Editing Harold Macmillan

{{short description|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix    = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name                = The Earl of Stockton
| honorific-suffix    = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OM|PC|FRS}}
| image = Harold Macmillan.jpg
| caption = Official portrait, 1959
| alt = Harold Macmillan in December 1959
| office              = [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]
| term_start          = 10 January 1957
| term_end            = 18 October 1963
| monarch             = [[Elizabeth II]]
| 1blankname          = {{nowrap|[[First Secretary of State|First Secretary]]}}
| 1namedata           = [[Rab Butler]] {{nowrap|(1962–63)}}
| predecessor         = [[Anthony Eden]]
| successor           = [[Alec Douglas-Home]]
| office1             = [[Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)|Leader of the Conservative Party]]
| term_start1         = 10 January 1957
| term_end1           = 18 October 1963
| predecessor1        = Anthony Eden
| successor1          = Alec Douglas-Home
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|last=yes|Ministerial offices
|titlestyle = border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder |embed=yes
  |office2 = [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
  |term_start2 = 20 December 1955
  |term_end2 = 13 January 1957
  |primeminister2 = [[Anthony Eden]]
  |predecessor2 = [[Rab Butler]]
  |successor2 = [[Peter Thorneycroft]]
  |office3 = [[Foreign Secretary (United Kingdom)|Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
  |term_start3 = 7 April 1955
  |term_end3 = 20 December 1955
  |primeminister3 = [[Anthony Eden]]
  |predecessor3 = [[Anthony Eden]]
  |successor3 = [[Selwyn Lloyd]]
  |office4 = [[Minister of Defence (United Kingdom)|Minister of Defence]]
  |term_start4 = 19 October 1954
  |term_end4 = 7 April 1955
  |primeminister4 = [[Winston Churchill]]
  |predecessor4 = [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|The Earl Alexander of Tunis]]
  |successor4 = [[Selwyn Lloyd]]
  |office5 = [[Minister of Housing and Local Government]]
  |term_start5 = 30 October 1951
  |term_end5 = 19 October 1954
  |primeminister5 = [[Winston Churchill]]
  |predecessor5 = [[Hugh Dalton]]
  |successor5 = [[Duncan Sandys]]
  |office6 = [[Secretary of State for Air]]
  |term_start6 = 25 May 1945
  |term_end6 = 26 July 1945
  |primeminister6 = [[Winston Churchill]]
  |predecessor6 = [[Archibald Sinclair]]
  |successor6 = [[William Wedgwood Benn, 1st Viscount Stansgate|The Viscount Stansgate]]
  |office7 = [[Minister Resident]] in Northwest Africa
  |term_start7 = 30 December 1942
  |term_end7 = 25 May 1945
  |primeminister7 = [[Winston Churchill]]
  |predecessor7 = Office established
  |successor7 = [[Harold Balfour]]
  |order8 = [[Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
  |term_start8 = 4 February 1942
  |term_end8 = 30 December 1942
  |primeminister8 = [[Winston Churchill]]
  |predecessor8 = [[George Hall, 1st Viscount Hall|George Hall]]
  |successor8 = [[Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire|The Duke of Devonshire]]
  |office9 = [[Parliamentary Secretary]] to the [[Minister of Supply|{{nowrap|Ministry of Supply}}]]
  |term_start9 = 15 May 1940
  |term_end9 = 4 February 1942
  |primeminister9 = [[Winston Churchill]]
  |predecessor9 = [[John Llewellin, 1st Baron Llewellin|John Llewellin]]
  |successor9 = [[Wyndham Portal, 1st Viscount Portal|The Viscount Portal]]{{Collapsed infobox section end}} }}
 {{Collapsed infobox section begin |cont=yes |Parliamentary offices
  |titlestyle=border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder |embed=yes
  |office10 = [[Member of the House of Lords]]
  |status10 = [[Lord Temporal]]
  |term_label10 = [[Hereditary peer]]age
  |term_start10 = 24 February 1984
  |term_end10 = 29 December 1986
  |successor10 = [[Alexander Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton|The 2nd Earl of Stockton]]
  |office11 = [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]]<br />for [[Bromley (UK Parliament constituency)|Bromley]]
  |term_start11 = 14 November 1945
  |term_end11 = 25 September 1964
  |predecessor11 = [[Sir Edward Campbell, 1st Baronet|Edward Campbell]]
  |successor11 = [[John Hunt (British politician, born 1929)|John Hunt]]
  |office12 = [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]]<br />for [[Stockton-on-Tees (UK Parliament constituency)|Stockton-on-Tees]]
  |term_start12 = 27 October 1931
  |term_end12 = 15 June 1945
  |predecessor12 = [[Frederick Fox Riley]]
  |successor12 = [[George Chetwynd]]
  |term_start13 = 29 October 1924
  |term_end13 = 10 May 1929
  |predecessor13 = [[Robert Strother Stewart]]
  |successor13 = [[Frederick Fox Riley]]{{Collapsed infobox section end}}}}
 {{Collapsed infobox section begin |cont=yes |last=yes |Academic offices
  |titlestyle=border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox officeholder |embed=yes
  |order14 = [[Chancellor of the University of Oxford]]
  |term_start14 = 3 March 1960
  |term_end14 = 18 December 1986
  |predecessor14 = [[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Edward Wood]]
  |successor14 = [[Roy Jenkins]]{{Collapsed infobox section end}}}}
| birth_name          = Maurice Harold Macmillan
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1894|2|10|df=y}}
| birth_place         = London, England
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1986|12|29|1894|2|10|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Horsted Keynes]], West Sussex, England
| resting_place       = [[St Giles' Church, Horsted Keynes]], West Sussex, England
| party               = [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
| alma_mater          = [[Balliol College, Oxford]]
| occupation          = {{hlist|[[Macmillan Publishers|Publisher]]|politician}}
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Lady Dorothy Macmillan|Lady Dorothy Cavendish]]|21 April 1920|21 May 1966|reason=died}}
| children            = 4, including [[Maurice Macmillan|Maurice]] and [[Lady Caroline Faber|Caroline]]
| signature           = Harold Macmillan signature.svg
| awards              = {{ubl
   |[[Order of Merit]] (1976)
   |[[Peerage]] (1984)}}
| allegiance          = <!--United Kingdom-->
| branch              = [[British Army]]
| unit                = [[Grenadier Guards]]
| serviceyears        = 1914–1920
| rank                = [[Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)|Captain]]
| battles             = {{tree list}}
* [[History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|First World War]]
**[[Battle of Loos]]
**[[Battle of the Somme]]
{{tree list end}}
| mawards             = {{ubl
   |[[Victory Medal (United Kingdom)|Victory Medal]]
   |[[British War Medal]]}}
}}

'''Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton''' (10&nbsp;February 1894&nbsp;– 29 December 1986) was a British statesman and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] politician who was [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] from 1957 to 1963.<ref>{{cite news |title=Harold Macmillan Dies at 92 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/30/obituaries/harold-macmillan-dies-at-92-was-prime-minister-of-britain.html |url-status=live |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=30 December 1986 |access-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629144647/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/30/obituaries/harold-macmillan-dies-at-92-was-prime-minister-of-britain.html |archive-date=29 June 2021}}</ref> Nicknamed "[[Supermac (cartoon)|Supermac]]", he was known for his [[pragmatism]], wit, and [[wiktionary:unflappability|unflappability]].

Macmillan was seriously injured as an infantry officer during the First World War. He suffered pain and partial immobility for the rest of his life. After the war he joined [[Macmillan Publishers|his family book-publishing business]], then entered Parliament at the [[1924 United Kingdom general election|1924 general election]] for [[Stockton-on-Tees (UK Parliament constituency)|Stockton-on-Tees]]. Losing his seat in 1929, he regained it in 1931, soon after which he spoke out against the high rate of unemployment in Stockton. He opposed the [[appeasement]] of Germany practised by the Conservative government. He rose to high office during the Second World War as a protégé of Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]]. In the 1950s Macmillan served as [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Foreign Secretary]] and [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] under [[Anthony Eden]].

When Eden resigned in 1957 following the [[Suez Crisis]], Macmillan succeeded him as prime minister and [[Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)|Leader of the Conservative Party]]. He was a [[One Nation Tory]] of the [[Disraeli]]an tradition and supported the [[post-war consensus]]. He supported the [[welfare state]] and the necessity of a [[mixed economy]] with some nationalised industries and strong trade unions. He championed a [[Keynesian]] strategy of [[deficit spending]] to [[demand management|maintain demand]] and pursuit of [[corporatist]] policies to develop the domestic market as the engine of growth. Benefiting from favourable international conditions,{{sfn|Middleton|1997|pages=422–23}} he presided over an [[Economic history of the United Kingdom|age of affluence]], marked by low unemployment and high—if uneven—growth. In his speech of July 1957 he told the nation it had "never had it so good",{{sfn|Middleton|1997|p=422}} but warned of the dangers of inflation, summing up the fragile prosperity of the 1950s.<ref>Peter Hennessy, ''Having It So Good: Britain in the Fifties'' (London: Allen Lane, 2006), pp. 533–34.</ref> He led the Conservatives to success in [[1959 United Kingdom general election|1959]] with an increased majority.

In international affairs, Macmillan worked to rebuild the [[Special Relationship]] with the United States from the wreckage of the 1956 Suez Crisis (of which he had been one of the architects), and facilitated the [[Decolonisation of Africa|decolonisation]] of Africa. Reconfiguring the nation's defences to meet the realities of the nuclear age, he ended [[Conscription in the United Kingdom|National Service]], strengthened the [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|nuclear forces]] by acquiring [[UGM-27 Polaris#British Polaris|Polaris]], and pioneered the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty|Nuclear Test Ban]] with the United States and the Soviet Union. After the [[Nassau Agreement|Skybolt Crisis]] undermined the Anglo-American strategic relationship, he sought a more active role for Britain in Europe, but his unwillingness to disclose United States nuclear secrets to France contributed to a French veto of the United Kingdom's entry into the [[European Economic Community]] and [[Gerboise Bleue (nuclear test)|independent French acquisition of nuclear weapons in 1960]].{{sfn|Lamb|1995|pp=14–15}} Near the end of his premiership, his government was rocked by the [[Vassall Tribunal]] and the [[Profumo affair]], which to cultural conservatives and supporters of opposing parties alike seemed to symbolise moral decay of the British establishment.<ref>{{citation |last=Leitch |first=David |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/the-spy-who-rocked-a-world-of-privilege-1313565.html |title=The spy who rocked a world of privilege |newspaper=The Independent |date=8 December 1996 |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804024128/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/the-spy-who-rocked-a-world-of-privilege-1313565.html |archive-date=4 August 2012}}</ref> Following his resignation, Macmillan lived out a long retirement as an elder statesman, being an active member of the [[House of Lords]] in his final years. He died in December 1986 at the age of 92.

==Early life==

===Family===
Macmillan was born on 10 February 1894, at 52 [[Cadogan Place]] in [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]], London, to Maurice Crawford Macmillan, a publisher, and the former Helen (Nellie) Artie Tarleton Belles, an artist and socialite from [[Spencer, Indiana]].{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=2}} He had two brothers, Daniel, eight years his senior, and Arthur, four years his senior.{{sfn|Horne|2008|p=9}} His paternal grandfather, [[Daniel MacMillan]], who founded [[Macmillan Publishers]], was the son of a Scottish [[crofter]] from the [[Isle of Arran]].{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=245}} Macmillan considered himself a Scot.<ref>"Winds of Change" speech, minute 29:04. {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c07MiYfpOMw |title=PM Harold Macmillan – Wind of Change Speech at the Cape Town Parliament – 3 February 1960 |website=YouTube |date=25 March 2016 |access-date=4 December 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124063722/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c07MiYfpOMw |archive-date=24 November 2017}}</ref>

===Education and early political views===
Macmillan received an intensive early education, closely guided by his American mother. He learned French at home every morning from a succession of nursery maids, and exercised daily at Mr Macpherson's Gymnasium and Dancing Academy, around the corner from the family home.{{sfn|Horne|2008|p=13}} From the age of six or seven he received introductory lessons in classical Latin and Greek at [[The Eaton House Group of Schools#Eaton House Belgravia Pre-Prep and Prep|Mr Gladstone's day school]], close by in [[Sloane Square]].{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=15}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Mr T.S. Morton |date=23 January 1962 |work=The Times }}</ref>

Macmillan attended [[Summer Fields School]], [[Oxford]] (1903–06). He was Third Scholar at [[Eton College]],{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=15}} but his time there (1906–10) was blighted by recurrent illness, starting with a near-fatal attack of pneumonia in his first half (term); he missed his final year after being taken ill,{{sfn|Horne|2008|p=16}}<ref>Simon Ball, ''The Guardsmen, Harold Macmillan, Three Friends and the World They Made'', (London, Harper Collins), 2004, p. 19.</ref> and was taught at home by private tutors (1910–11), notably [[Ronald Knox]], who did much to instil his [[High Church]] [[Anglicanism]].{{sfn|Williams|2010|pp=19–26}} He won an [[exhibition (scholarship)]] to [[Balliol College, Oxford]].{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=15}}

In his youth, he was an admirer of the policies and leadership of a succession of [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] prime ministers, starting with [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]], who came to power when Macmillan was 11 years old and [[H. H. Asquith]], whom he later described as having "intellectual sincerity and moral nobility", and particularly of Asquith's successor, [[David Lloyd George]], whom he regarded as a "man of action", likely to accomplish his goals.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010}}{{pn|date=October 2022}}

Macmillan went up to Balliol College in 1912, where he joined many political societies. His political opinions at this stage were an eclectic mix of moderate conservatism, moderate liberalism and [[Fabian Society|Fabian]] socialism. He read avidly about [[Benjamin Disraeli|Disraeli]], but was also particularly impressed by a speech by Lloyd George at the [[Oxford Union Society]] in 1913, where he had become a member. Macmillan was a protégé of the [[List of Presidents of the Oxford Union|president of the Union Society]] [[Walter Monckton]], later a Cabinet colleague; as such, he became secretary then junior treasurer (elected unopposed in March 1914, then an unusual occurrence) of the Union, and would in his biographers' view "almost certainly" have been president had the war not intervened.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=22}}<ref>Thorpe 2010, p. 41</ref> He obtained a First in [[Honour Moderations]], informally known as 'Mods' (consisting of Latin and Greek, the first half of the four-year Oxford ''[[Literae Humaniores]]'' course, informally known as "Classics"), in 1914. With his final exams over two years away, he enjoyed an idyllic [[Trinity term]] at Oxford, just before the outbreak of the First World War.<ref>''Supermac''.</ref>

===War service===
Volunteering as soon as war was declared, Macmillan was commissioned as a temporary [[second lieutenant]] in the [[King's Royal Rifle Corps]] on 19 November 1914.<ref>Thorpe 2011, pp. 47–48</ref><ref>{{London Gazette |issue=28979 |supp=y |page=9505 |date=17 November 1914}}</ref> Promoted to lieutenant on 30 January 1915,<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=29500 |supp=y |page=2533 |date=7 March 1916}}</ref> he soon transferred to the [[Grenadier Guards]].<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=29376 |supp=y |page=11582 |date=19 November 1915}}</ref> He fought on the front lines in [[Western Front (World War I)|France]], where the casualty rate was high, including the probability of an "early violent death".<ref>Thorpe 2010, p. 49</ref> He served with distinction and was wounded on three occasions. Shot in the right hand and receiving a glancing bullet wound to the head in the [[Battle of Loos]] in September 1915, Macmillan was sent to Lennox Gardens in [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]] for hospital treatment, then joined a reserve battalion at [[Chelsea Barracks]] from January to March 1916, until his hand had healed. He then returned to the front lines in France. Leading an advance platoon in the [[Battle of Flers–Courcelette]] (part of the [[Battle of the Somme]]) in September 1916, he was severely wounded, and lay for over twelve hours in a shell hole, sometimes feigning death when Germans passed, and reading [[Aeschylus]] in the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]].<ref>MacMillan 2010, p. 89</ref> [[Raymond Asquith]], eldest son of the prime minister, was a brother officer in Macmillan's regiment and was killed that month.<ref>{{citation|last=Lawton|first=John|year=1992|title=1963: Five Hundred Days|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton|location=Sevenoaks, UK|isbn=0-340-50846-9}}</ref>

Macmillan spent the final two years of the war in [[King Edward VII's Hospital]] in Grosvenor Gardens undergoing a series of operations.<ref>Ball ''Guardsmen'', p. 64.</ref> He was still on crutches at the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]].<ref>Thorpe 2010, p. 58</ref> His hip wound took four years to heal completely, and he was left with a slight shuffle to his walk and a limp grip in his right hand from his previous wound, which affected his handwriting.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://spartacus-educational.com/PRmacmillan.htm |title=Harold Macmillan |access-date=13 June 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321185432/http://spartacus-educational.com/PRmacmillan.htm |archive-date=21 March 2015}} Spartacus Educational website biography.</ref>

Macmillan saw himself as both a "gownsman" and a "swordsman" and would later display open contempt for other politicians (e.g. [[Rab Butler]], [[Hugh Gaitskell]], [[Harold Wilson]]) who had not seen military service in either World War.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=246–247}}

===Canadian aide-de-campship===
Of the scholars and exhibitioners of his year, only he and one other survived the war.{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=31}} As a result, he refused to return to [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] to complete his degree, saying the university would never be the same;{{sfn|Horne|2008|page=49}} in later years he joked that he had been "sent down by [[Wilhelm II|the Kaiser]]".<ref>Thorpe 2010, pp. 42–45; "sent down" is a university term for [[Expulsion (education)|"expelled"]]</ref>

Owing to the impending contraction of the Army after the war, a regular commission in the Grenadiers was out of the question.{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=49}} However, at the end of 1918 Macmillan joined the Guards Reserve Battalion at Chelsea Barracks for "light duties".{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=62}} On one occasion he had to command reliable troops in a nearby park as a unit of Guardsmen was briefly refusing to reembark for France, although the incident was resolved peacefully. The incident prompted an inquiry from the War Office as to whether the Guards Reserve Battalion "could be relied on".<ref>Macmillan 1966, pp. 107–108. This period saw disturbances amongst British troops in France, which was of grave worry to the Government as the Russian and German revolutions had been accompanied by army mutinies. In the end the crisis was resolved by giving priority for demobilisation to men who had served the longest.</ref>

Macmillan then served in [[Ottawa]], Canada, in 1919 as [[aide-de-camp]] (ADC) to [[Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire]], then [[Governor General of Canada]], and his future father-in-law.{{sfn|Horne|2008|p=52}} The engagement of Captain Macmillan to the Duke's daughter Lady Dorothy was announced on 7 January 1920.{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=55}} He relinquished his commission on 1 April 1920.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=31958 |supp=y|page=7073|date=29 June 1920}} ''The London Gazette'' states that he held and retained the rank of lieutenant.</ref> As was common for contemporary former officers, he continued to be known as 'Captain Macmillan' until the early 1930s and was listed as such in every general election between 1923 and 1931.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=72, 76–77, 88, 109, 118}} As late as his North African posting of 1942–43 he reminded Churchill that he held the rank of captain in the Guards reserve.{{sfn|Horne|1989|p=155}}

===Macmillan Publishers===
On his return to London in 1920 he joined the family publishing firm [[Macmillan Publishers]] as a junior partner. In 1936, Harold and his brother Daniel took control of the firm, with the former focusing on the political and non-fiction side of the business.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010}}{{pn|date=October 2022}} Harold resigned from the company on appointment to ministerial office in 1940. He resumed working with the firm from 1945 to 1951 when the party was in opposition.

