Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology]].]]
[[File:Persian sphinx at Halicarnassus.jpg|thumb|upright|Persian [[sphinx]] from Halicarnassus, 355 BC.]]
Mausolus moved his capital from [[Mylasa]] to Halicarnassus. His workmen deepened the city's harbor and used the dragged sand to make protecting [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwaters]] in front of the channel.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://premiumtravel.net/turkey-cities/bodrum/|title=Bodrum - Premium Travel|last=premiumtravel|website=premiumtravel.net|access-date=3 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804215330/https://premiumtravel.net/turkey-cities/bodrum/|archive-date=4 August 2017}}</ref> 

On land they paved streets and [[Town square|squares]], and built houses for ordinary citizens. And on one side of the harbor they built a massive fortified palace for Mausolus, positioned to have clear views out to sea and inland to the hills—places from where enemies could attack. On land, the workmen also built walls and [[watchtower]]s, a [[Architecture of ancient Greece|Greek]]&ndash;style theatre and a [[Greek temple|temple]] to [[Ares]]—the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[God (male deity)|god]] of war. Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. Mausolus and Artemisia had ruled over Halicarnassus and the region surrounding it for 24 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hffestival.com/|title=Halicarnassus Film Festival|access-date=May 12, 2020}}</ref> They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming [[marble]]. When he died in 353&nbsp;BC, his wife, sister and successor, [[Artemisia II of Caria]], began construction of a magnificent tomb for him and herself on a hill overlooking the city. She died in 351 BC (of grief, according to Cicero, ''Tusculan Disputations'' 3.31). According to [[Pliny the Elder]] the craftsmen continued to work on the tomb after the death of their patron, "considering that it was at once a memorial of his own fame and of the sculptor's art," finishing it in 350&nbsp;BC. This tomb of Mausolus came to be known as the [[Mausoleum of Halicarnassus|Mausoleum]], one of the [[seven wonders of the ancient world]].

Artemisia was succeeded by her brother Idrieus, who, in turn, was succeeded by his wife and sister Ada when he died in 344&nbsp;BC. However, Ada was usurped by her brother Pixodarus in 340&nbsp;BC. On the death of Pixodarus in 335&nbsp;BC his son-in-law, a Persian named [[Orontobates]], received the satrapy of Caria from [[Darius III of Persia]].

===Alexander the Great and Ada of Caria===
{{Main|Siege of Halicarnassus}}
[[File:Obsidio et expugnatio Halicarnassi urbis totius cariae capitis.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The siege and capture of Halicarnassus under Alexander the Great.]]
When [[Alexander the Great]] entered Caria in 334&nbsp;BC, [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who was in possession of the fortress of [[Alinda]], surrendered the fortress to him. After taking Halicarnassus, Alexander handed back the government of Caria to her; she, in turn, formally adopted Alexander as her son, ensuring that the rule of Caria passed unconditionally to him upon her eventual death. 

During the [[siege of Halicarnassus]] the city was fired by the retreating Persians. As he was not able to reduce the [[citadel]], Alexander was forced to leave it blockaded.<ref name=EB1911/> The ruins of this citadel and moat are now a tourist attraction in Bodrum.

===Later history===
Not long afterwards the citizens received the present of a gymnasium from [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and built in his honour a ''stoa'' or portico.<ref name=EB1911/> Under Egyptian hegemony, around 268 BC, a citizen named [[Hermias of Halicarnassus|Hermias]] became [[Nesiarch]] of the [[Nesiotic League]] in the [[Cyclades]].<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/1600370/Identity_and_resistance_the_Islanders_League_the_Aegean_islands_and_the_Hellenistic_kings C. Constantakopoulou, ''Identity and resistance: The Islanders’ League, the Aegean islands and the Hellenistic kings'', in: Mediterranean Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1, June 2012, pp. 49–70, note 49] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503204457/http://www.academia.edu/1600370/Identity_and_resistance_the_Islanders_League_the_Aegean_islands_and_the_Hellenistic_kings |date=2018-05-03 }}.</ref>

Halicarnassus never recovered altogether from the disasters of the siege, and [[Cicero]] describes it as almost deserted.<ref name=EB1911/>

Baroque artist [[Johann Elias Ridinger]] depicted the several stages of siege and taking of the place in a huge copper engraving as one of only two known today from his Alexander set. The Christian and later history of the site is continued at [[Bodrum]].

