Editing Hideyo Noguchi

{{Short description|Japanese bacteriologist (1876–1928)}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Hideyo Noguchi
| native_name       = {{nobold|野口 英世}}
| native_name_lang  = 
| image             = Noguchi Hideyo.jpg
| caption           = 
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1876|11|9}}
| birth_place       = [[Inawashiro, Fukushima]], Japan
| death_date        = {{Death date and age|1928|05|21|1876|11|9}}
| death_place       = [[Accra]], [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]]
| resting_place     = [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx)|Woodlawn Cemetery]], New York City, US
| residence         = 
| ethnicity         = 
| field             = [[Bacteriology]], [[Serology]], [[Immunology]]
| work_institutions = [[Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research]], [[University of Pennsylvania]]
| doctoral_advisor  = 
| doctoral_students = 
| known_for         = [[Syphilis]]<br />[[Treponema pallidum]], [[Neurosyphilis]]
| author_abbrev_bot = 
| author_abbrev_zoo = 
| spouse            = Mary Loretta Dardis (m. 1912)
| influenced        = 
| prizes            = [[Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy]], [[Order of the Rising Sun]], [[Kober Medal]], [[Order of Dannebrog]], [[Legion of Honour]]
| module            = {{Infobox Chinese|child=yes
| kanji = 野口 英世
| hiragana = のぐち ひでよ
| romaji = Noguchi Hideyo
}}
}}
{{nihongo|'''Hideyo Noguchi'''|野口 英世|''Noguchi Hideyo''|extra=November 9, 1876 – May 21, 1928}}, also known as {{nihongo|'''Seisaku Noguchi'''|野口 清作|''Noguchi Seisaku''}}, was a prominent Japanese [[bacteriologist]] at the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute]] known for his work on [[syphilis]], [[serology]], [[immunology]], and contributing to the long term understanding of [[neurosyphilis]].<ref name=":43">{{Cite web |last=Swaminathan |first=Srivatsan |date=May 30, 2024 |title=Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928) |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/hideyo-noguchi-1876-1928 |website=Arizona State University – Embryo Project Encyclopedia}}</ref>  

Before the Rockefeller Institute, he was a research assistant to American physician [[Silas Weir Mitchell (physician)|Silas Weir Mitchell]] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] laying the foundation to the fields of immunology and serology.<ref name=":47">Mehl, Margaret (2023). "From Fukushima to Ghana: Noguchi Hideyo, the Peasant Boy Who Made It (2)"</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |pages=132–135}}</ref> He produced one of the first serums to treat [[Timber rattlesnake|North American rattlesnake]] bites alongside [[Thorvald Madsen]] at the [[Statens Serum Institut|Statens Serum Institute]].<ref name=":30">{{Cite book |last=Cervetti |first=Nancy |title=S. Weir Mitchell, 1829–1914: Philadelphia's Literary Physician |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=2012 |page=229}}</ref><ref name=":31" /> 

During his research, Noguchi was an early advocate for the wide spread use of [[Antivenom|antivenoms]] in the United States before its mass production. He wrote one of the foundational texts on the topic of venoms in his monograph, ''Snake Venoms: An Investigation of Venomous Snakes with Special Reference to the Phenomena of Their Venoms.<ref name=":47" />''

Beginning at the Rockefeller Institute, he was the first person in the United States to confirm the causative agent of syphilis, ''[[Treponema pallidum]],'' after  [[Fritz Schaudinn]] and [[Erich Hoffmann]] first identified it in 1905 .<ref name=":29" /> His most notable achievement was identifying the agent of syphilis in the tissues of patients with [[General paresis of the insane|general paresis]] and [[Tabes dorsalis|tabes dorsals]], a late stage consequence of [[tertiary syphilis]], establishing the conclusive link between the physical and mental manifestation of the disease. American educator and psychiatrist [[John Clare Whitehorn]] considered the discovery an outstanding psychiatric achievement.<ref name=":44">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1980 |page=130}}</ref>

Later in his career, Noguchi developed the first  serum to give partial immunity to [[Rocky Mountain spotted fever|Rocky mountain spotted fever]], a notoriously lethal disease before treatment was discovered.<ref name=":42" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Noguchi |first=Hideyo |date=1923 |title=MMUNITY STUDIES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER. |journal=|s2cid=9325033 }}</ref> 