==Personal life==
According to [[Michael Bloch]], there have long been rumours that Macmillan was expelled from Eton for homosexuality. Macmillan's biographer [[D. R. Thorpe]] is of the view that he was removed by his mother when she discovered that he was being "used" by older boys.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bloch | first = Michael | title = Closet Queens | page=213 | publisher = Little, Brown | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1408704127}}</ref> [[Dick Leonard]] reports that [[Alistair Horne]] refers to "inevitable rumours" and that "he left for the 'usual reasons' for boys to be expelled from public schools".<ref>{{cite book | last = Leonard | first = Dick | title = Harold Macmillan — Idealist into Manipulator. In: A Century of Premiers | page=210 | publisher = [[Palgrave Macmillan]] | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-1-4039-3990-6}}</ref>

===Marriage===
Macmillan married [[Lady Dorothy Macmillan|Lady Dorothy Cavendish]], the daughter of the [[9th Duke of Devonshire]], on 21 April 1920. Her great-uncle was [[Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire]], who was leader of the Liberal Party in the 1870s, and a close colleague of [[William Ewart Gladstone]], [[Joseph Chamberlain]] and [[Lord Salisbury]]. Lady Dorothy was also descended from [[William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire]], who served as prime minister from 1756 to 1757 in communion with [[Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle|Newcastle]] and [[Pitt the Elder]]. Her nephew [[William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington]], married [[Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington|Kathleen Kennedy]], a sister of [[John F. Kennedy]].

In 1929, Lady Dorothy began a lifelong affair with the Conservative politician [[Robert Boothby]], an arrangement that scandalised high society but remained unknown to the general public.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=94–100}} Philip Frere, a partner in Frere Cholmely solicitors, urged Macmillan not to divorce his wife, which at that time would have been fatal to a public career even for the "innocent party". Macmillan and Lady Dorothy lived largely separate lives in private thereafter.<ref>Thorpe 2010, p. 95. Thorpe points out that divorce still caused muttering as late as the 1950s. [[Walter Monckton]]'s divorce may have cost him promotion to the highest legal positions of Lord Chief Justice and Lord Chancellor, while Anthony Eden faced criticism for divorcing and remarrying, and talk that he was unfit to make ecclesiastical appointments.</ref> The stress caused by that may have contributed to Macmillan's nervous breakdown in 1931.<ref>{{Citation|last=Parris|first=Matthew|year=1997|title=Great Parliamentary Scandals: Four Centuries of Calumny, Smear & Innuendo|publisher=Robson Books|location=London|isbn=1-86105-152-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/greatparliamenta0000parr_j7g3/page/98 98–104]|url=https://archive.org/details/greatparliamenta0000parr_j7g3/page/98}}</ref> He was often treated with condescension by his aristocratic in-laws and was observed to be a sad and isolated figure at [[Chatsworth House|Chatsworth]] in the 1930s.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=67}} [[John Campbell (biographer)|John Campbell]] suggests that Macmillan's humiliation was first a major cause of his odd and rebellious behaviour in the 1930s then, in subsequent decades, made him a harder and more ruthless politician than his rivals Eden and Butler.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=248}}

The Macmillans had four children:
* [[Maurice Macmillan, Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden]] (1921–1984), Conservative politician and publisher. Married [[Katharine Macmillan, Viscountess Macmillan of Ovenden|The Hon Katharine Ormsby-Gore]], daughter of the [[Baron Harlech|4th Baron Harlech]]. His father outlived him by nearly three years.
* [[Lady Caroline Faber|Lady Caroline Macmillan]] (1923–2016). Married [[Julian Faber]]; five children.
* [[Lady Catherine Amery|Lady Catherine Macmillan]] (1926–1991). Married [[Julian Amery]] (later Baron Amery of Lustleigh), Conservative politician; four children.
* Sarah Macmillan (1930–1970). A family rumour that Boothby was her natural father has been discounted by the most recent and detailed study.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=100}}{{pn|date=October 2022}} Married Andrew Heath in 1953; two children. Having had an abortion in 1951, she was unable to have children of her own and the couple adopted two sons.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010}}<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Forbes |first=Alastair |title=A real book |url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/21st-september-1991/29/a-real-book |date=21 September 1991 |magazine=The Spectator |page=29 |access-date=13 December 2017 }}</ref> She had an unhappy life, which was blighted by a drinking problem, and died aged only 40, her father outliving her by 16 years.

Lady Dorothy died on 21 May 1966, aged 65.

In old age, Macmillan was a close friend of [[Ava Anderson, Viscountess Waverley]], ''née'' Bodley, the widow of [[John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley]].{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|loc=14116–14121}} [[Eileen O'Casey]], ''née'' Reynolds, the actress wife of Irish dramatist [[Seán O'Casey]], was another female friend, Macmillan publishing her husband's plays. Although she is said to have replaced Lady Dorothy in Macmillan's affections, there is disagreement over how intimate they became after the deaths of their respective spouses, and whether he proposed.<ref>Richard Allen Cave, [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/35283 O'Casey, Sean (1880–1964)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108140010/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-35283;jsessionid=E13221D45C127D0B961B695E2656548A |date=8 November 2021 }}, ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (Oxford University Press, 2004; online edition, January 2008. Retrieved 19 November 2011.</ref><ref>Garry O'Connor, 'Obituary&nbsp;– Eileen O'Casey', ''The Guardian'' (12 April 1995), p. 13.</ref><ref>Edward Marriott, 'Obituary&nbsp;– Eileen O'Casey', ''Evening Standard'' (London, 18 April 1995).</ref><ref>"Eileen O'Casey; Obituary." ''The Times'' (11 April 1995), p. 19.</ref>

==Political career, 1924–1951==

===Member of Parliament (1924–1929)===
Macmillan contested the depressed northern industrial constituency of [[Stockton-on-Tees (UK Parliament constituency)|Stockton-on-Tees]] in [[1923 United Kingdom general election|1923]]. The campaign cost him about £200-£300 out of his own pocket;{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=69}} at that time candidates were often expected to fund their own election campaigns. The collapse in the Liberal vote let him win in [[1924 United Kingdom general election|1924]].{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=246}} In 1927, four MPs, including Boothby and Macmillan, published a short book advocating radical measures.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=246}} In 1928, Macmillan was described by his political hero, and now Parliamentary colleague, David Lloyd George, as a "born rebel".{{sfn|Thorpe|2010}}{{pn|date=October 2022}}{{sfn|Fisher|1982|pp=32–33}}

Macmillan lost his seat in [[1929 United Kingdom general election|1929]] in the face of high regional unemployment. He almost became Conservative candidate for the safe seat of [[Hitchin (UK Parliament constituency)|Hitchin]] in 1931.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=243}} However the sitting MP, [[Guy Kindersley]] cancelled his retirement plans, in part because of his own association with the anti-Baldwin rebels and his suspicion of Macmillan's sympathy for [[Oswald Mosley]]'s promises of radical measures to reduce unemployment. Instead, the resignation of the new candidate at Stockton allowed Macmillan to be re-selected there, and he returned to the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] for his old seat in [[1931 United Kingdom general election|1931]].{{sfn|Fisher|1982|pp=32–33}}

===Member of Parliament (1931–1939)===
Macmillan spent the 1930s on the backbenches. In March 1932 he published "The State and Industry" (not to be confused with his earlier pamphlet "Industry and the State").{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=103}} In September 1932 he made his first visit to the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=100}} Macmillan also published "The Next Step". He advocated cheap money and [[economic planning|state direction of investment]]. In 1933 he was the sole author of "Reconstruction: A Plea for a National Unity". In 1935 he was one of 15 MPs to write "Planning for Employment". His next publication, "The Next Five Years", was overshadowed by Lloyd George's proposed "New Deal" in 1935.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=103}} Macmillan Press also published the work of the economist [[John Maynard Keynes]].{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=246}}

Macmillan resigned the government whip (but not the Conservative party one) in protest at the lifting of sanctions on Italy after her [[Italian conquest of Abyssinia|conquest of Abyssinia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Betts|first=Lewis David|date=3 April 2018|title=Harold Macmillan and appeasement: implications for the future study of Macmillan as a foreign policy actor|journal=Contemporary British History|volume=32|issue=2|pages=169–189|doi=10.1080/13619462.2017.1401475|s2cid=148757056|issn=1361-9462}}</ref> [[Henry Channon|"Chips" Channon]] described him as the "unprepossessing, bookish, eccentric member for Stockton-on-Tees" and recorded (8 July 1936) that he had been sent a "frigid note" by Conservative Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]]. Baldwin later mentioned that he had survived by steering a middle course between Macmillan and [[John Gretton]], an extreme right-winger.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=249}}

The Next Five Years Group, to which Macmillan had belonged, was wound up in November 1937. His book ''The Middle Way'' appeared in June 1938, advocating a broadly centrist political philosophy both domestically and internationally. Macmillan took control of the magazine ''New Outlook'' and made sure it published political tracts rather than purely theoretical work.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=103}}

In 1936, Macmillan proposed the creation of a cross-party forum of antifascists to create democratic unity but his ideas were rejected by the leadership of both the Labour and Conservative parties.<ref>Seidman, Michael. Transatlantic Antifascisms: From the Spanish Civil War to the End of World War II. Cambridge University Press, 2017, p. 89</ref>

Macmillan supported Chamberlain's first flight for talks with [[Hitler]] at Berchtesgaden, but not his subsequent flights to Bad Godesberg and Munich. After [[Munich Agreement|Munich]] he was looking for a "1931 in reverse", i.e. a Labour-dominated coalition in which some Conservatives would serve, the reverse of the Conservative-dominated coalition which had governed Britain since 1931.{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=117–118}} He supported the independent candidate, [[Sandie Lindsay, 1st Baron Lindsay of Birker|Lindsay]], at the [[1938 Oxford by-election]]. He wrote a pamphlet "The Price of Peace" calling for alliance between Britain, France and the USSR, but expecting Poland to make territorial "accommodation" to Germany (i.e. give up the [[Danzig corridor]]). In "Economic Aspects of Defence", early in 1939, he called for a Ministry of Supply.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=119}}

===Phoney War (1939–1940)===
Macmillan visited Finland in February 1940, then the subject of great sympathy in Britain as it was being [[Soviet invasion of Finland|invaded by the USSR]], then [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|loosely allied]] to Nazi Germany. His last speech from the backbenches was to attack the government for not doing enough to help Finland. Britain was saved from a potentially embarrassing commitment when the [[Winter War]] ended in March 1940.{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=134–135}}

Macmillan voted against the Government in the [[Norway Debate]] of May 1940, helping to bring down [[Neville Chamberlain]] as prime minister, and tried to join in with [[Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood|Colonel Josiah Wedgwood]] singing "[[Rule, Britannia!]]" in the House of Commons Chamber.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=139}}

===Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Supply (1940–1942)===
Macmillan finally attained office by serving in the [[Churchill war ministry|wartime coalition government]] as the [[Parliamentary Secretary]] to the [[Ministry of Supply]] from 1940. Channon commented (29 May 1940) that there was "some amusement over Harold Macmillan's so obvious enjoyment of his new position".{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=252}}

Macmillan's job was to provide armaments and other equipment to the [[British Army]] and [[Royal Air Force]]. He travelled up and down the country to co-ordinate production, working with some success under [[Lord Beaverbrook]] to increase the supply and quality of [[armoured fighting vehicle|armoured vehicles]].{{sfn|Fisher|1982|pages=78–79}}

===Colonial Under-Secretary (1942)===
[[File:Harold Macmillan in 1942.jpg|thumb|upright|Macmillan in 1942]]
Macmillan was appointed [[Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies]] in 1942, in his own words "leaving a madhouse to enter a mausoleum".<ref>Harold Macmillan, ''The Blast of War, 1939–45'' (London: Macmillan, 1967), p. 161.</ref> Though a junior minister he was a member of the [[Privy Council]], and he spoke in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] for [[Secretary of State for the Colonies|Colonial Secretaries]] [[Lord Moyne]] and [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Cranborne]]. Macmillan was given responsibility for increasing colonial production and trade, and signalled the future policy direction when in June 1942 he declared:

{{quote|The governing principle of the [[British Empire|Colonial Empire]] should be the principle of partnership between the various elements composing it. Out of partnership comes understanding and friendship. Within the fabric of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] lies the future of the Colonial territories.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|page=82}}}}

Macmillan predicted that the Conservatives faced landslide defeat after the war, causing Channon to write (6 Sep 1944) of "the foolish prophecy of that nice ass Harold Macmillan". In October 1942 [[Harold Nicolson]] recorded Macmillan as predicting "extreme socialism" after the war.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=254}} Macmillan nearly resigned when [[Oliver Stanley]] was appointed Secretary of State in November 1942, as he would no longer be the spokesman in the Commons as he had been under Cranborne. [[Brendan Bracken]] advised him not to quit.{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=151–160}}

===Minister Resident in the Mediterranean (1942–1945)===
After [[Harry Crookshank]] had refused the job, Macmillan attained real power and [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] rank late in 1942 as British Minister Resident at [[Algiers]] in the Mediterranean, recently liberated in [[Operation Torch]]. He reported directly to the Prime Minister instead of to the [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Foreign Secretary]], [[Anthony Eden]]. [[Oliver Lyttelton]] had a similar job at Cairo, while [[Robert Daniel Murphy|Robert Murphy]] was Macmillan's US counterpart.{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=151–160}} Macmillan built a rapport with US General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], then Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean (SACMED), which proved helpful in his career,{{sfn|Horne|2008|page=158}} and [[Richard Crossman]] later recalled that Macmillan's "Greeks in the Roman Empire" metaphor dated from this time (i.e., that as the US replaced Britain as the world's leading power, British politicians and diplomats should aim to guide her in the same way that Greek slaves and freedmen had advised powerful Romans).{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=160}} Macmillan told Crossman: "We, my dear Crossman, are the Greeks in the American empire. You will find the Americans much as the Greeks found the Romans—great big, vulgar bustling people, more vigorous than we are and also more idle, with more unspoiled virtues, but also more corrupt. We must run AFHQ ([[Allied Forces Headquarters]]) as the Greek slaves ran the operations of the Emperor [[Claudius]]".{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=697}} At the [[Casablanca Conference]] Macmillan helped to secure US acceptance, if not recognition, of the [[Free French]] leader [[Charles de Gaulle]].{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=170}} Macmillan wrote in his diary during the Casablanca conference: "I christened the two personalities the Emperor of the East and the Emperor of the West and indeed it was rather like a meeting of the late Roman empire".{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=697}} For Macmillan, the "remarkable and romantic episodes" as President Roosevelt met Prime Minister Churchill in Casablanca convinced him that personal diplomacy was the best way to deal with Americans, which later influenced his foreign policy as prime minister.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|pp=697–698}}

On 22 February 1943, Macmillan was badly burned in a plane crash,<ref>{{cite tweet |title=Harold MacMillan only just survived a plane crash in N Africa 80 years ago today, in 1943. He would be the only British Prime Minister who was badly wounded in both the First and Second World Wars.|user=thehistoryguy |number=1628503689890496512 |via=Twitter}}</ref> trying to climb back into the plane to rescue a Frenchman. He had to have a plaster cast put on his face. In his delirium he imagined himself back in a Somme casualty clearing station and asked for a message to be passed to his mother, now dead.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=174}}

[[File:Allied leaders in the Sicilian campaign.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Macmillan (top row, left) with Allied military leaders in the Sicilian campaign, 1943; [[Major general (United States)|Maj-Gen]] [[Bedell Smith]] to his left. Front Row: General [[Eisenhower]] (then Supreme Commander, Mediterranean), [[Air Chief Marshal]] [[Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder|Tedder]], [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Alexander]], [[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]] [[Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope|Cunningham]]]]

Together with [[Gladwyn Jebb]] he helped to negotiate the Italian armistice in August 1943, between the [[Operation Husky|fall of Sicily]] and the [[Salerno Landings]]. This caused friction with Eden and the Foreign Office.{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=195–199}} He was based at [[Caserta]] for the rest of the war. He was appointed UK High Commissioner for the Advisory Council for Italy late in 1943.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=201}} He visited London in October 1943 and again clashed with Eden. Eden appointed [[Duff Cooper]] as Representative to the [[French Committee of National Liberation|Free French government in Algeria]] (after the [[Liberation of France|liberation of mainland France]], he later continued as Ambassador to France from November 1944) and [[Noel Charles]] as Ambassador to Italy to reduce Macmillan's influence.{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=210}} In May 1944 Macmillan infuriated Eden by demanding an early peace treaty with Italy (at that time a pro-Allied regime under [[Badoglio]] held some power in the southern, liberated, part of Italy), a move which Churchill favoured. In June 1944 he argued for a British-led thrust up the [[Ljubljana Gap]] into Central Europe (Operation "Armpit") instead of the planned diversion of US and Free French forces to the South of France ([[Operation Dragoon]]). This proposal impressed Churchill and [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|General Alexander]], but did not meet with American approval. Eden sent out Robert Dixon to abolish the job of Resident Minister, there being then no job for Macmillan back in the UK, but he managed to prevent his job being abolished. Churchill visited Italy in August 1944. On 14 September 1944 Macmillan was appointed Chief Commissioner of the [[Allied Control Commission]] for Italy (in succession to General [[Noel Mason-MacFarlane]]). He continued to be British Minister Resident at Allied Headquarters and British political adviser to [[Henry Maitland Wilson, 1st Baron Wilson|"Jumbo" Wilson]], now Supreme Commander, Mediterranean.  On 10 November 1944 he was appointed Acting President of the Allied Commission (the Supreme Commander being President).{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=218–222}}

Macmillan visited Greece on 11 December 1944. As the Germans had withdrawn, British troops under [[Ronald Scobie|General Scobie]] had deployed to Athens, but there were concerns that the pro-communist Greek resistance, [[National Liberation Front (Greece)|EAM]] and its military wing [[ELAS]], would take power (see [[Dekemvriana]]) or come into conflict with British troops. Macmillan rode in a tank and was under sniper fire at the British Embassy. Despite the hostility of large sections of British and American opinion, who were sympathetic to the guerrillas and hostile to what was seen as imperialist behaviour, he persuaded a reluctant Churchill, who visited Athens later in the month, to accept [[Archbishop Damaskinos]] as Regent on behalf of the exiled [[George II of Greece|King George II]]. A [[Varkiza agreement|truce]] was negotiated in January 1945, enabling a pro-British regime to remain in power, as Churchill had demanded in the [[Percentages agreement]] the previous autumn.{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=230–240}} In 1947 the US would take over Britain's role as "protector" of Greece and Turkey, to keep the Soviets out of the Mediterranean, the so-called "[[Truman Doctrine]]".