==Archaeological notes and restorations==
[[File:Theater and Acropolis of Halicarnassus.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the ancient Theater and Acropolis of Halicarnassus (modern [[Bodrum]]).]]
[[File:The_theatre_of_ancient_Halicarnassus,_built_in_the_4th_century_BC_during_the_reign_of_King_Mausolos_and_enlarged_in_the_2nd_century_AD,_the_original_capacity_of_the_theatre_was_10,000,_Bodrum,_Turkey_(16456817694).jpg|thumb|left|[[Theatre at Halicarnassus]] in Bodrum, with the [[Bodrum Castle]] seen in the background.]]
[[File:Arte_romana,_statua_di_sacerdote,_30_ac.-395_ca.,_da_alicarnasso.JPG|thumb|Statue of a priest from Halicarnassus (modern [[Bodrum]]).]]
The site is now occupied in part by the town of Bodrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples, the [[Theatre at Halicarnassus|Theatre of Halicarnassus]], and other public buildings can be fixed with certainty.<ref name=EB1911/>

The ruins of the mausoleum were recovered sufficiently by the 1857 excavations of [[Charles Thomas Newton|Charles Newton]] to enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made. The building consisted of five parts—a basement or podium, a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 114 feet by 92, was built of blocks of greenstone, cased with marble and covered in carvings of cows. Round the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. The pteron consisted (according to [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]) of thirty-six columns of the [[Ionic order]], enclosing a square cella. Between the columns probably stood single statues. From the portions that have been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron represented combats of Greeks and [[Amazons]]. In addition, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horsemen, etc., belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or pedestal.<ref name=EB1911/>
[[File:Part_of_a_panel_from_a_mosaic_pavement-_the_god_of_wine_Dionysos_dances_with_a_panther,_from_Halicarnassus,_4th_century_AD,_Roman_Empire,_British_Museum_(14097669977).jpg|thumb|Part of a panel from a mosaic pavement from Halicarnassus (Roman Empire), British Museum (14097669977)]]

On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue of Mausolus in the [[British Museum]] is 9'9" without the plinth. The hair falls from the forehead in thick waves on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder; the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the eyes deep set under overhanging brows. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, is in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, though to be preferred for its lightness (the mausoleum was said anciently to be "suspended in mid-air").  Another by veteran German architect, F. Adler was published in 1900; but studies have since been made (see below).<ref name="EB1911" />

== Notable people ==
*[[Agasides]] - Greek athlete
*[[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia I]] ([[floruit|fl]]. 480 BC), Queen of Halicarnassus, who participated in the [[Battle of Salamis]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrVZAAAAYAAJ&q=Artemisia+I+born+in+Halicarnassus |title=Great Lives from History: Aaron-Lysippus |first1=Christina A. |last1=Salowey |first2=Frank Northen |last2=Magill |publisher=Salem Press |year=2004 |page=109 |isbn=9781587651533}}</ref>
*[[Herodotus]] ({{Circa|484|425 BC}}), Greek historian<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wHqsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |title=Lifelines in World History: The Ancient World, The Medieval World, The Early Modern World, The Modern World |first1=Ase |last1=Berit |first2=Rolf |last2=Strandskogen |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=26 May 2015 |page=62 |isbn=9781317466048}}</ref>
*[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus|Dionysius]] ({{circa|60}} – 8 BC), historian and teacher of rhetoric<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gmH697Ke7wQC&pg=PA291 |title=Readings from Classical Rhetoric |first1=Patricia P. |last1=Matsen |first2=Philip B. |last2=Rollinson |first3=Marion |last3=Sousa |publisher=[[SIU Press]] |year=1990 |page=291 |isbn=9780809315932}}</ref>
* [[Pigres of Halicarnassus]] - Greek poet
*[[Aelius Dionysius]] (fl. 2nd century), Greek rhetorician and musician
* [[Heraclitus of Halicarnassus]] - Greek [[Elegiac]] Poet<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg7000.tlg001.perseus-grc2:7.80 Greek Anthology Book 7, 7.80]</ref>
* [[Hegesippus of Halicarnassus]] - a naval commander of [[Antigonus Monophthalmus]]
* Scylax of Halicarnassus - ancient [[Ancient Greek astronomy|astronomer]]<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/divinatione2.shtml#88 Cicero, On Divination, 2.88]</ref><ref>[https://topostext.org/work/562#2.88 Cicero, On Divination, 2.88 in english]</ref>
* Cleon of Halicarnassus - ancient orator<ref>[https://topostext.org/work/266#2.212 Plutarch, Laconic Apophthegms, Moralia, 2.212]</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg044.perseus-grc1:20 Plutarch, Life of Agesilaus, 20]</ref>
* Phormio of Halicarnassus - ancient boxer who was a [[List of ancient Olympic victors|victor]] at the boxing in the 97 [[Ancient Olympic Games]]<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:5.21.3 Pausanias, Description of Greece, 5.21.3]</ref>
* Asiaticus of Halicarnassus - ancient victor at the [[Stadion (running race)|Stadion]] in the 197 Ancient Olympic Games<ref>[https://topostext.org/work/531#79 Eusebius, Chronography, 79]</ref>
* [[Julian of Halicarnassus]] - bishop of Halicarnassus and a leader of the [[Monophysites]] in the 6th century<ref>[https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/iota/436 Suda Encyclopedia iota,436]</ref><ref>[https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/sigma/271 Suda Encyclopedia, si.271]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of ancient Greek cities]]