Macmillan was also the minister advising [[General Keightley]] of [[V Corps (United Kingdom)|V Corps]], the senior [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] commander in Austria responsible for [[Operation Keelhaul]], which included the forced repatriation of up to 70,000 prisoners of war to the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Josip Broz Tito]]'s [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] in 1945. The deportations and Macmillan's involvement later became a source of controversy because of the harsh treatment meted out to [[Collaboration during World War II|Nazi collaborators]] and anti-partisans by the receiving countries, and because in the confusion V Corps went beyond the terms agreed at [[Yalta conference|Yalta]] and Allied Forces Headquarters directives by repatriating 4000 [[Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II|White Russian troops]] and 11,000 civilian family members.{{sfn|Horne|2008|pp=251–86}}<ref>Sir [[Curtis Keeble]], 'Macmillan and the Soviet Union', in Richard Aldous and Sabine Lee (eds), ''Harold Macmillan: Aspects of a Political Life'' (London: Macmillan, 1999), pp. 199–200.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v33/n17/ferdinand-mount/too-obviously-cleverer |title=Too Obviously Cleverer |author=Ferdinand Mount |date=8 September 2011 |journal=[[London Review of Books]] |volume=33 |issue=17 |access-date=15 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121193333/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v33/n17/ferdinand-mount/too-obviously-cleverer |archive-date=21 January 2012 |author-link=Ferdinand Mount }}</ref>

===Air Secretary (1945)===
Macmillan toyed with an offer to succeed Duff Cooper as MP for the safe Conservative seat of [[Westminster St George's]].{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=243}} Criticised locally for his long absence, he suggested that Lady Dorothy stand for Stockton in 1945, as she had been nursing the seat for five years. She was apparently willing. However, it was thought better for him to be seen to defend his seat, and Lord Beaverbrook had already spoken to Churchill to arrange that Macmillan be given another seat in the event of defeat.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=234–35}}

Macmillan returned to England after the European war, feeling himself 'almost a stranger at home'.<ref>Macmillan, ''Tides of Fortune'', p. 29.</ref> He was [[Secretary of State for Air]] for two months in [[Churchill caretaker ministry|Churchill's caretaker government]], 'much of which was taken up in electioneering', there being 'nothing much to be done in the way of forward planning'.<ref>Harold Macmillan, ''Tides of Fortune'' (London: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 28–29.</ref>

===Opposition (1945–1951)===
Macmillan indeed lost Stockton in the landslide [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] victory of [[1945 United Kingdom general election|July 1945]], but returned to Parliament in the November 1945 by-election in [[Bromley (UK Parliament constituency)|Bromley]]. In his diary [[Harold Nicolson]] noted the feelings of the Tory backbenchers: "They feel that Winston is too old and Anthony (Eden) too weak. They want Harold Macmillan to lead them."<ref>Harold Nicolson: ''Diaries and Letters, 1945–62.'' (London, Phoenix) p. 32</ref>

He was a member of the British delegation to the Consultative Assembly of the [[Council of Europe]] from 1949 to 1951, and played a prominent role – as a key aide and ally of [[Winston Churchill]] – in pressing for greater European integration as a bulwark against Soviet totalitarianism and to prevent a recurrence of the horrors of Nazi rule.

Although Macmillan played an important role in drafting the "[[Industrial Charter]]" ("Crossbencher" in the ''[[Sunday Express]]'' called it the second edition of ''The Middle Way'') he now, as MP for a safe seat, adopted a somewhat more right-wing public persona, defending private enterprise and fiercely opposing the Labour government in the House of Commons.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|pp=255–256}}

==Political career, 1951–1957==

===Housing Minister (1951–1954)===
With the Conservative victory in [[1951 United Kingdom general election|1951]] Macmillan became [[Ministry of Housing and Local Government|Minister of Housing & Local Government]] under Churchill, who entrusted him with fulfilling the pledge to build 300,000 houses per year (up from the previous target of 200,000 a year), made in response to a speech from the floor at the 1950 Party Conference. Macmillan thought at first that Housing, which ranked 13 out of 16 in the Cabinet list, was a poisoned chalice, writing in his diary (28 October 1951) that it was "not my cup of tea at all ... I really haven't a clue how to set about the job". It meant obtaining scarce steel, cement and timber when the Treasury were trying to maximise exports and minimise imports.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|pp=256–257}} 'It is a gamble—it will make or mar your political career,' Churchill said, 'but every humble home will bless your name if you succeed.'<ref>Macmillan, ''Tides of Fortune'', p. 364.</ref>

By July 1952 Macmillan was already criticising Butler (then Chancellor of the Exchequer) in his diary, accusing him of "dislik(ing) and fear(ing) him"; in fact there is no evidence that Butler regarded Macmillan as a rival at this stage. In April 1953 Beaverbrook encouraged Macmillan to think that in a future leadership contest he might emerge in a dead heat between Eden and Butler, as the young Beaverbrook (Max Aitken as he had been at the time) had helped [[Bonar Law]] to do in 1911.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|pp=257–258}} In July 1953 Macmillan considered postponing his gall bladder operation in case Churchill, who had just suffered a serious stroke while Eden was also in hospital, had to step down.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=259}}

Macmillan achieved his housing target by the end of 1953, a year ahead of schedule.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=139}}<ref>{{cite news |title=The Housing Total Was 318,779 |work=Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail |date=5 February 1954 |access-date=8 March 2016 |url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000378/19540205/004/0001 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Minister of Defence (1954–1955)===
[[File:Churchillcabinet1955.png|thumb|upright=1.55|right|Churchill's Cabinet, 1955 (Macmillan sitting on the far left)]]
Macmillan was [[Secretary of State for Defence|Minister of Defence]] from October 1954, but found his authority restricted by Churchill's personal involvement.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=143}} In the opinion of ''[[The Economist]]'': 'He gave the impression that his own undoubted capacity for imaginative running of his own show melted way when an august superior was breathing down his neck.'<ref>''[[The Economist]]'' (16 April 1955).</ref>

A major theme of his tenure at Defence was the ministry's growing reliance on the nuclear deterrent, in the view of some critics, to the detriment of conventional forces.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|pp=144–145}} The Defence White Paper of February 1955, announcing the decision to produce the [[hydrogen bomb]], received cross-party support.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=145}}

"It breaks my heart to see the lion-hearted Churchill begin to sink into a sort of [[Petain]]", Macmillan wrote in his diary as the Prime Minister's mental and physical powers visibly decayed. Macmillan was one of the few ministers brave enough to tell Churchill to his face that it was time for him to retire.{{sfn|Horne|1988|pp=353–354}} Petain, a successful French general in the First World War, had become senile while heading the pro-German [[Vichy Regime]].

During the Second World War Macmillan's toothy grin, baggy trousers and rimless glasses had given him, as his biographer puts it, "an air of an early Bolshevik leader".{{sfn|Horne|1988|p=155}} By the 1950s he had had his teeth capped, grew his hair in a more shapely style, wore Savile Row suits and walked with the ramrod bearing of a former Guards officer, acquiring the distinguished appearance of his later career.{{sfn|Horne|1989|pp=244–245}} Campbell writes "there has been no more startling personal reinvention in British politics".{{sfn|Campbell|2010|pp=249, 254}} He very often wore either an Old Etonian or a Brigade of Guards tie.{{sfn|Horne|1989|p=122}} Campbell also suggests that Harold Wilson's image change during Macmillan's premiership from "boring young statistician into lovable Yorkshire comic" was made in conscious imitation of Macmillan.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=254}}

===Foreign Secretary (1955)===
Macmillan was [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Foreign Secretary]] in April–December 1955 in the government of Anthony Eden, who had taken over as prime minister from the retiring Churchill. Returning from the [[Geneva Summit (1955)|Geneva Summit]] of that year he made headlines by declaring: 'There ain't gonna be no war.'{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=150}} Of the role of Foreign Secretary Macmillan observed:

{{quote|Nothing he can say can do very much good and almost anything he may say may do a great deal of harm. Anything he says that is not obvious is dangerous; whatever is not trite is risky. He is forever poised between the cliché and the indiscretion.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=150}}}}

===Chancellor of the Exchequer (1955–1957)===

====Budget====
Macmillan was appointed [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] in December 1955.<ref>Edmund Dell, ''The Chancellors: A History of the Chancellors of the Exchequer, 1945–90'' (1997) pp. 207–222, covers his term as Chancellor.</ref> He had enjoyed his eight months as Foreign Secretary and did not wish to move. He insisted on being "undisputed head of the home front" and that Eden's de facto deputy [[Rab Butler]], whom he was replacing as Chancellor, not have the title "Deputy Prime Minister" and not be treated as senior to him. He even tried (in vain) to demand that Salisbury, not Butler, should preside over the Cabinet in Eden's absence. Macmillan later claimed in his memoirs that he had still expected Butler, his junior by eight years, to succeed Eden, but correspondence with [[Lord Woolton]] at the time makes clear that Macmillan was very much thinking of the succession. As early as January 1956 he told Eden's press secretary [[William D. Clark]] that it would be "interesting to see how long Anthony can stay in the saddle".{{sfn|Campbell|2010|pp=261–262, 264}}

Macmillan planned to reverse the 6d cut in income tax which Butler had made a year previously, but backed off after a "frank talk" with Butler, who threatened resignation, on 28 March 1956. He settled for spending cuts instead, and himself threatened resignation until he was allowed to cut bread and milk subsidies, something the Cabinet had not permitted Butler to do.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|pp=264–265}}

One of his innovations at the [[HM Treasury|Treasury]] was the introduction of [[premium bonds]],<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18/newsid_4762000/4762748.stm 18 April 1956: Macmillan unveils premium bond scheme] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106130300/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18/newsid_4762000/4762748.stm |date=6 January 2017}}, [[BBC News]], 'On This Day 1950–2005'.</ref> announced in his budget of 17 April 1956.{{sfn|Horne|2008|p=383}} Although the Labour Opposition initially decried them as a 'squalid raffle', they proved an immediate hit with the public, with £1,000 won in the first prize draw in June 1957.

A young [[John Major]] attended the presentation of the budget, and attributes his political ambitions to this event.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Major |title=John Major: The Autobiography |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1999 |page=26}}</ref>

====Suez====
In November 1956, Britain invaded [[Egypt]] in collusion with France and Israel in the [[Suez Crisis]]. According to Labour Shadow Chancellor [[Harold Wilson]], Macmillan was 'first in, first out':<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/politics/1986/dec/30/obituaries Harold Macmillan; Unflappable master of the middle way] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219062359/http://www.theguardian.com/politics/1986/dec/30/obituaries |date=19 February 2014 }}, obituary in ''[[The Guardian]]'', by [[Vernon Bogdanor]]; 30 December 1986</ref> first very supportive of the invasion, then a prime mover in Britain's humiliating withdrawal in the wake of the financial crisis caused by pressure from the US government.{{sfn|Horne|2008|p=441}} Since the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]], relations between Britain and Egypt had deteriorated. The Egyptian government, which came to be dominated by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], was opposed to the British military presence in the [[Arab World]]. The Egyptian nationalisation of the [[Suez Canal]] by Nasser on 26 July 1956 prompted the British government and the French government of [[Guy Mollet]] to commence plans for invading Egypt, regaining the canal, and toppling Nasser. Macmillan wrote in his diary: "If Nasser 'gets away with it', we are done for. The whole Arab world will despise us ... [[Nuri al-Said|Nuri]] [es-Said, British-backed Prime Minister of Iraq] and our friends will fall. It may well be the end of British influence and strength forever. So, in the last resort, we must use force and defy opinion, here and overseas".<ref>Bertjan Verbeek, ''Decision-making in Great Britain during the Suez crisis'' (2003) p. 95</ref>

Macmillan threatened to resign if force was not used against Nasser.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=265}} He was heavily involved in the secret planning of the invasion with France and Israel. It was he who first suggested collusion with Israel.{{sfn|Beckett|2006|p=74}} On 5 August 1956 Macmillan met Churchill at [[Chartwell]], and told him that the government's plan for simply regaining control of the canal was not enough and suggested involving Israel, recording in his diary for that day: "Surely, if we landed we must seek out the Egyptian forces; destroy them; and bring down Nasser's government. Churchill seemed to agree with all this."<ref>Toye, Richard ''Churchill's Empire: The World That Made Him and the World He Made'' (2010) p. 304</ref> Macmillan knew President Eisenhower well, but misjudged his strong opposition to a military solution. Macmillan met Eisenhower privately on 25 September 1956 and convinced himself that the US would not oppose the invasion,{{sfn|Beckett|2006|pp=73–74}} despite the misgivings of the British Ambassador, Sir [[Roger Makins]], who was also present. Macmillan failed to heed a warning from Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] that whatever the British government did should wait until after the US presidential election on 6 November, and failed to report Dulles' remarks to Eden.

The treasury was his portfolio, but he did not recognise the financial disaster that could result from US government actions. Sterling was draining out of the Bank of England at an alarming rate. The canal was blocked by the Egyptians, and most oil shipments were delayed as tankers had to go around Africa. The US government refused any financial help until Britain withdrew its forces from Egypt. When he did realise this, he changed his mind and called for withdrawal on US terms, while exaggerating the financial crisis.<ref name="Diane B. Kunz 1991 pp 130">Diane B. Kunz, ''The Economic Diplomacy of the Suez Crisis'' (1991) pp. 130–40</ref> On 6 November Macmillan informed the Cabinet that Britain had lost $370m in the first few days of November alone.{{sfn|Howard|1987|p=237}} Faced with Macmillan's prediction of doom, the cabinet had no choice but to accept these terms and withdraw. The Canal remained in Egyptian hands, and Nasser's government continued its support of Arab and African national resistance movements opposed to the British and French presence in the region and on the continent.<ref name="Diane B. Kunz 1991 pp 130"/>

In later life Macmillan was open about his failure to read Eisenhower's thoughts correctly and much regretted the damage done to Anglo-American relations, but always maintained that the Anglo-French military response to the nationalisation of the Canal had been for the best.{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=267}} D. R. Thorpe rejects the charge that Macmillan deliberately played false over Suez (i.e. encouraged Eden to attack in order to destroy him as prime minister), noting that Macmillan privately put the chances of success at 51–49.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=356}}

====Succession to Eden====
Britain's humiliation at the hands of the US caused deep anger among Conservative MPs. After the ceasefire a motion on the Order Paper attacking the US for "gravely endangering the Atlantic Alliance" attracted the signatures of over a hundred MPs.{{sfn|Howard|1987|p=239}}
Macmillan tried, but failed, to see Eisenhower (who was also refusing to see Foreign Secretary [[Selwyn Lloyd]]) behind Butler's and Eden's back. Macmillan had a number of meetings with [[United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom|US Ambassador]] [[Winthrop Aldrich]], in which he said that if he were prime minister the US Administration would find him much more amenable. Eisenhower encouraged Aldrich to have further meetings. Macmillan and Butler met Aldrich on 21 November. Eisenhower spoke highly of Macmillan ("A straight, fine man, and so far as he is concerned, the outstanding one of the British he served with during the war").{{sfn|Howard|1987|p=242}}<ref>Thorpe 2010, pp. 352–53 Eisenhower said these words in a meeting with Treasury Secretary [[George M. Humphrey|Humphrey]] (who was pro-Butler), [[Under Secretary of State]] [[Herbert Hoover, Jr.|Hoover]] and [[Staff Secretary]] [[Andrew Goodpaster]]. It is unclear whether there was ''direct'' pressure from the US Administration for Macmillan to be chosen, or rather whether being the candidate best placed to rebuild bridges with the Americans was simply another reason why leading Conservatives preferred him to Butler. Published accounts do not agree about the date of the meeting. Williams (2010, p. 270) lists it as happening on 20 November, a date repeated in Michael Jago's 2015 biography of Rab Butler. Macmillan's other recent biographer D. R. Thorpe gives it as 24 ''December'', presumably an error as the footnote refers to Eisenhower's papers for November 1956, while in his biography of Anthony Eden (2003, p. 539) Thorpe gives it as 24 November.</ref>

On the evening of 22 November 1956 Butler, who had just announced British withdrawal, addressed the [[1922 Committee]] (Conservative backbenchers) with Macmillan. After Butler's downbeat remarks, ten minutes or so in length, Macmillan delivered a stirring 35-minute speech described by [[Enoch Powell]] as "one of the most horrible things that I remember in politics ... (Macmillan) with all the skill of the old [[actor manager]] succeeded in false-footing Rab. The sheer devilry of it verged upon the disgusting." He expounded on his metaphor that henceforth the British must aim to be "Greeks in the Roman Empire", and according to [[Philip Goodhart]]'s recollection almost knocked Butler off his chair with his expansive arm gestures. Macmillan wrote "I held the Tory Party for the weekend, it was all I intended to do". Macmillan had further meetings with Aldrich and Winston Churchill after Eden left for Jamaica (23 November) while briefing journalists (disingenuously) that he planned to retire and go to the Lords.{{sfn|Howard|1987|pp=240–241}}{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=353–354}} He was also hinting that he would not serve under Butler.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=269}}

Butler later recorded that during his period as acting Head of Government at Number 10, he noticed constant comings and goings of ministers to Macmillan's study in Number 11 next door, and that those who attended all seemed to receive promotions when Macmillan became prime minister. Macmillan had opposed Eden's trip to Jamaica and told Butler (15 December, the day after Eden's return) that younger members of the Cabinet wanted Eden out.{{sfn|Howard|1987|p=244}} Macmillan argued at Cabinet on 4 January that Suez should be regarded as a "strategic retreat" like [[Battle of Mons|Mons]] or [[Dunkirk evacuation|Dunkirk]]. This did not meet with Eden's approval at Cabinet on 7 January.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=358}}

His political standing destroyed, Eden resigned on grounds of ill health on 9 January 1957.{{sfn|Beckett|2006|pp=77–78}} At that time the Conservative Party had no formal mechanism for selecting a new leader, and [[Queen Elizabeth II]] appointed Macmillan Prime Minister after taking advice from Churchill and [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|the Marquess of Salisbury]], who had asked the Cabinet individually for their opinions, all but two or three opting for Macmillan. This surprised some observers who had expected that Eden's deputy Rab Butler would be chosen.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=361–362}} The political situation after Suez was so desperate that on taking office on 10 January he told the Queen he could not guarantee his government would last "six weeks", though ultimately he would be in charge of the government for more than six years.<ref>Harold Macmillan, ''The Macmillan Diaries, The Cabinet Years, 1950–1957'', ed. Peter Catterall (London: Macmillan, 2003).</ref>

==Prime Minister (1957–1963)<span class="anchor" id="Premiership"></span><!-- linked from redirects [[Premiership of Harold Macmillan]], [[Prime ministership of Harold Macmillan]] -->==
{{Infobox administration
| image = Vice President Richard Nixon with British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (cropped).jpg
| caption = Macmillan in 1959
| name = Premiership of Harold Macmillan
| term_start = 10 January 1957
| term_end = 18 October 1963
| premier = Harold Macmillan
| premier_link = Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
| cabinet = [[Conservative government, 1957–1964|Macmillan ministry]]
| party = [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
| election = [[1959 United Kingdom general election|1959]]
| monarch = [[Elizabeth II]]
| seat = [[10 Downing Street]]
| predecessor = [[Premiership of Anthony Eden|Anthony Eden]]
| successor = [[Premiership of Alec Douglas-Home|Alec Douglas-Home]]
| official_url = 
}}
{{further|Conservative government, 1957–1964}}

===First government, 1957–1959===
From the start of his premiership, Macmillan set out to portray an image of calm and style, in contrast to his excitable predecessor.  He silenced the klaxon on the Prime Ministerial car, which Eden had used frequently. He advertised his love of reading [[Anthony Trollope]] and [[Jane Austen]], and on the door of the Private Secretaries' room at Number Ten he hung a quote from ''[[The Gondoliers]]'': "Quiet, calm deliberation disentangles every knot".{{sfn|Horne|1989|pp=5, 13}}

Macmillan filled government posts with 35 Old Etonians, seven of them in Cabinet.<ref>David Butler, ''Twentieth Century British Political Facts 1900–2000'', Macmillan, 8th edition, 2000.</ref> He was also devoted to family members: when [[Andrew Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire]] was later appointed (Minister for Colonial Affairs from 1963 to 1964 among other positions) he described his uncle's behaviour as "the greatest act of nepotism ever".<ref>Gyles Brandreth. ''Brief encounters: meetings with remarkable people'' (2001) p. 214</ref> Macmillan's Defence Minister, [[Duncan Sandys]], wrote at the time: "Eden had no gift for leadership; under Macmillan as PM everything is better, Cabinet meetings are quite transformed".<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.169">Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.169</ref> Many ministers found Macmillan to be more decisive and brisk than either Churchill or Eden had been.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.169"/> Another of Macmillan's ministers, [[Charles Hill, Baron Hill of Luton|Charles Hill]], stated that Macmillan dominated Cabinet meetings "by sheer superiority of mind and of judgement".<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170">Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170</ref> Macmillan frequently made allusions to  history, literature and the classics at cabinet meetings, giving him a reputation as being both learned and entertaining, though many ministers found his manner too authoritarian.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170"/> Macmillan had no "inner cabinet", and instead maintained one-on-one relationships with a few senior ministers such as Rab Butler who usually served as acting prime minister when Macmillan was on one of his frequent visits abroad.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170"/> Selwyn Lloyd described Macmillan as treating most of his ministers like "junior officers in a unit he commanded".<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170"/> Lloyd recalled that Macmillan: "regarded the Cabinet as an instrument to play upon, a body to be molded to his will...very rarely did he fail to get his way"<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170"/> Macmillan generally allowed his ministers much leeway in managing their portfolios, and only intervened if he felt something had gone wrong.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.169"/> Macmillan was especially close to his three private secretaries, [[Timothy Bligh|Tom Bligh]], Freddie Bishop and [[Philip de Zulueta]], who were his favourite advisers.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170"/> Many cabinet ministers often complained that Macmillan took the advice of his private secretaries more seriously than he did their own.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170"/>

He was nicknamed "[[Supermac (cartoon)|Supermac]]" in 1958 by the cartoonist [[Victor Weisz]], who intended to suggest that Macmillan was trying set himself up as a "Superman" figure.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.170"/> It was intended as mockery but backfired, coming to be used in a neutral or friendly fashion. Weisz tried to label him with other names, including "Mac the Knife" at the time of widespread [[Night of the Long Knives (1962)|cabinet changes in 1962]], but none caught on.<ref>[[Colin Seymour-Ure]], ''Prime Ministers and the Media: issues of power and control'' (2003) p. 261</ref>

====Economy====
Besides foreign affairs, the economy was Macmillan's other prime concern.<ref>Edmund Dell, ''The Chancellors: A History of the Chancellors of the Exchequer, 1945–90'' (1997) pp. 223–303.</ref> His [[One Nation Conservatism|One Nation]] approach to the economy was to seek high or full employment, especially with a general election looming. This contrasted with the Treasury ministers who argued that support of sterling required spending cuts and, probably, a rise in unemployment. Their advice was rejected and in January 1958 the three Treasury ministers — [[Peter Thorneycroft]], the Chancellor of the Exchequer, [[Nigel Birch]], [[Economic Secretary to the Treasury]], and Enoch Powell, the [[Financial Secretary to the Treasury]] and seen as their intellectual ringleader — resigned. D. R. Thorpe argues that this, coming after the resignations of Labour ministers [[Aneurin Bevan]], [[John Freeman (British politician)|John Freeman]] and Harold Wilson in April 1951 (who had wanted ''higher'' expenditure), and the cuts made by Butler and Macmillan as Chancellors in 1955–56, was another step in the development of "stop-go" economics, as opposed to prudent medium-term management.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=401–407}} Macmillan, away on a tour of the Commonwealth, brushed aside this incident as "a little local difficulty". He bore no grudge against Thorneycroft and brought him and Powell, of whom he was more wary, back into the government in 1960.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=407}}

This period also saw the first stirrings of more active [[monetary policy]]. [[Official bank rate]], which had been kept low since the 1930s, was hiked in September 1958.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=401–407}} The change in bank rate prompted rumours in the [[City of London|City]] that some financiers – who were [[Bank of England]] directors with senior positions in private firms – took advantage of advance knowledge of the rate change in what resembled [[insider trading]]. Political pressure mounted on the Government, and Macmillan agreed to the [[1957 Bank Rate Tribunal]]. Hearing evidence in the winter of 1957 and reporting in January 1958, this inquiry exonerated all involved in what some journalists perceived to be a [[whitewashing (censorship)|whitewash]].<ref>[[David Kynaston]], ''Till Time's Last Stand: A History of The Bank of England, 1694–2013'', Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017, pp. 434–435.</ref>

====Domestic policies====
During his time as prime minister, average living standards steadily rose<ref>OCR A Level History B: The End of Consensus: Britain 1945–90 by Pearson Education</ref> while numerous social reforms were carried out. The [[Clean Air Act 1956]] was passed during his time as Chancellor; his premiership saw the passage of the [[Housing Act 1957]], the [[Offices Act 1960]], the [[Noise Abatement Act 1960]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMciK2dbAI8C&q=poverty+in+britain+offices+act+1961&pg=PR80 |title=Poverty, Inequality and Health in Britain, 1800–2000: A Reader |date=11 July 2001 |access-date=18 October 2013 |isbn=9781861342119 |last1=Davey Smith |first1=George |last2=Dorling |first2=Daniel |last3=Shaw |first3=Mary |publisher=Policy Press |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108140006/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMciK2dbAI8C&q=poverty+in+britain+offices+act+1961&pg=PR80 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Factories Act 1961]]; the introduction of a graduated pension scheme to provide an additional income to retirees,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf3a4dOjy0kC&q=harold+macmillan+graduated+pension+scheme&pg=PA221 |title=The Many Concepts of Social Justice in European Private Law |date= 1 November 2011|access-date=18 October 2013|isbn=9780857935892 |last1=Micklitz |first1=H. W. |publisher=Edward Elgar }}</ref> the establishment of a [[Child's Special Allowance]] for the orphaned children of divorced parents,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CiE7TEwJtsAC&q=UK+Child+Special+Allowance+1959&pg=PA26 |title=How Social Security Works: An Introduction to Benefits in Britain |access-date=18 October 2013 |isbn=9781847428103 |year=2011 |last1=Spicker |first1=Paul |publisher=Policy Press |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108140146/https://books.google.com/books?id=CiE7TEwJtsAC&q=UK+Child+Special+Allowance+1959&pg=PA26 |url-status=live }}</ref> and a reduction in the standard [[work week]] from 48 to 42 hours.<ref>''Mastering Modern World History'' by Norman Lowe</ref>{{pn|date=October 2022}}

====Foreign policy====
[[File:senandmacmillan.JPG|left|thumb| Macmillan with Indian Minister and head of Indian delegation [[Ashoke Kumar Sen]] and wife Anjana, daughter of [[Sudhi Ranjan Das]]]]
[[File:International Diplomacy.jpg|thumb|Macmillan meeting Eisenhower in Bermuda]]
Macmillan took close control of foreign policy. He worked to narrow the post-[[Suez Crisis|Suez Crisis (1956)]] rift with the United States, where his wartime friendship with Eisenhower was key; the two had a productive conference in [[Bermuda]] as early as March 1957.

In February 1959, Macmillan visited the Soviet Union. Talks with [[Nikita Khrushchev]] eased tensions in east–west relations over [[West Berlin]] and led to an agreement in principle to stop nuclear tests and to hold a further summit meeting of [[NATO|Allied]] and Soviet heads of government.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=214}}

In the Middle East, faced by the 1958 collapse of the [[Baghdad Pact]] and the spread of Soviet influence, Macmillan acted decisively to restore the confidence of [[Persian Gulf]] allies, using the Royal Air Force and [[Special Air Service|special forces]] to defeat a revolt backed by [[Saudi Arabia]] and Egypt against the Sultan of Oman, [[Said bin Taimur]], in July 1957;{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=193}} deploying airborne battalions to defend [[Jordan]] against [[United Arab Republic|United Arab Republican]] subversion in July 1958;<ref>Horne, ''Macmillan'', Volume II, pp. 94–95.</ref> and deterring Iraqi demands  of [[Kuwait]] by landing a brigade group in June 1961 during the [[Operation Vantage|Iraq–Kuwait crisis of 1961]] .<ref>Horne, ''Macmillan'', Volume II, p. 419.</ref>

Macmillan was a major proponent and architect of [[decolonisation]]. The [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] was granted independence as [[Ghana]], and the [[Federation of Malaya]] achieved independence within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1957. "The material strength of the Old Commonwealth members, if joined with the moral influence of the Asiatic members, meant that a united Commonwealth would always have a very powerful voice in world affairs," said Macmillan in a 1957 speech during a tour of the former British Empire.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Onslow |first=Sue |date=13 July 2015 |title=The Commonwealth and the Cold War, Neutralism, and Non-Alignment |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07075332.2015.1053965 |journal=[[The International History Review]] |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=1059–1082 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2015.1053965 |s2cid=154044321 |access-date=14 March 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

====Nuclear weapons====
[[File:OperationGrappleXmasIslandHbomb.jpg|upright|thumb|First successful British [[Teller–Ulam design|H-bomb]] test—Operation Grapple X Round C1, which took place over [[Kiritimati]]]]
In April 1957, Macmillan reaffirmed his strong support for the [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|British nuclear weapons programme]]. A succession of prime ministers since the [[Second World War]] had been determined to persuade the United States to revive [[Special Relationship (US-UK)#Nuclear weapons development|wartime co-operation]] in the area of nuclear weapons research. Macmillan believed that one way to encourage such co-operation would be for the United Kingdom to speed up the development of its own [[hydrogen bomb]], which was [[Grapple X|successfully tested]] on 8 November 1957.

Macmillan's decision led to increased demands on the [[Windscale Piles|Windscale]] and (subsequently) [[Calder Hall]] nuclear plants to produce [[Plutonium#Explosives|plutonium]] for military purposes.<ref>Nick Rufford, 'A-bomb links kept secret from Queen', ''Sunday Times'' (3 January 1988).</ref> As a result, safety margins for radioactive materials inside the Windscale reactor were eroded. This contributed to the [[Windscale fire]] on the night of 10 October 1957, which broke out in the plutonium plant of Pile No. 1, and nuclear contaminants travelled up a chimney where the filters blocked some, but not all, of the contaminated material. The radioactive cloud spread to south-east England and fallout reached mainland Europe. Although scientists had warned of the dangers of such an accident for some time, the government blamed the workers who had put out the fire for 'an error of judgement', rather than the political pressure for fast-tracking the megaton bomb.<ref>'Windscale: Britain's Biggest Nuclear Disaster', broadcast on Monday, 8 October 2007, at 2100 BST on BBC Two.</ref><ref>Paddy Shennan, 'Britain's Biggest Nuclear Disaster', ''Liverpool Echo'' (13 October 2007), p. 26.</ref>

Concerned that public confidence in the nuclear programme might be shaken and that technical information might be misused by opponents of defence co-operation in the [[US Congress]], Macmillan withheld all but the summary of a report into the fire prepared for the [[Atomic Energy Authority]] by [[William Penney, Baron Penney|Sir William Penney]], director of the [[Atomic Weapons Research Establishment]].<ref>John Hunt. 'Cabinet Papers For 1957: Windscale Fire Danger Disclosed', ''Financial Times'' (2 January 1988).</ref> Subsequently released files show that 'Macmillan's cuts were few and covered up few technical details',<ref>David Walker, 'Focus on 1957: Macmillan ordered Windscale censorship', ''The Times'' (1 January 1988).</ref> and that even the full report found no danger to public health, but later official estimates acknowledged that the release of [[polonium-210]] may have led directly to 25 to 50 deaths, and anti-nuclear groups linked it to 1,000 fatal cancers.<ref>Jean McSorley, 'Contaminated evidence: The secrecy and political cover-ups that followed the fire in a British nuclear reactor 50 years ago still resonate in public concerns', ''The Guardian'' (10 October 2007), p. 8.</ref><ref>John Gray, 'Accident disclosures bring calls for review of U.K. secrecy laws', ''Globe and Mail'' (Toronto, 4 January 1988).</ref>

On 25 March 1957, Macmillan acceded to Eisenhower's request to base 60 [[Thor missile|Thor IRBMs]] in England under joint control to replace the [[nuclear bomber]]s of the [[Strategic Air Command]], which had been stationed under joint control since 1948 and were approaching obsolescence. Partly as a consequence of this favour, in late October 1957 the US [[McMahon Act]] was eased to facilitate nuclear co-operation between the two governments, initially with a view to producing cleaner weapons and reducing the need for duplicate testing.<ref>Richard Gott, 'The Evolution of the Independent British Deterrent', ''International Affairs'', 39/2 (April 1963), p. 246.</ref> The [[1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement|Mutual Defence Agreement]] followed on 3 July 1958, speeding up British [[ballistic missile]] development,<ref>Gott, 'Independent British Deterrent', p. 247.</ref> notwithstanding unease expressed at the time about the impetus co-operation might give to [[atomic proliferation]] by arousing the jealousy of France and other allies.<ref>''The Times'' (4 July US Navy).</ref>

Macmillan saw an opportunity to increase British influence over the United States with the launching of the Soviet satellite [[Sputnik]], which caused [[Sputnik crisis|a severe crisis of confidence]] in the United States as Macmillan wrote in his diary: "The Russian success in launching the satellite has been something equivalent to [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbour]]. The American cockiness is shaken....President is under severe attack for the first time...The atmosphere is now such that almost anything might be decided, however revolutionary".{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=699}} The "revolutionary" change that Macmillan sought was a more equal Anglo-American partnership as he used the Sputnik crisis to press Eisenhower to in turn press Congress to repeal the 1946 MacMahon Act, which forbade the United States to share nuclear technology with foreign governments, a goal accomplished by the end of 1957.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|pp=699–700}}