==Notes and references ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*Cook, B. F., Bernard Ashmole, and [[Donald Emrys Strong]]. 2005. ''Relief Sculpture of the Mausoleum At Halicarnassus''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*{{cite journal | last=Dinsmoor | first=William B. | year=1908 | title=The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus | journal=American Journal of Archaeology | volume=12 | issue=1 | pages=3–29, 141–197 | url=https://archive.org/details/americanjourser212archuoft | doi = 10.2307/496853 | jstor=496853 | s2cid=193059202 }}
*{{cite journal | last=F. Adler | first=F. | year=1900 | title=Das Mausoleum zu Halikarnass | journal=Zeitschrift für Bauwesen | volume=50 | pages=2–19 | url=http://www-docs.tu-cottbus.de/bibliothek/public/katalog/355093.PDF | access-date=2011-10-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402191537/http://www-docs.tu-cottbus.de/bibliothek/public/katalog/355093.PDF | archive-date=2012-04-02 | url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book | last= Fergusson | first=James | year=1862 | title= The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains | publisher=J. Murry | place=London | url= https://archive.org/details/mausoleumathali00ferggoog }}
*Jeppeson, Kristian. 2002. ''The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos: Reports of the Danish archaeological expedition to Bodrum: The superstructure, a comparative analysis of the architectural, sculptural, and literary evidence''. Vol. 5. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press.
*{{cite book | last1=Newton | first1=Charles Thomas  | author-link=Charles Thomas Newton | last2=Pullan | first2=Richard Popplewell  | year=1862–1863 | title=A history of discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus & Branchidæ (2 Vols) | publisher=Day and Son | place=London}}. Google books: [https://books.google.com/books?id=7B0GAAAAQAAJ Volume 1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=GrhHAQAAIAAJ Volume 2].
*{{cite journal | last=Oldfield | first=Edmund | year=1895 | title=The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. A new restoration  | journal=Archaeologia | volume=54 | issue=2 | pages=273–362 | doi=10.1017/s0261340900018051}}
*{{cite journal | last=Oldfield | first=Edmund | year=1897 | title=The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The probable arrangement and signification of its principal sculptures | journal=Archaeologia | volume=55 | issue=2 | pages=343–390 | doi=10.1017/s0261340900014417| url=https://zenodo.org/record/2138029 }}
*{{cite journal| last=Preedy | first= J. B. Knowlton | year=1910 | title= The Chariot Group of the Maussolleum | journal=Journal of Hellenic Studies | volume=30 | pages=133–162 | jstor=624266 | doi= 10.2307/624266 | s2cid= 163616138 }}
*Rodríguez Moya, Inmaculada, and Víctor Mínguez. 2017. ''The Seven Ancient Wonders In the Early Modern World''. New York: Routledge.
*{{cite journal | last=Six | first=J. | year=1905 | title=The pediments of the Maussolleum | journal=Journal of Hellenic Studies | volume=25 | pages=1–13 | url=https://archive.org/stream/journalofhelleni25soci#page/n76/mode/1up | doi=10.2307/624205| jstor=624205 | s2cid=164155840 }}
*Steele, James, and Ersin Alok. 1992. ''Hellenistic Architecture In Asia Minor''. London: Academy Editions.
*{{cite book | last=Stevenson | first= John James | year=1909 | title= A restoration of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus | publisher= B. T. Batsford | place=London | url= https://archive.org/details/restorationofmau00stevrich }}
*Wiater, Nicolas. 2011. ''The Ideology of Classicism: Language, History, and Identity In Dionysius of Halicarnassus''. New York: De Gruyter.
*Winter, Frederick E. 2006. ''Studies In Hellenistic Architecture''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Halicarnassus
  |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [https://www.livius.org/ha-hd/halicarnassus/halicarnassus.html Halicarnassus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607033817/http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/halicarnassus/halicarnassus.html |date=2015-06-07 }} by Jona Lendering.
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Turkey/_Periods/Greek/_Texts/LETGKB/Mausoleum*.html The Tomb of Mausolus] W.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;Lethaby's reconstruction of the Mausoleum, 1908.
*[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Mausoleum.html Mausoleum] Article from Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875.

{{Ancient settlements in Turkey}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Halicarnassus| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Bodrum]]
[[Category:Catholic titular sees in Asia]]
[[Category:Doric Hexapolis]]
[[Category:Greek colonies in Caria]]
[[Category:Populated places in ancient Caria]]
[[Category:History of Muğla Province]]
[[Category:Achaemenid cities]]
[[Category:Members of the Delian League]]

[[he:בודרום#הליקרנסוס]]
[[sk:Bodrum]]