In addition, Macmillan succeeded in having Eisenhower to agree to set up Anglo-American "working groups" to examine foreign policy problems and for what he called the "Declaration of Interdependence" (a title not used by the Americans who called it the "Declaration of Common Purpose"), which he believed marked the beginning of a new era of Anglo-American partnership.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=700}} Subsequently, Macmillan was to learn that neither Eisenhower nor Kennedy shared the assumption that he applied to the "Declaration of Interdependence" that the American president and the British Prime Minister had equal power over the decisions of war and peace.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=702}} Macmillan believed that the American policies towards the Soviet Union were too rigid and confrontational, and favoured a policy of détente with the aim of relaxing Cold War tensions.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=703}}

====1959 general election====
Macmillan led the Conservatives to victory in the [[1959 United Kingdom general election|1959 general election]], increasing his party's majority from 60 to 100 seats. The campaign was based on the economic improvements achieved as well as the low unemployment and improving standard of living; the slogan "Life's Better Under the Conservatives" was matched by Macmillan's own 1957 remark, "indeed let us be frank about it—most of our people have never had it so good,"<ref>{{citation |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_3728000/3728225.stm |title=Harold Macmillan, Speech in Bedford, 20 July 1957 |publisher=BBC News |date=20 July 1974 |access-date=31 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101003131129/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_3728000/3728225.stm |archive-date=3 October 2010 }}</ref> usually paraphrased as "You've never had it so good." Such rhetoric reflected a new reality of working-class affluence; it has been argued that "the key factor in the Conservative victory was that average real pay for industrial workers had risen since Churchill's 1951 victory by over 20 per cent".{{sfn|Lamb|1995|p=62}} The scale of the victory meant that not only had the Conservatives won three successive general elections, but they had also increased their majority each time. It sparked debate as to whether Labour (now led by [[Hugh Gaitskell]]) could win a general election again. The standard of living had risen enough that workers could participate in a consumer economy, shifting the working class concerns away from traditional Labour Party views.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/vote_2005/basics/4393287.stm|title=1959: Macmillan wins Tory hat trick|date=5 April 2005|via=news.bbc.co.uk|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422144713/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/vote_2005/basics/4393287.stm|archive-date=22 April 2009}}</ref>

===Second government, 1959–1963===

====Economy <span class="anchor" id="Economy (1959–1963)"></span>====
Britain's [[balance of payments]] problems led Chancellor [[Selwyn Lloyd]] to impose a seven-month [[wage freeze]] in 1961<ref name="papers">{{cite web|website=Nationalarchives.gov.uk|url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/strained-consensus-labour.htm|title=Cabinet Papers – Strained consensus and Labour|access-date=21 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010155508/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/strained-consensus-labour.htm|archive-date=10 October 2017}}</ref> and, amongst other factors, this caused the government to lose popularity and a [[List of elections in 1962#United Kingdom|series of by-elections in March 1962]], of which the most famous was [[1962 Orpington by-election|Orpington]] on 14 March.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=518}} Butler leaked to the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' on 11 July 1962 that a major reshuffle was imminent.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=520}} Macmillan feared for his own position and later (1 August) claimed to Lloyd that Butler, who sat for [[Saffron Walden (UK Parliament constituency)|a rural East Anglian seat]] likely to suffer from [[Common Agricultural Policy|EC agricultural protectionism]], had been planning to split the party over EC entry (there is no evidence that this was so).{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=524}}

In the 1962 cabinet reshuffle known as the "[[Night of the Long Knives (1962)|Night of the Long Knives]]", Macmillan sacked eight Ministers, including Selwyn Lloyd. The Cabinet changes were widely seen as a sign of panic, and the young Liberal MP [[Jeremy Thorpe]] said of Macmillan's dismissals, "greater love hath no man than this, than to lay down his friends for his life". Macmillan was openly criticised by his predecessor [[Anthony Eden|Lord Avon]], an almost unprecedented act.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=525}}

Macmillan supported the creation of the [[National Economic Development Council]] (NEDC, known as "Neddy"), which was announced in the summer of 1961 and first met in 1962. However, the National Incomes Commission (NIC, known as "Nicky"), set up in October 1962 to institute controls on income as part of his growth-without-inflation policy, proved less effective. This was largely due to employers and the [[Trades Union Congress]] (TUC) boycotting it.<ref name="papers"/> A further series of subtle indicators and controls was introduced during his premiership.

The report ''The Reshaping of British Railways''<ref>{{cite web |author=Garry Keenor |url=http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=13 |title=The Reshaping of British Railways – Part 1: Report |publisher=The Railways Archive |access-date=25 July 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20101019045735/http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=13 |archive-date=19 October 2010}}</ref> (or Beeching I report) was published on 27 March 1963. The report starts by quoting the brief provided by the prime minister, Harold Macmillan, from 1960, "First, the industry must be of a size and pattern suited to modern conditions and prospects. In particular, the railway system must be modelled to meet current needs, and the modernisation plan must be adapted to this new shape",<ref group="note">[[#RB1963a|RB(1963a)]], p. 1.</ref> and with the premise that the railways should be run as a profitable business.<ref group="note">[[#RB1963a|RB(1963a)]], p. 2. "It is, of course the responsibility of the British Railways Board so to shape and operate the railways as to make them pay."</ref> This led to the notorious [[Beeching Axe]], destroying many miles of [[permanent way]] and severing towns from the railway network.

====Foreign policy====
[[File:Harold-Macmillan-in-Finland-1961.jpg|thumb|right|Macmillan (left) on 1 August 1961 in [[Valkeakoski]], Finland. In the middle, the Finnish Minister [[Ahti Karjalainen]], and [[Anthony Lambert|Sir Anthony Lambert]] standing to the right.]]
In the age of jet aircraft Macmillan travelled more than any previous prime minister, apart from Lloyd George who made many trips to conferences in 1919–22.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=275}} Macmillan planned an important role in setting up a four power summit in Paris to discuss the Berlin crisis that was supposed to open in May 1960, but which Khrushchev refused to attend owing to the U-2 incident.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|pp=703–704}} Macmillan pressed Eisenhower to apologise to Khrushchev, which the president refused to do.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=704}} Macmillan's failure to make Eisenhower "say sorry" to Khrushchev forced him to reconsider his "Greeks and Romans" foreign policy as he privately conceded that could no "longer talk usefully to the Americans".{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=704}} The failure of the Paris summit changed Macmillan's attitude towards the European Economic Community, which he started to see as a counterbalance to American power.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=705}} At the same time, the Anglo-American "working groups", which Macmillan attached such importance to turned out to be largely ineffective as the Americans did not wish to have their options limited by a British veto; by in-fighting between agencies of the U.S. government such as the State Department, Defense Department, etc.; and because of the [[Cambridge Five|Maclean-Burgess affair]] of 1951 the Americans believed the British government was full of Soviet spies and thus could not be trusted.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=705}}

===Relations with the United States===
The [[Special Relationship|special relationship]] with the United States continued after the election of President John F. Kennedy, whose sister Kathleen Cavendish had married [[William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington]], the nephew of Macmillan's wife. Macmillan initially was concerned that the Irish-American Catholic Kennedy might be an Anglophobe, which led Macmillan, who knew of Kennedy's special interest in the Third World, to suggest that Britain and the United States spend more money on aid to the Third World.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=707}} The emphasis on aid to the Third World also coincided well with Macmillan's "one nation conservatism" as he wrote in a letter to Kennedy advocating reforms to capitalism to ensure full employment: "If we fail in this, Communism will triumph, not by war or even by subversion but by seemingly to be a better way of bringing people material comforts".{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=707}}

Macmillan was scheduled to visit the United States in April 1961, but with the [[Pathet Lao]] winning a series of victories in the [[Laotian civil war]], Macmillan was summoned on what he called the "Laos dash" for an emergency summit with Kennedy in Key West on 26 March 1961.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|pp=708–709}} Macmillan was strongly opposed to the idea of sending British troops to fight in Laos, but was afraid of damaging relations with the United States if he did not, making him very apprehensive as he set out for Key West, especially as he had never met Kennedy before.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=709}} Macmillan was especially opposed to intervention in Laos as he had been warned by his Chiefs of Staff on 4 January 1961 that if Western troops entered Laos, then China would probably intervene in Laos as Mao Zedong had made it quite clear he would not accept Western forces in any nation that bordered China.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=20}} The same report stated that a war with China in Laos would "be a bottomless pit in which our limited military resources would rapidly disappear".{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=20}} Kennedy for his part wanted Britain to commit forces to Laos if the United States did for political reasons.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|pp=709–710}} The meeting in Key West was very tense as Macmillan was heard to mutter "He's pushing me hard, but I won't give way".{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=709}} However, Macmillan did reluctantly agree if the Americans intervened in Laos, then so too would Britain. The Laos crisis had a major crisis in Anglo-Thai relations as the Thais pressed for armed forces of  all SEATO members to brought to "Charter Yellow", a state of heightened alert that the British representative to SEATO vetoed.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=22}} The Thais wanted to change the voting procedure for SEATO from requiring unanimous consent to a three-quarter majority, a measure that Britain vetoed, causing the Thais to lose interest in SEATO.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=22-23}}

The failure of the [[Bay of Pigs invasion]] in April 1961 made Kennedy distrust the hawkish advice he received from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the CIA, and he ultimately decided against intervention in Laos, much to Macmillan's private relief. Macmillan's second meeting with Kennedy in April 1961 was friendlier and his third meeting in London in June 1961 after Kennedy had been bested by Khrushchev at a summit in Vienna even more so. It was at his third meeting in London that Macmillan started to assume the mantle of an elder statesman, who offered Kennedy encouragement and his experience that formed a lasting friendship.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=710}} Believing that personal diplomacy was the best way to influence Kennedy, Macmillan appointed [[David Ormsby-Gore]] as his ambassador in Washington as he was a long-time friend of the Kennedy family, whom he had known since the 1930s when Kennedy's father had served as the American ambassador in London.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=712}}

He was supportive throughout the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] of 1962 and Kennedy consulted him by telephone every day. The Ambassador David Ormsby-Gore was a close family friend of the president and actively involved in White House discussions on how to resolve the crisis.<ref>Christopher Sandford, ''Harold and Jack: The Remarkable Friendship of Prime Minister Macmillan and President Kennedy'' (2014) pp. 212–213</ref> About the Congo crisis, Macmillan clashed with Kennedy as he was against having United Nations forces put an end to the secessionist regime of [[State of Katanga|Katanga]] backed by Belgium and the Western mining companies, which he claimed would destabilise the [[Central African Federation]].{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=719}} By contrast, Kennedy felt that the regime of Katanga was a Belgian puppet state and its mere existence was damaging to the prestige of the West in the Third World. Over Macmillan's objections, Kennedy decided to have the United Nations forces to evict the white mercenaries from Katanga and reintegrate Katanga into the Congo.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=719}} For his part, Kennedy pressed Macmillan unsuccessfully to have Britain join the American economic embargo against Cuba.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=719}} Macmillan told his Foreign Secretary, Lord Home "there is no reason for us to help the Americans with Cuba".{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=719}}

Macmillan was a supporter of the nuclear test ban treaty of 1963, and in the first half of 1963 he had Ormsby-Gore quietly apply pressure on Kennedy to resume the talks in the spring of 1963 when negotiations became stalled. Feeling that the Secretary of State, [[Dean Rusk]], was being obstructionist, Macmillan telephoned Kennedy on 11 April 1963 to suggest a joint letter to Khrushchev to break the impasse.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=713}} Though Khrushchev's reply to the Macmillan-Kennedy letter was mostly negative, Macmillan pressed Kennedy to take up the one positive aspect in his reply, namely that if a senior Anglo-American team would arrive in Moscow, he would welcome them to discuss how best to proceed about a nuclear test ban treaty.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=713}} The two envoys who arrived in Moscow were [[W. Averell Harriman]] representing the United States and [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]] representing the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=714}} Though Lord Hailsham's role was largely that of an observer, the talks between Harriman and the Soviet foreign minister [[Andrei Gromyko]] resulted in the breakthrough that led to the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]] of August 1963, banning all above ground nuclear tests.{{sfn|Ashton|2005|p=714}} Macmillan had pressing domestic reasons for the nuclear test ban treaty. Newsreel footage of Soviet and American nuclear tests throughout the 1950s had terrified segments of the British public who were highly concerned about the possibility of weapons with such destructive power being used against British cities, and this led to the foundation of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] (CND), whose rallies in the late 1950s-early 1960s calling for British nuclear disarmament were well attended. Macmillan believed in the value of nuclear weapons both as a deterrent against the Soviet Union and to maintain Britain's claim to be a great power, but he was also worried about the popularity of the CND.{{sfn|Wright|1999|p=10}} For Macmillan, banning above-ground nuclear tests, which generated film footage of the ominous mushroom clouds raising far above the earth, was the best way to dent the appeal of the CND, and in this the Partial Nuclear Ban Treaty of 1963 was successful.{{sfn|Wright|1999|p=10}}

===Wind of Change===
[[File:British Decolonisation in Africa.png|thumb|upright=1.25|right|British decolonisation in Africa]]
[[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-1-17.jpg|thumb|Macmillan meets the [[Litunga]] of the [[Barotse]] in Northern Rhodesia, 1960]]
Macmillan's first government had seen the first phase of the [[sub-Saharan Africa]]n independence movement, which accelerated under his second government.<ref>Larry Butler and Sarah Stockwell, eds. ''The wind of change: Harold Macmillan and British decolonization'' (Springer, 2013).</ref> The most problematic of the colonies was the Central African Federation, which had united Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland together in 1953 largely out of the fear that the white population of Southern Rhodesia (modern Zimbabwe) might want to join South Africa, which had since 1948 had been led by Afrikaner nationalists distinctly unfriendly to Britain.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.176">Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.176</ref> Though the Central African Federation had been presented as a multi-racial attempt to develop the region, the federation had been unstable right from the start with the black population charging that the whites had been given a privileged position.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.176"/>

Macmillan felt that if the costs of holding onto a particular territory outweighed the benefits then it should be dispensed with. During the [[Kenyan Emergency]], the British authorities tried to protect the Kikuyu population from the Mau Mau guerrillas (who called themselves the "Land and Freedom Army") by interning the Kikuyu in camps. A scandal erupted when the guards at the Hola camp [[Hola massacre|publicly beat 11 prisoners to death]] on 3 March 1959, which attracted much adverse publicity as the news filtered out from Kenya to the United Kingdom.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.176"/> Many in the British media compared the living conditions in the Kenyan camps to the concentration camps of Nazi Germany, saying that the people in the camps were emaciated and sickly. The report of the [[Devlin Commission]] in July 1959 concerning the suppression of demonstrators in Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi) called Nyasaland "a police state".<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.176"/> In the aftermath of criticism about colonial policies in Kenya and Nyasland, Macmillan from 1959 onward started to see the African colonies as a liability, arguing at cabinet meetings that the level of force required to hang onto them would result in more domestic criticism, international opprobrium, costly wars, and would allow the Soviet Union to establish influence in the Third World by supporting self-styled "liberation" movements that would just make things worse.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.176"/> After securing a third term for the Conservatives in 1959 he appointed [[Iain Macleod]] as Colonial Secretary. Macleod greatly accelerated decolonisation and by the time he was moved to Conservative Party chairman and Leader of the Commons in 1961 he had made the decision to give independence to [[Nigeria]], [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]], [[Kenya]], [[Nyasaland]] (as [[Malawi]]) and [[Northern Rhodesia]] (as [[Zambia]]).<ref>Toye, Richard ''Churchill's Empire: The World That Made Him and the World He Made'' (2010) p. 306</ref> Macmillan embarked on his "Wind of Change" tour of Africa, starting in Ghana on 6 January 1960. He made the famous [[Wind of Change (speech)|'wind of change' speech]] in [[Cape Town]] on 3 February 1960.<ref>{{cite web|title=Harold Macmillan begins his "winds of change" tour of Africa|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/harold-macmillan-begins-his-winds-change-tour-africa|website=South Africa History Online|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208113303/http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/harold-macmillan-begins-his-winds-change-tour-africa|archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> It is considered a landmark in the process of decolonisation.
[[File:Nasser_and_Macmillan.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Macmillan meets Egypt 's President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] on the sidelines of United Nations General Assembly, 1960]]
Nigeria, the [[Southern Cameroons]] and [[British Somaliland]] were granted independence in 1960, [[Sierra Leone]] and Tanganyika in 1961, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Uganda]] in 1962, and Kenya in 1963. [[Zanzibar]] merged with Tanganyika to form [[Tanzania]] in 1963. All remained within the Commonwealth except British Somaliland, which merged with [[Italian Somaliland]] to form [[Somalia]].

Macmillan's policy overrode the hostility of white minorities and the [[Conservative Monday Club]]. South Africa left the multiracial Commonwealth in 1961 and Macmillan acquiesced to the dissolution of the [[Central African Federation]] by the end of 1963.

In Southeast Asia, [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (which had gained independence on its own in 1957), Sabah ([[Crown Colony of North Borneo|British North Borneo]]), [[Sarawak]] and Singapore formed a new independent nation of [[Malaysia]] in 1963. Because Singapore with its ethnic Chinese majority was the largest and wealthiest city in the region, Macmillan was afraid that a federation of Malaya and Singapore together would result in a Chinese majority state, and insisted on including Sarawak and British North Borneo into the federation of Malaysia to ensure the new state was a Malay majority state.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=181}} During the Malaya Emergency, the majority of the Communist guerrillas were ethnic Chinese, and British policies tended to favour the Muslim Malays whose willingness to follow their sultans and imams made them more anti-communist. Southeast Asia was a region where racial-ethno-religious politics predominated, and the substantial Chinese minorities in the region were widely disliked on the account of their greater economic success.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=180}} Macmillan wanted Britain to retain military bases in the new state of Malaysia to ensure that Britain was a military power in Asia and thus he wanted the new state of Malaysia to have a pro-Western government.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=181}} This aim was best achieved by having the same Malay elite who had worked with the British colonial authorities serve as the new elite in Malaysia, hence Macmillan's desire to have a Malay majority who would vote for Malay politicians.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=181}} Macmillan especially wanted to keep the British base at Singapore, which he like other prime ministers saw as the linchpin of British power in Asia.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=174}}

The Indonesian president [[Sukarno]] strongly objected to the new federation.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=187-190}} On 8 December 1962, Indonesia sponsored a rebellion in the British protectorate of Brunei, leading to Macmillan to dispatch Gurkhas to put down the rebellion against the sultan.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=176}} In January 1963  Sukarno started a policy of ''konfrontasi'' ("confrontation") with Britain.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=174}} Macmillan detested Sukarno, partly because he had been a Japanese collaborator in World War Two, and partly because of his fondness for elaborate uniforms despite never having personally fought in a war offended the World War I veteran Macmillan, who had a strong contempt for any man who had not seen combat.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=190}} In his diary, Macmillan called Sukarno "a cross between Liberace and Little Lord Fauntleroy".{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=189}} Macmillan felt that giving in to Sukarno's demands would be "appeasement" and clashed with Kennedy over the issue.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=190}} Sukarno was the leader of the most populous nation in Southeast Asia and though officially neutral in the Cold War, tended to take anti-Western positions, and Kennedy favoured accommodating him to bring him closer to the West; for example, supporting Indonesia's claim to Dutch New Guinea even through the Netherlands was a NATO ally.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=190}} Macmillan feared the expenses of an all-out war with Indonesia, but also felt to give in to Sukarno would damage British prestige, writing on 5 August 1963 that Britain's position in Asia would be "untenable" if Sukarno were to triumph over Britain in the same manner he had over the Dutch in New Guinea.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=182-183}} To help reduce the expenses of the war, Macmillan appealed to the Australian Prime Minister [[Sir Robert Menzies]] to send troops to defend Malaysia. On 25 September 1963, Sukarno announced in a speech that Indonesia would ''"ganyang Malaysia"''  ("gobble Malaysia raw") and on the same day a mob burned down the British embassy in Jakarta.{{sfn|Busch|2003|p=174}}  The result was the Indonesian Confrontation, an undeclared war between Britain vs. Indonesia that began in 1963 and continued to 1966.{{sfn|Subritzy|1999|p=189-190}}

The speedy transfer of power maintained the goodwill of the new nations, but critics contended it was premature. In justification Macmillan quoted [[Lord Macaulay]] in 1851:

{{quote|Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a self-evident proposition that no people ought to be free until they are fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story, who resolved not to go into the water until he had learnt to swim. If men are to wait for liberty until they become wise and good in slavery, they may indeed wait for ever.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=230}}}}

====Skybolt crisis====
[[File:JFKWHP-ST-A22-1-61.tif|thumb|Macmillan and [[John F. Kennedy]] confer in 1961]]
Macmillan cancelled the [[Blue Streak ballistic missile]] in April 1960 over concerns about its vulnerability to a pre-emptive attack, but continued with the development of the air-launched [[Blue Steel (missile)|Blue Steel stand-off missile]], which was about to enter trials. For the replacement for Blue Steel he opted for Britain to join the American [[Skybolt missile]] project. From the same year Macmillan permitted the [[US Navy]] to station [[UGM-27 Polaris|Polaris submarines]] at [[Holy Loch#US Navy at Holy Loch|Holy Loch]], Scotland, as a replacement for Thor. When Skybolt was unilaterally cancelled by US Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]], Macmillan negotiated with President Kennedy the purchase of Polaris missiles under the [[Nassau agreement]] in December 1962.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

====Europe====
Macmillan worked with states outside the [[European Communities]] (EC) to form the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA), which from 3 May 1960 established a free-trade area. As the EC proved to be an economic success, membership of the EC started to look more attractive compared to the EFTA.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.178">Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.178</ref> A report from Sir Frank Lee of the Treasury in April 1960 predicated that the three major power blocs in the decades to come would be those headed by the United States, the Soviet Union and the EC, and argued to avoid isolation Britain would to have decisively associate itself with one of the power blocs.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.178"/> Macmillan wrote in his diary about his decision to apply to join the EC: "Shall we be caught between a hostile (or at least less and less friendly) America and a boastful, powerful '[[Carolingian Empire|Empire of Charlemagne]]'-now under French, but later bound to come under German control?...It's a grim choice".<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.178"/>

Through Macmillan had decided upon joining the EC in 1960, he waited until July 1961 to formally make the application, for he feared the reaction of the Conservative Party backbenchers, the farmers' lobby and the populist newspaper chain owned by the right-wing Canadian millionaire [[Lord Beaverbrook]], who saw Britain joining the EC as a betrayal of the British empire.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.178"/> As expected, the Beaverbrook newspapers whose readers tended to vote Conservative offered up ferocious criticism of Macmillan's application to join the EC, accusing him of betrayal. Negotiations to join the EC were complicated by Macmillan's desire to allow Britain to continue its traditional policy of importing food from the Commonwealth nations of Australia, New Zealand and Canada, which led the EC nations, especially France, to accuse Britain of negotiating in bad faith.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.178"/>

Macmillan also saw the value of rapprochement with the EC, to which his government sought belated entry, but Britain's application was vetoed by French president [[Charles de Gaulle]] on 29 January 1963. De Gaulle was always strongly opposed to British entry for many reasons. He sensed the British were inevitably closely linked to the Americans. He saw the European Communities as a continental arrangement primarily between France and Germany, and felt that if Britain joined, France's role would diminish.<ref>George Wilkes, ''Britain's failure to enter the European community 1961–63: the enlargement negotiations and crises in European, Atlantic and Commonwealth relations'' (1997) [https://books.google.com/books?id=5JRGARSWO9EC&dq=macmillan+degaulle+nuclear+%22european+community%22&pg=PA63] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526233039/https://books.google.com/books?id=5JRGARSWO9EC&pg=PA63&dq=macmillan+degaulle+nuclear+%22european+community%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cW0sT8akLovSiALO8-TECg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA|date=26 May 2016}} p. 63 online</ref>{{sfn|Lamb|1995|pp=164–65, Chapters 14 and 15}}

====Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)====
Macmillan's previous attempt to create an agreement at the May 1960 summit in Paris had collapsed due to the [[1960 U-2 incident]]. He was a force in the negotiations leading to the signing of the 1963 [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]] by the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union. He sent [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]] to negotiate the Test Ban Treaty, a sign that he was grooming him as a potential successor.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=551–552}}

President Kennedy visited Macmillan's country home, [[Birch Grove]], on 29–30 June 1963, for talks about the planned [[Multilateral Force]]. They never met again, and this was to be Kennedy's last visit to the UK. He was [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassinated]] in November, shortly after the end of Macmillan's premiership.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=504–05}}

===End of premiership===
By the early 1960s, many were starting to find Macmillan's courtly and urbane Edwardian manners anachronistic, and satirical journals such as ''[[Private Eye]]'' and the television show ''[[That Was the Week That Was]]'' mercilessly mocked him as a doddering, clueless leader.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.179">Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.179</ref> Macmillan's handling of the [[Vassall Tribunal|Vassall affair]] – in which an Admiralty clerk, John Vassall, was convicted in October 1962 of passing secrets to the Soviet Union – undermined his "Super-Mac" reputation for competence.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.179"/> D. R. Thorpe writes that from January 1963 "Macmillan's strategy lay in ruins", leaving him looking for a "graceful exit". The Vassall affair turned the press against him.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=613}} In the same month, opposition leader Hugh Gaitskell died suddenly at the age of 56. With a general election due before the end of the following year, Gaitskell's death threw the future of British politics into fresh doubt.<ref>{{cite news |title=1963: Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell dies |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/18/newsid_3376000/3376971.stm |url-status=live |publisher=BBC News |date=21 October 1963 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715010620/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/18/newsid_3376000/3376971.stm |archive-date=15 July 2015 }}</ref> The following month Harold Wilson was elected as the new Labour leader, and he proved to be a popular choice with the public.<ref>{{cite news |title=1963: a year to remember |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/21957868 |url-status=live |newspaper=BBC Democracy Live |date=28 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426084616/http://www.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/21957868 |archive-date=26 April 2016 }}</ref>

====Profumo affair====
The [[Profumo affair]] of 1963 permanently damaged the credibility of Macmillan's government. The revelation of the affair between [[John Profumo]] ([[Secretary of State for War]]) and an alleged call-girl, [[Christine Keeler]], who was simultaneously sleeping with the Soviet naval attache Captain [[Yevgeny Ivanov (spy)|Yevgeny Ivanov]] made it appear that Macmillan had lost control of his government and of events in general.<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.180">Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.180</ref> In the ensuing Parliamentary debate he was seen as a pathetic figure, while [[Nigel Birch]] declared, in the words of [[Robert Browning|Browning]] on [[Wordsworth]], that it would be "Never glad confident morning again!".<ref>[https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1963/jun/17/security-mr-profumos-resignation#S5CV0679P0_19630617_HOC_296 SECURITY (MR. PROFUMO'S RESIGNATION) (Hansard, 17 June 1963)]</ref> On 17 June 1963, he survived a Parliamentary vote with a majority of 69,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1963/jun/17/security-mr-profumos-resignation#column_170|title=SECURITY (MR. PROFUMO'S RESIGNATION)  |website=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507140736/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1963/jun/17/security-mr-profumos-resignation#column_170|date=17 June 1963|archive-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> one fewer than had been thought necessary for his survival, and was afterwards joined in the smoking room only by his son and son-in-law, not by any Cabinet minister. However, Butler and [[Reginald Maudling]] (who was very popular with backbench MPs at that time) declined to push for his resignation, especially after a tide of support from Conservative activists around the country. Many of the salacious revelations about the sex lives of "Establishment" figures during the Profumo affair damaged the image of "the Establishment" that Macmillan was seen as a part of, giving him the image by 1963 of a "failing representative of a decadent elite".<ref name="Goodlad & Pearce, 2013 p.180"/>

====Resignation====
By the summer of 1963 [[Conservative Party Chairman]] [[Oliver Poole, 1st Baron Poole|Lord Poole]] was urging the ageing Macmillan to retire.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=551–552}} The full [[Alfred Denning, Baron Denning|Denning]] report into the Profumo Scandal was published on 26 September 1963.{{sfn|Lamb|1995|p=488}}

Macmillan had a meeting with Butler on 11 September and was careful to keep his options open (retire now, retire in the New Year, or fight the next election). He talked the matter over with his son Maurice and other senior ministers. Over lunch with [[Philip Cunliffe-Lister, 1st Earl of Swinton|Lord Swinton]] on 30 September he favoured stepping down, but only if [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Baron Hailsham]] could be shoehorned in as his successor. He saw Butler on the morning of 7 October and told him he planned to stay on to lead the Conservatives into the next General Election, then was struck down by prostate problems on the night of 7–8 October, on the eve of the Conservative Party conference.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=284–285}}{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=558–559}}

Macmillan was operated on at 11:30&nbsp;am on 10 October. Although it is sometimes stated that he believed himself to have inoperable [[prostate cancer]], he in fact knew it was benign before the operation.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=565}} Macmillan was almost ready to leave hospital within ten days of the diagnosis and could easily have carried on, in the opinion of his doctor Sir John Richardson.{{sfn|Lamb|1995|p=491}} His illness gave him a way out.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=566–567}}

====Succession====
While recovering in hospital, Macmillan wrote a memorandum (dated 14 October) recommending the process by which "soundings" would be taken of party opinion to select his successor, which was accepted by the Cabinet on 15 October. This time backbench MPs and junior ministers were to be asked their opinion, rather than just the Cabinet as in 1957, and efforts would be made to sample opinion amongst peers and constituency activists.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=566–567}}

Enoch Powell claimed that it was wrong of Macmillan to seek to monopolise the advice given to the Queen in this way. In fact, this was done at the Palace's request, so that the Queen was not being seen to be involved in politics as had happened in January 1957, and had been decided as far back as June when it had looked as though the government might fall over the Profumo scandal. [[Ben Pimlott]] later described this as the "biggest political misjudgement of her reign".{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=569–570}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Pimlott|first=Ben|author-link=Ben Pimlott|title=The Queen : A Biography of Elizabeth II|year=1997|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc|location=New York|isbn=047119431X|page=335}}</ref> 

Macmillan was succeeded by Foreign Secretary [[Alec Douglas-Home]] in a controversial move; it was alleged that Macmillan had pulled strings and utilised the party's grandees, nicknamed "The Magic Circle", who had slanted their "soundings" of opinion among MPs and Cabinet Ministers to ensure that Butler was (once again) not chosen.<ref>the "soundings" and the accompanying political intrigues are discussed in detail in [[Rab Butler]]'s biography</ref>

He finally resigned, receiving the Queen from his hospital bed, on 18 October 1963, after nearly seven years as prime minister. He felt privately that he was being hounded from office by a backbench minority:

{{quote|Some few will be content with the success they have had in the assassination of their leader and will not care very much who the successor is. ... They are a band that in the end does not amount to more than 15 or 20 at the most.<ref>Anthony Bevins, 'How Supermac Was "Hounded Out of Office" by Band of 20 Opponents', ''The Observer'' (1 January 1995), p. 1.</ref>}}

==Retirement, 1963–1986==
[[File:The Queen in Downing Street in 1985 to mark the 250th anniversary of Robert Walpole's occupancy of No.10 (cropped).jpeg|thumb|right|Macmillan with Queen [[Elizabeth II]] in 1985]]
Macmillan initially refused a peerage and retired from politics in September 1964, standing down at the following month's [[1964 United Kingdom general election|election]], which the Conservatives narrowly lost to Labour, now led by Harold Wilson.<ref>{{cite news |title=News: 15 October 1964 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/background/pastelec/ge64.shtml |url-status=live |publisher=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223064907/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/background/pastelec/ge64.shtml |archive-date=23 February 2012}}</ref> His service in the House of Commons totalled 37 years.

===Oxford chancellor (1960–1986)===
Macmillan had been elected [[Chancellor of the University of Oxford]] in 1960, in a campaign masterminded by [[Hugh Trevor-Roper]], and held this office for the rest of his life, frequently presiding over college events, making speeches and tirelessly raising funds. According to Sir [[Patrick Neill, Baron Neill of Bladen|Patrick Neill]] QC, the vice-chancellor, Macmillan "would talk late into the night with eager groups of students who were often startled by the radical views he put forward, well into his last decade."<ref name="Fletcher">{{citation |last=Fletcher |first=Martin |title='World pays tribute to Stockton – Death of former Conservative premier |newspaper=The Times |date=31 December 1986}}</ref>

===Return to Macmillan Publishers===
In retirement Macmillan took up the chairmanship of his family's publishing house, Macmillan Publishers, from 1964 to 1974. The publishing firm remained in family hands until a majority share was purchased in 1995 by the [[Holtzbrinck Publishing Group]]; the imprint persists.
Macmillan brought out a six-volume autobiography:

# ''Winds of Change, 1914–1939'' (1966) {{ISBN|0-333-06639-1}}
# ''The Blast of War, 1939–1945'' (1967) {{ISBN|0-333-00358-6}}
# ''Tides of Fortune, 1945–1955'' (1969) {{ISBN|0-333-04077-5}}
# ''Riding the Storm, 1956–1959'' (1971) {{ISBN|0-333-10310-6}}
# ''Pointing the Way, 1959–1961'' (1972) {{ISBN|0-333-12411-1}}
# ''At the End of the Day, 1961–1963'' (1973) {{ISBN|0-333-12413-8}}

Macmillan's biographer acknowledges that his memoirs were considered "heavy going".{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=587}} Reading these volumes was said by Macmillan's political enemy Enoch Powell to induce "a sensation akin to that of chewing on cardboard".<ref>Richard Vinen: ''Thatcher's Britain. The Politics and Social Upheaval of the 1980s''. (Simon & Schuster, London 2009), p. 316</ref> Butler wrote in his review of ''Riding the Storm'': "Altogether this massive work will keep anybody busy for several weeks."{{sfn|Howard|1987|p=353}}

Macmillan's wartime diaries were better received.
* ''War Diaries: Politics and War in the Mediterranean, January 1943&nbsp;– May 1945'' (London: Macmillan, 1984) {{ISBN|0-333-37198-4}}

Since Macmillan's death, his diaries for the 1950s and 1960s have also been published, both edited by [[Peter Catterall]]:
* ''The Macmillan Diaries: The Cabinet Years 1950–57'' (London: Macmillan, 2003) {{ISBN|0-333-71167-X}}
* ''The Macmillan Diaries Vol II: Prime Minister and After 1957–1966'' (London: Macmillan, 2011) {{ISBN|1-405-04721-6}}

Macmillan burned his diary for the climax of the Suez Affair, supposedly at Eden's request, although in Campbell's view more likely to protect his own reputation.{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=266}}

===London clubs===
Macmillan was a member of many clubs. On his first evening as prime minister he made a public show of taking the [[Chief Whip of the Conservative Party|Chief Whip]] [[Edward Heath]] for oysters at the [[Turf Club (Gentlemen's Club)|Turf Club]].{{sfn|Horne|1989|pp=5, 13}}

He became president of the [[Carlton Club]] in 1977 and would often stay at the club when he had to stay in London overnight. Within a few months of becoming president, he merged the Carlton and [[Junior Carlton Club|Junior Carlton]]. He was also a member of [[Buck's Club|Buck's]], [[Pratt's]], the Turf Club and [[Beefsteak Club]]. He also once commented that [[White's]] was 75% gentlemen and 25% crooks, the perfect combination for a club.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=605}}

===Political interventions===
Macmillan made occasional political interventions in retirement. Responding to a remark made by Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson about not having boots in which to go to school, Macmillan retorted: 'If Mr Wilson did not have boots to go to school that is because he was too big for them.'<ref>'The Wit and Wisdom Inside No 10', ''Daily Express'' (27 March 2008), p. 13.</ref>

Macmillan accepted the [[Order of Merit]] in 1976.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=46872 |date=9 September 1976 |page=5299 }}</ref> In October of that year he called for "a Government of National Unity" including all parties, which could command the public support to resolve [[1976 Sterling crisis|the economic crisis]]. Asked who could lead such a coalition, he replied: "Mr Gladstone formed his last Government when he was eighty-three. I'm only eighty-two. You mustn't put temptation in my way."{{sfn|Fisher|1982|pp=359–360}} He discussed the idea with Eden, but the IMF loan saved the country and the Labour government.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|pp=359–360}}

Macmillan still travelled widely, visiting China in October 1979, where he held talks with senior Vice-Premier [[Deng Xiaoping]].{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=355}}

===Relations with Margaret Thatcher===
[[File:Thatcher-loc.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Photograph|Macmillan became critical of [[Margaret Thatcher]] (pictured in 1975)]]
Macmillan found himself drawn more actively into politics after [[Margaret Thatcher]] became Conservative leader in February 1975.<ref>{{cite news |title=1975: Tories choose first woman leader |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539451.stm |url-status=live |work=BBC News |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |date=11 February 1975 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307132235/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11/newsid_2539000/2539451.stm |archive-date=7 March 2008 }}</ref> After she ended Labour's five-year rule and became prime minister in [[1979 United Kingdom general election|May 1979]],<ref>{{cite news |title=1979: Election victory for Margaret Thatcher |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/4/newsid_2503000/2503195.stm |url-status=live |work=BBC News |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |date=4 May 1979 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219230053/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/4/newsid_2503000/2503195.stm |archive-date=19 December 2007 }}</ref> he told [[Nigel Fisher]] (his biographer, and himself a Conservative MP): "Ted [Heath] was a very good No2 {pause} not a leader {pause}. Now, you have a ''real'' leader. {long pause} Whether she's leading you in the right direction ..."{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=362}}

The record of Macmillan's own premiership came under attack from the [[monetarists]] in the party, whose theories Thatcher supported.<ref name="vinen2009">{{cite book |last1=Vinen |first1=Richard |title=Thatcher's Britain : the Politics and Social Upheaval of the Thatcher Era |date=2009 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=London |isbn=9781847371751}}</ref>{{rp|27}} In a celebrated speech he wondered aloud where such theories had come from:

{{quote|Was it America? Or was it [[Tibet]]? It is quite true, many of Your Lordships will remember it operating in the [[nursery (room)|nursery]]. How do you treat a cold? One [[nanny]] said, 'Feed a cold'; she was a [[neo-Keynesian]]. The other said, 'Starve a cold'; she was a monetarist.<ref name="Apple">{{cite news|last=Apple|first=R. W. Jr.|title=Macmillan, at 90, Rouses the Lords|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=14 November 1984|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/14/world/macmillan-at-90-rouses-the-lords.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210123907/http://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/14/world/macmillan-at-90-rouses-the-lords.html|archive-date=10 December 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}

Macmillan was one of several people who advised Thatcher to set up a small [[War Cabinet#Falklands War|War Cabinet]] to manage the [[Falklands War]].{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=663}} On his advice she excluded the Treasury from this body.<ref name="vinen2009" />{{rp|148}} Having first inquired whether Argentina was known to have atomic weapons, Macmillan's advice was to appoint a senior military advisor, as [[Pug Ismay]] had been in the Second World War (in the event [[Admiral Lewin]], [[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of Defence Staff]], performed this role). She had already received advice to exclude the Treasury from [[Frank Cooper (civil servant)|Frank Cooper]] (the [[Permanent Under-Secretary]] for Defence), not least because of Macmillan's own behaviour, as Chancellor, in demanding a halt to the Suez operation.{{sfn|Moore|2013|pp=679–680}} She later recalled: 'I never regretted following Harold Macmillan's advice. We were never tempted to compromise the security of our forces for financial reasons. Everything we did was governed by military necessity.'<ref name=thatcher1993>{{cite book |last=Thatcher |first=Margaret |title=The Downing Street Years |date=1993 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |isbn=0002550490}}</ref>{{rp|188}}

With hereditary peerages again being created under Thatcher, Macmillan requested the earldom that had been customarily bestowed to departing prime ministers, and on 24 February 1984 he was created '''[[Earl of Stockton]]''' and '''Viscount Macmillan of Ovenden'''.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=49660 |date=29 February 1984 |page=2951 |nolink=yes}}</ref> He is the last non-royal recipient of a hereditary peerage. He took the title from his former parliamentary seat on the edge of the [[County Durham|Durham]] coalfields, and in his maiden speech in the [[House of Lords]] he criticised Thatcher's handling of the [[UK miners' strike (1984–85)|coal miners' strike]] and her characterisation of striking miners as "the enemy within".<ref name=thatcher1993 />{{rp|370}} He received an unprecedented standing ovation for his oration, which included the words:

{{quote|It breaks my heart to see — and I cannot interfere — what is happening in our country today. This terrible strike, by the best men in the world, who beat the Kaiser's and Hitler's armies and never gave in. It is pointless and we cannot afford that kind of thing. Then there is the growing division of comparative prosperity in the south and an ailing [[Northern England|north]] and [[Midlands]]. We used to have battles and rows but they were quarrels. Now there is a new kind of wicked hatred that has been brought in by different types of people.<ref name="Apple"/>}}

As Chancellor of Oxford University, Macmillan condemned its refusal in February 1985 to award Thatcher an honorary degree. He noted that the decision represented a break with tradition, and predicted that the snub would rebound on the university.<ref>{{Citation|title=Lord Stockton has condemned Oxford University's decision not to give Mrs Thatcher an honorary degree|newspaper=The Guardian|date=4 February 1985|page=28}}</ref>

Macmillan is widely supposed to have likened Thatcher's policy of [[privatisation]] to "selling the family silver". His precise quote, at a dinner of the [[Tory Reform Group]] at the [[Royal Overseas League]] on 8 November 1985, was on the subject of the sale of assets commonplace among individuals or states when they encountered financial difficulties: "First of all the [[Georgian era|Georgian]] silver goes. And then all that nice furniture that used to be in the [[Drawing room|salon]]. Then the [[Canaletto]]s go." Profitable parts of the steel industry and the railways had been privatised, along with [[British Telecom]]: "They were like two [[Rembrandt]]s still left."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Watkins |first1=Alan |title=A Conservative Coup : the fall of Margaret Thatcher |date=1992 |publisher=Duckworth |location=London |isbn=0715624350 |page=105 |edition=2nd}}</ref>

Macmillan's speech was much commented on, and a few days later he made a speech in the House of Lords, referring to it:

{{quote|When I ventured the other day to criticise the system I was, I am afraid, misunderstood. As a Conservative, I am naturally in favour of returning into private ownership and private management all those [[means of production]] and distribution which are now controlled by state capitalism. I am sure they will be more efficient. What I ventured to question was the using of these huge sums as if they were income.<ref>{{cite Hansard |title=New Technologies |house=House of Lords |date=14 November 1985 |volume=468 |url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/1985-11-14/debates/2b4dd2ca-0975-40a9-ab6b-b65e5b012b01/NewTechnologies |column_start=390 |column_end=391 |speaker=The Earl of Stockton}}</ref>}}

==Death and funeral==
[[File:St Giles' Church, Horsted Keynes (Macmillan Family Grave).JPG|thumb|right|The Macmillan family graves in 2012 at [[St Giles' Church, Horsted Keynes]]. Macmillan's grave is on the right.]]
Macmillan had often play-acted being an old man long before real old age set in. As early as 1948 [[Humphry Berkeley]] wrote of how "he makes a show of being feeble and decrepit", mentioning how he had suddenly stopped shambling and sprinted for a train. Nigel Fisher tells an anecdote of how Macmillan initially greeted him to his house leaning on a stick, but later walked and climbed steps perfectly well, twice acting lame again and fetching his stick when he remembered his "act". However, in genuine old age he became almost blind, causing him to need sticks and a helping arm.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|pp=361–362}}

On the evening of 29 December 1986, Macmillan died at [[Birch Grove]], the Macmillan family mansion on the edge of [[Ashdown Forest]], in [[Horsted Keynes]], West Sussex.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.sussexlive.co.uk/news/sussex-news/birch-grove-macmillan-jfk-president-6891276|title = Birch Grove: The West Sussex country house once owned by a Prime Minister where JFK stayed the night|last = Fox|first = Thomas|work = Sussex Live|publisher = [[Total Sense Media]]|date = 2 April 2022|accessdate = 24 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.newspapers.com/image/751091291/|title = 'Supermac' Is Dead at 92|last = Bates|first = Stephen|newspaper = [[The Daily Telegraph]]|date = 30 December 1986|page = 1|via = [[Newspapers.com]]|accessdate = 5 December 2023|url-access = subscription}}</ref> His grandson and heir [[Alexander Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton|Alexander]], said: "In the last 48 hours he was very weak but entirely reasonable and intelligent. His last words were, 'I think I will go to sleep now'."<ref name="Foster">{{citation|last=Foster|first=Howard|title='I think I will go to sleep now.' Funeral of former premier Harold Macmillan|newspaper=The Times|date=6 January 1987|page=23}}</ref><ref name="Toronto">{{citation|title=British leaders mourn Harold Macmillan|newspaper=Toronto Star|date=6 January 1987|page=A10}}</ref> His lifespan of 92 years and 322 days was the longest of any British prime minister until surpassed by [[James Callaghan]] on 14 February 2005.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/feb/14/past.comment|title = Big Jim was no one's fool|date = 14 February 2005|last = Morgan|first = Kenneth|newspaper = [[The Guardian]]|accessdate = 5 December 2023}}</reF>

Paying tribute, Thatcher hailed Macmillan as "a very remarkable man and a very great patriot", and said that his dislike of "selling the family silver" had never come between them. He was "unique in the affection of the British people".<ref>{{citation|last=Fletcher|first=Martin|title=World pays tribute to Stockton. Death of former Conservative premier|newspaper=The Times|date=31 December 1986}}</ref> Additional tributes came from around the world. US President [[Ronald Reagan]] said: "The American people share in the loss of a voice of wisdom and humanity who, with eloquence and gentle wit, brought to the problems of today the experience of a long life of public service."<ref name="Fletcher" /> Outlawed [[African National Congress]] president [[Oliver Tambo]] sent his condolences: 'As South Africans we shall always remember him for his efforts to encourage the [[apartheid]] regime to bow to the [[Wind of Change (speech)|winds of change]] that continue to blow in South Africa.'<ref name="Fletcher" /> [[Commonwealth Secretary-General]] Sir [[Shridath Ramphal]] affirmed: "His own leadership in providing from Britain a worthy response to African national consciousness shaped the post-war era and made the modern Commonwealth possible."<ref name="Fletcher" />
[[File:Macmillan memorial tablet.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Memorial tablet in [[St Giles' Church, Horsted Keynes]]]]
A private funeral was held on 5 January 1987 at [[St Giles' Church, Horsted Keynes|St Giles' Church]], Horsted Keynes, West Sussex, where he had regularly worshipped and read the lesson.<ref name="Chronicle">{{citation|title=Macmillan Funeral Held – Thatcher Attends Services|newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle|date=6 January 1987|page=23}}</ref> Two hundred mourners attended,<ref name="Toronto" /> including 64 members of the Macmillan family, Thatcher and former premiers Lord Home and [[Edward Heath]], as well as Lord Hailsham,<ref name="Foster" /> and "scores of country neighbours".<ref name="Chronicle" /> The [[Charles III|Prince of Wales]] sent a wreath "in admiring memory".<ref name="Foster" /> He was buried beside his wife and next to his parents and his son [[Maurice Macmillan|Maurice]], who had died in 1984.<ref name="Chronicle" />

The House of Commons paid its tribute on 12 January 1987, with much reference made to his book ''[[The Middle Way (book)|The Middle Way]]''.<ref name="Johnson">{{Citation|last=Johnson|first=Frank|title=Tributes to the master of timing|newspaper=The Times|date=13 January 1987}}</ref> Thatcher said: "In his retirement Harold Macmillan occupied a unique place in the nation's affections", while Labour leader [[Neil Kinnock]] struck a more critical note: <blockquote>Death and distance cannot lend sufficient enchantment to alter the view that the period over which he presided in the 1950s, while certainly and thankfully a period of rising affluence and confidence, was also a time of opportunities missed, of changes avoided. Harold Macmillan was, of course, not solely or even pre-eminently responsible for that. But we cannot but record with frustration the fact that the vigorous and perceptive attacker of the status quo in the 1930s became its emblem for a time in the late 1950s before returning to be its critic in the 1980s.<ref name="Johnson" /></blockquote>

A public memorial service, attended by the [[Elizabeth II|Queen]] and thousands of mourners, was held on 10 February 1987 in [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref>''Memorial service for Harold Macmillan, First Earl of Stockton, O.M., P.C.: Tuesday 10 February 1987 12, noon'' (London: Westminster Abbey, 1987).</ref> Macmillan's estate was assessed for probate on 1 June 1987, with a value of £51,114 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|51114|1987|r=0}}}} in {{Inflation/year|UK}}{{Inflation/fn|UK|df=y}}).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar?surname=Stockton&yearOfDeath=1987&page=2#calendar |title=Stockton, Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of |last=<!--Not stated--> |date=1987 |website=probatesearchservice.gov |publisher=UK Government |access-date=7 April 2020 |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108140148/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar?surname=Stockton&yearOfDeath=1987&page=2#calendar |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Honours, awards and legacy==
Macmillan was an elected [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] (FRS) in 1962.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lord Hailsham Of St Marylebone |author-link = Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone |doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1987.0014 |title = Maurice Harold Macmillan, First Earl of Stockton. 10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986 |journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] |volume = 33 |pages = 376–385 |year = 1987 |jstor = 769957 |doi-access = free }}</ref>

In 1976 he received the [[Order of Merit]]. In 1984 he received the [[Four Freedoms Award#Freedom Medal|Freedom medal]] from the [[Roosevelt Study Center]].

Macmillan's archives are located at Oxford University's [[Bodleian Library]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/wmss/online/modern/macmillan/macmillan.html|title=Macmillan Papers|website=Bodley.ox.ac.uk|access-date=21 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205110034/http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/wmss/online/modern/macmillan/macmillan.html|archive-date=5 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/history/2014/02/14/catalogue-macmillan-papers-online/|title=Catalogue of the papers of Harold Macmillan, 1889–1987 – now online|date=14 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104094750/http://blogs.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/history/2014/02/14/catalogue-macmillan-papers-online/|archive-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>

Macmillan was awarded a number of honorary degrees, including:
* 1956 – [[Indiana University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://honorsandawards.iu.edu/search-awards/honoree.shtml?honoreeID=596|title=Honoree:&nbsp;Search Awards:&nbsp;University Honors & Awards:&nbsp;Indiana University|website=Honorsandawards.iu.edu|access-date=21 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802000847/https://honorsandawards.iu.edu/search-awards/honoree.shtml?honoreeID=596|archive-date=2 August 2017}}</ref>
* 1958 – [[DePauw University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.depauw.edu/news-media/latest-news/details/26940/|title=Britain's Harold Macmillan to Meet with President Eisenhower the Day After Visiting DePauw – DePauw University|website=Depauw.edu|access-date=21 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821185840/http://www.depauw.edu/news-media/latest-news/details/26940/|archive-date=21 August 2017}}</ref>
* 1958 – [[Johns Hopkins University]], together with Eisenhower<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/video/macmillan-eisenhower-084053231.html|title=Macmillan & Eisenhower – British Pathé|website=Uk.news.yahoo.com|access-date=21 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104091317/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/video/macmillan-eisenhower-084053231.html|archive-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>
* 1961 – [[Cambridge University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist/RTV/1961/06/08/BGY504080055/|title=Getty Images|website=Itnsource.com|access-date=21 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104162426/http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist/RTV/1961/06/08/BGY504080055/|archive-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>

===Historians' assessments of Macmillan's premiership===
[[C. P. Snow]] wrote to Macmillan that his reputation would endure as, like Churchill, he was "psychologically interesting".{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|p=619}}

An early biographer [[George Hutchinson (historian)|George Hutchinson]] called him "The Last Edwardian at Number Ten" (1980), mistakenly in the view of Nigel Fisher.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=369}} Fisher described him as "complex, almost chameleon".{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=364}} At times he portrayed himself as the descendant of a Scottish crofter, as a businessman, aristocrat, intellectual and soldier. Labour leader Harold Wilson wrote that his "role as a poseur was itself a pose".{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=365}} Wilson also argued that behind the public nonchalance lay a real professional.{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=369}} Fisher also wrote that he "had a talent for pursuing progressive policies but presenting them tactfully in a Conservative tone of voice".{{sfn|Fisher|1982|p=367}}

Historian [[John Vincent (historian)|John Vincent]] explores the image Macmillan crafted of himself for his colleagues and constituents:

{{quote|He presented himself as a patrician, as the last Edwardian, as a Whig (in the tradition of his wife's family), as a romantic Tory, as intellectual, as a man shaped by the comradeship of the trenches and by the slump of the 1930s, as a shrewd man of business of bourgeois Scottish stock, and as a venerable elder statesman at home with modern youth. There was something in all these views, which he did little to discourage, and which commanded public respect into the early 1960s. Whether he was ever a mainstream Conservative, rather than a skilful exponent of the postwar consensus, is more doubtful.<ref>John Vincent, "Macmillan, Harold" in Fred M. Leventhal, ed., ''Twentieth-century Britain: an encyclopedia'' (Garland, 1995) p. 488.</ref>}}

[[Alistair Horne]], his official biographer, concedes that after his re-election in 1959 Macmillan's premiership suffered a series of major setbacks.{{sfn|Horne|1989|p=214}}

Campbell writes that: "a late developer who languished on the back benches ... in the 1930s, Macmillan seized his opportunity when it came with flair and ruthlessness, and [until about 1962] filled the highest office with compelling style". However, he argues that Macmillan is remembered as having been "a rather seedy conjuror", famous for Premium Bonds, Beeching's cuts to the railways, and the Profumo Scandal. He is also remembered for "stop-go" economics. In the 1980s the aged Macmillan was seen as "a revered but slightly pathetic figure".{{sfn|Campbell|2010|p=292}}

[[Dominic Sandbrook]] writes that Macmillan's final weeks were typical of his premiership, "devious, theatrical and self-seeking". Macmillan is best remembered for the "affluent society", which he inherited rather than created in the late 1950s, but chancellors came and went and by the early 1960s economic policy was "nothing short of a shambles", while his achievements in foreign policy made little difference to the lives of the public. By the time he left office, largely unlamented at the time, he was associated not with prosperity but with "anachronism and decay".{{cn|date=October 2022}}

[[D. R. Thorpe]] writes that by the early 1960s Macmillan was seen as "the epitome of all that was wrong with anachronistic Britain. This was an unfair charge." "The essence of his persona was as elusive as mercury." He was not a member of "[[the Establishment]]"—in fact he was a businessman who had ''married into'' the aristocracy and a rebel Chancellor of Oxford. "He had style in abundance, (and) was a star on the world stage". Thorpe argues that despite his 1960 "Winds of Change" speech, he was largely pushed into rapid independence for African countries by Maudling and Macleod.{{sfn|Thorpe|2010|pp=614–17}}

Richard Lamb argues that Macmillan was "by far the best of Britain's postwar Prime Ministers, and his administration performed better than any of their successors". Lamb argues that it is unfair to blame Macmillan for excessively quick African independence (resulting in many former colonies becoming dictatorships), or for the Beeching Plan (which was accepted by Labour in 1964, although Macmillan himself had reservations and had asked civil servants to draw up plans for extra road building), and argues that had he remained in power Macmillan would never have allowed inflation to get as far out of hand as it did in the 1970s.{{sfn|Lamb|1995|pp=14–15}}

{{Earls of Stockton family tree}}

==Cabinets (1957–1963)==

===January 1957 – October 1959===
* Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister
* [[Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
* [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]]: [[Lord President of the Council]]
* [[Rab Butler]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
* [[Peter Thorneycroft]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
* [[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
* [[Alan Lennox-Boyd]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
* [[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
* Sir [[David Eccles, 1st Viscount Eccles|David Eccles]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
* [[Charles Hill, Baron Hill of Luton|Charles Hill]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
* [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: Minister of Education
* [[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Derick Heathcoat Amory]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]
* [[Iain Macleod]]: [[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour and National Service]]
* [[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: Minister of Transport and Civil Aviation
* [[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Minister of Defence (UK)|Minister of Defence]]
* [[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Baron Mills|Lord Mills]]: Minister of Power
* [[Henry Brooke, Baron Brooke of Cumnor|Henry Brooke]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs

'''Change'''
* March 1957&nbsp;– Lord Home succeeds Lord Salisbury as Lord President, remaining Commonwealth Relations Secretary.
* September 1957&nbsp;– Lord Hailsham succeeds Lord Home as Lord President, Home remaining Commonwealth Relations Secretary. [[Geoffrey William Lloyd|Geoffrey Lloyd]] succeeds Hailsham as Minister of Education. The Chief Secretary to the Treasury, [[Reginald Maudling]], enters the Cabinet.
* January 1958&nbsp;– Derick Heathcoat Amory succeeds Peter Thorneycroft as Chancellor of the Exchequer. [[John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham|John Hare]] succeeds Amory as Minister of Agriculture.

===October 1959 – July 1960===
* Harold Macmillan: [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]
* [[Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
* [[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
* [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Minister of Science]]
* [[Derick Heathcoat Amory]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
* [[Rab Butler]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
* [[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
* [[Iain Macleod]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
* [[Reginald Maudling]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
* [[Charles Hill, Baron Hill of Luton|Charles Hill]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
* [[Sir David Eccles]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]
* [[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Viscount Mills|Lord Mills]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]
* [[Ernest Marples]]: [[Secretary of State for Transport|Minister of Transport]]
* [[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Minister of Aviation]]
* [[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: [[Minister of Defence (UK)|Minister of Defence]]
* [[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[Edward Heath]]: [[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour and National Service]]
* [[John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham|John Hare]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]
* [[Henry Brooke, Baron Brooke of Cumnor|Henry Brooke]]: [[Minister of Housing]] and [[Ministry of Housing and Local Government|Local Government and Welsh Affairs]]

===July 1960 – October 1961===
* Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister
* [[Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
* [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and Minister of Science
* [[Edward Heath]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]
* [[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
* [[Rab Butler]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
* [[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
* [[Iain Macleod]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
* [[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
* [[Reginald Maudling]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
* [[Charles Hill, Baron Hill of Luton|Charles Hill]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
* [[Sir David Eccles]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]
* [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: Minister of Science
* [[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Viscount Mills|Lord Mills]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]
* [[Ernest Marples]]: Minister of Transport
* [[Peter Thorneycroft]]: Minister of Aviation
* [[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: [[Minister of Defence (UK)|Minister of Defence]]
* [[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham|John Hare]]: [[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour and National Service]]
* [[Christopher Soames]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]
* [[Henry Brooke, Baron Brooke of Cumnor|Henry Brooke]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs

===October 1961 – July 1962===
* Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister
* [[Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
* [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and Minister of Science
* [[Edward Heath]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]
* [[Selwyn Lloyd]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
* [[Rab Butler]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
* [[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
* [[Reginald Maudling]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
* [[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
* [[Frederick Erroll]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
* [[Iain Macleod]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
* [[Sir David Eccles]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]
* [[Henry Brooke, Baron Brooke of Cumnor|Henry Brooke]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]
* [[Ernest Marples]]: Minister of Transport
* [[Peter Thorneycroft]]: Minister of Aviation
* [[Harold Arthur Watkinson]]: [[Minister of Defence (UK)|Minister of Defence]]
* [[John Scott Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel|John Scott Maclay]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham|John Hare]]: [[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour and National Service]]
* [[Christopher Soames]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]
* [[Charles Hill, Baron Hill of Luton|Charles Hill]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs
* [[Percy Herbert Mills, 1st Viscount Mills|Lord Mills]]: Minister without Portfolio

===July 1962 – October 1963===
''Note:'' In a radical reshuffle dubbed "[[Night of the Long Knives (1962)|The Night of the Long Knives]]", Macmillan sacked a third of his Cabinet.
* Harold Macmillan: Prime Minister
* [[Rab Butler]]: [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]] and [[First Secretary of State]]
* [[Reginald Edward Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount Dilhorne|Lord Dilhorne]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
* [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Lord Hailsham]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and Minister of Science
* [[Edward Heath]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]
* [[Reginald Maudling]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
* [[Henry Brooke, Baron Brooke of Cumnor|Henry Brooke]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
* [[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)|Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
* [[Duncan Edwin Sandys]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] and [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
* [[Frederick Erroll]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
* [[Iain Macleod]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
* [[Edward Boyle, Baron Boyle of Handsworth|Sir Edward Boyle]]: [[Secretary of State for Education|Minister of Education]]
* [[John Boyd-Carpenter]]: [[Secretary to the Treasury|Chief Secretary to the Treasury]]
* [[Ernest Marples]]: Minister of Transport
* [[Julian Amery]]: Minister of Aviation
* [[Peter Thorneycroft]]: [[Secretary of State for Defence|Minister of Defence]]
* [[Michael Noble, Baron Glenkinglas|Michael Noble]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
* [[John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham|John Hare]]: [[Secretary of State for Employment|Minister of Labour and National Service]]
* [[Christopher Soames]]: [[Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food|Minister of Agriculture]]
* [[Sir Keith Joseph]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government and Welsh Affairs
* [[Enoch Powell]]: Minister of Health
* [[Bill Deedes|William Deedes]]: Minister without Portfolio

==Cultural depictions==
{{further|Cultural depictions of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom#Harold Macmillan}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Cited texts==
* {{cite journal |last=Ashton |first=Nigel J |author-link=Nigel J. Ashton |title=Harold Macmillan and the "Golden Days" of Anglo-American Relations Revisited, 1957–63 |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/740/1/Anglo-American_Relations1957-63.pdf |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=691–723 |date=August 2005 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.2005.00511.x}}
* {{cite book |last=Beckett |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Beckett |title=Macmillan |publisher=Haus Publishing |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-904950-66-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Busch |first=Peter |title=All the Way with JFK? Britain, the US, and the Vietnam War |url=https://archive.org/details/allwaywithjfkbri0000busc/mode/2up |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |date=2003 |isbn=9780199256396}}
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |author-link=John Campbell (biographer) |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp |url-access=registration |publisher=Vintage |location=London |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-845-95091-0}} (contains an essay on Macmillan and Butler)
* Dell, Edmund. ''The Chancellors: A History of the Chancellors of the Exchequer, 1945–90'' (HarperCollins, 1997) pp.&nbsp;207–222, covers his term as Chancellor.
* {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Nigel |author-link=Nigel Fisher |title=Harold Macmillan |url=https://archive.org/details/haroldmacmillanb00fish |publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson |location=London |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-297-77914-8}}
*{{cite book |last1=Goodlad |first1=Graham |last2=Pearce |first2=Robert |title=British Prime Ministers From Balfour to Brown |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |date=2013 |isbn=9780415669832}}
* {{cite book
  | last = Horne
  | first = Alistair
  | author-link = Alistair Horne
  | year = 1988
  | title = Macmillan Volume I: 1894–1956
  | edition = original
  | location = London
  | publisher = Macmillan
  | isbn = 978-0-333-27691-4
  | url=https://archive.org/details/haroldmacmillan01horn/page/n5/mode/2up
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last = Horne
  | first = Alistair
  | author-link = Alistair Horne
  | year = 1989
  | title = Macmillan Volume II: 1957–1986
  | edition = Original
  | location = London
  | publisher = Macmillan
  | isbn = 978-0-333-49621-3
   |url=https://archive.org/details/haroldmacmillanv00sira
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last = Horne
  | first = Alistair
  | author-link = Alistair Horne
  | year = 2008
  | orig-year = 1988-9
  | title = Macmillan: The Official Biography
  | edition = Twentieth anniversary
  | location = London
  | publisher = Macmillan
  | isbn = 978-0-230-71083-2
  }}
* {{cite book
  | last = Howard
  | first = Anthony
  | author-link = Anthony Howard (journalist)
  | year = 1987
  | title = ''RAB: The Life of R. A. Butler''
  | location = London
  | publisher = Jonathan Cape
  | isbn = 978-0-224-01862-3
  | url-access = registration
  | url = https://archive.org/details/rablifeofrabutle0000howa
  }}
* {{cite book
  |last = Lamb
  |first = Richard
  | year = 1995
  | title = The Macmillan Years 1957–63: The Emerging Truth
  | location = London
  | publisher = Murray
  | isbn = 978-0-719-55392-9 
  | url = https://archive.org/details/macmillanyears190000lamb}}
* {{cite book
  | last = Middleton
  | first = Roger
  | year = 1997
  | title = Government Versus the Market: Growth of the Public Sector, Economic Management and British Economic Performance, 1890–1979
  | edition = New
  | orig-year = 1996
  | location = Cheltenham
  | publisher = Edward Elgar Publishing
  | isbn = 978-1-85898-371-4
  }}
* {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Charles |title=Margaret Thatcher: From Grantham to the Falklands |author-link=Charles Moore (journalist) |year=2013}}
* {{cite book |last=Sandbrook |first=Dominic |year=2005 |title=Never Had It So Good |location=London |publisher=Little, Brown |isbn=978-0-349-11530-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Subritzy |first=John |chapter=Macmillan and East of Suez: the Case of Malaysia |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Richard |title=Macmillan: Aspects of a Political Life |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |year=1999 |pages=177–194 |isbn=9780230376892}}
* {{cite book |last=Thorpe |first=D.R. |author-link=D. R. Thorpe |url=https://archive.org/details/supermaclifeofha0000thor_v0d5/mode/2up |title=Supermac: The Life of Harold Macmillan |publisher=[[Chatto & Windus]] |publication-place=London |via=[[Internet Archive]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-701-17748-5}}
* ''[[Theatre Record]]'' (1997 for [[Hugh Whitemore]]'s ''A Letter of Resignation''; 2008 for [[Howard Brenton]]'s ''Never So Good'')
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Williams, Baron Williams of Elvel |year=2010 |title=Harold Macmillan |url=https://archive.org/details/haroldmacmillan0000will |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |isbn=978-0-753-82702-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Oliver |year=1999 |chapter=Macmillan: A View from the Foreign Office |pages=6–15 |title=Macmillan: Aspects of a Political Life |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Richard |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=9780230376892}}

==Further reading==
* Aldous, Richard, and Sabine Lee, eds. ''Harold Macmillan and Britain's world role'' (Springer, 2016).
* Ball, Simon. ''The Guardsmen: Harold Macmillan, Three Friends and the World They Made'' (Harper Perennial, London 2005). {{ISBN|978-0-00-653163-0}}
* Betts, Lewis David. "Harold Macmillan and appeasement: implications for the future study of Macmillan as a foreign policy actor." ''Contemporary British History'' 32.2 (2018): 169–189.
* Butler, Larry, and Sarah Stockwell, eds. ''The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British Decolonization'' (Springer, 2013).
* [[Davenport-Hines, Richard]]. ''An English Affair: Sex, Class and Power in the Age of Profumo'' HarperCollins, London 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-00-743585-2}}
* Edmonds, Anthony O. and E. Bruce Geelhoed, ''Eisenhower, Macmillan and Allied Unity 1957–61'', Basingstoke, UK: [[Palgrave Macmillan]],2003. {{ISBN|0-333-64227-9}}.
* Evans, Brendan. "The oratory of Harold Macmillan", in ''Conservative Orators from Baldwin to Cameron'' (Manchester University Press, 2016).
* Grant, Matthew. "Historians, the Penguin Specials and the 'State-of-the-Nation' Literature, 1958–64." ''Contemporary British History'' (2003) 17#3 pp29–54, focus on decline of Britain.
* [[Hennessy, Peter]]. ''Having It So Good: Britain In The Fifties'', Penguin Books, London 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-14-100409-9}}.
* Hodge, Alan. "The Macmillan Years", ''History Today'' (December 1963), 13#12 pp. 848–851, covers 1931 to 1963.
* [[Emrys Hughes|Hughes, Emrys]]. ''Macmillan: Portrait of a Politician'', [[Allen & Unwin]], 1962. {{ISBN|978-0-04-923013-2}}
* Hutchinson, George. ''The Last Edwardian at No.10: An Impression of Harold Macmillan'', Quartet Books, London 1980. {{ISBN|978-0-7043-2232-5}}.
* James, Elizabeth. ''Macmillan A Publishing Tradition'', London, 2002. {{ISBN|0-333-73517-X}}
* Merk, Dorothea, and Rüdiger Ahrens. "'Suspicious Federal Chancellor' Versus 'Weak Prime Minister': Konrad Adenauer and Harold Macmillan in the British and West German Quality Press during the Berlin Crisis (1958 to 1962). A Critical Discourse Analysis", in ''Europe in Discourse: Identity, Diversity, Borders'' (2016) pp. 101–116 [http://www.academia.edu/download/57454089/EID-Conference-1-Proceedings.pdf#page=102 online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Ovendale, Ritchie. "Macmillan and the wind of change in Africa, 1957–1960", ''Historical Journal'' (1995) 38#2, pp. 455–477.
* Rooke, Patrick J. ''The Wind of Change in Africa'' (1968) [https://archive.org/details/windofchangeinaf0000rook online]
* Sampson, Anthony. ''Macmillan: A Study in Ambiguity'' (A&C Black, 2012).
* [[Christopher Sandford (biographer)|Sandford, Christopher]]. ''Harold and Jack: The Remarkable Friendship of Prime Minister Macmillan and President Kennedy'' (Prometheus Books, 2014)
* [[D. R. Thorpe|Thorpe, D. R]], [https://archive.org/details/supermaclifeofha0000thor/mode/2up Supermac: the life of Harold Macmillan] (London, Pimlico, 2011). Includes Appendix Two: The Memorandum for Mrs Thatcher, 20 August 1980. {{ISBN|978-1-844-13541-7}}. At the [[Internet Archive]].
* Tolstoy, Nikolai. ''[[The Minister and the Massacres]]'' (London, 1986), {{ISBN|0-09-164010-5}}
* Torreggiani, Valerio. "The Making of Harold Macmillan's Third Way in Interwar Britain (1924–1935)", in ''New Political Ideas in the Aftermath of the Great War'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2017) pp.&nbsp;67–85.
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=John |title=Macmillan (Profiles In Power) |publisher=Longman |location=London |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-582-55386-6}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9049827/Harold-Macmillan Britannica Online about Harold Macmillan]

===Primary sources===
* Macmillan, Harold. ''The Macmillan Diaries: vol II, Prime Minister and after 1957–1966'' (Pan, 2011).

==External links==
{{Commons category|Harold Macmillan}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}

* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Macmillian,+Harold Annotated Bibliography for Harold Macmillan from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804031104/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FMacmillian%2C+Harold |date=4 August 2010 }}
* {{hansard-contribs | mr-harold-macmillan | Harold Macmillan}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/29/newsid_2547000/2547307.stm BBC Harold Macmillan obituary]
* President of the friends of Roquetaillade association [http://www.roquetaillade.eu]
* [http://www.depauw.edu/news/index.asp?id=20586 8 June 1958 speech on "Interdependence" at DePauw University]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070515190448/http://www.pm.gov.uk/output/Page131.asp More about Harold Macmillan] on the Downing Street website
* [http://www.depauw.edu/news/?id=27045 1968&nbsp;– Britain's Harold Macmillan Makes Return Visit to DePauw, Calls for New Rapprochement] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115161545/http://www.depauw.edu/news/?id=27045 |date=15 November 2011}}
* [http://www.rootsandleaves.com/ RootsAndLeaves.com], Cavendish family genealogy
* [http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/projects/suez/suez.html Bodleian Library Suez Crisis Fiftieth Anniversary Exhibition]
* {{NPG name|name=Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton}}
* {{UK National Archives ID}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/011827}}

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{{Harold Macmillan|state=expanded}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmillan, Harold}}
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