Noguchi's died from yellow fever during an expedition to Africa in search for the cause of the same disease. Posthumously, his work on yellow fever was overturned. Noguchi mistaking it as a bacteria confusing it for a different tropical disease. Noguchi's claims on discovering the causative agent of [[rabies]], [[Polio|poliomyelitis]], [[trachoma]] were overturned and his pure [[Microbiological culture|culture]] of syphilis could not be reproduced. Although unsuccessful he brought more attention to often neglected obscure tropical diseases.<ref name=":54">Lederer, Susan (March 1985). "Hideyo Noguchi's Luetin Experiment and the Antivivisectionists". ''The History of Science Society''. '''76''' (1): 34-35. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:10.1086/353736. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&nbsp;232791. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]]&nbsp;3888912.</ref><ref name=":48">{{Cite web |date=May 22, 1928 |title=Dr. Noguchi is Dead, Martyr of Science |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1928/05/22/archives/dr-noguchi-is-dead-martyr-of-science-bacteriologist-of-rockefeller.html |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Except he did prove [[Carrion's disease|Carrions disease]] and verruca peruana were the same species alongside fellow researcher [[Evelyn Butler Tilden|Evelyn Tilden]] continuing his research after his death.<ref name=":55" /> 

Noguchi was one of the first scientists to gain international acclaim for his scientific contributions from Japan, being nominated several times for a [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel prize in medicine]] between 1913 and 1927. Although, he did not receive the prize. Today, he's most known for being featured on the yen and the [[Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize|Hideyo Noguchi Africa prize]] given in his honor.<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickson University Press. p.&nbsp;112.</ref><ref name="nominationdb">{{cite web |title=Hideyo Noguchi |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6740 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001202124/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6740 |archive-date=October 1, 2022 |access-date=7 August 2011<!--redo semipermdead 15 Sept 2023--> |website=[[Nobel Prize]] Nomination Archive}}</ref><ref name=":47" /> 

==Early life==
[[File:Fukushima 20180305110152 (41878183530).jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi's childhood home and fireplace]]
Born Seisaku Noguchi in the [[Inawashiro, Fukushima|Inawashiro]] in [[Fukushima Prefecture]] in 1876 to an impoverished farming family.<ref name="noguchi">{{Cite web |title=野口英世の生涯／明治9年～明治24年 |url=http://www.tdc.ac.jp/noguchi/01.html |website=www.tdc.ac.jp}}</ref> His mother Shika worked to maintain the family farm and restore the Noguchi name to the honor it once had. Seisaku being descended from [[samurai]] in the days of his great grandfather.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web |last=Mehl |first=Margaret |date=2023 |title=From Fukushima to Ghana: Noguchi Hideyo, the Peasant Boy Who Made It |url=https://margaretmehl.com/from-fukushima-to-ghana-noguchi-hideyo-the-peasant-boy-who-made-it-1/}}</ref><ref name=":52">Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickson University Press. p.&nbsp;14-15.</ref>

=== Childhood accident ===
Noguchi was two years old when he was left with his deaf grandmother who had poor eyesight alongside his four year old sister, Inu, while his mother worked in the rice fields.<ref name=":37" />  He fell into an [[irori]] and suffered burns and developed an infection on his left hand. 

Since there were no doctor in Inawashiro, his left hand was unable to receive medical attention and remained useless as the upper joints of the fingers were gone, and the remaining joints had adhered to each other to form a solid clump. His thumb was drawn down to his wrist and had become attached to it.<ref name=":52" /> While Seisaku could no longer become a successful farmer. Shika promised to give her son an education.<ref name=":37" />

=== Early education ===
In 1883, Noguchi entered Mitsuwa elementary school. His teacher elementary teacher Kobayashi saw his talent and due to generous contributions from his teacher, Noguchi received surgery for his left hand fifteen years after the accident.  {{nihongo|Dr. Kanae Watanabe|渡部 鼎|''Watanabe Kanae''}} was the surgeon that operated on Noguchi's hand at his clinic in [[Aizuwakamatsu]].<ref name=":37" />

Noguchi recovered some functionality of his left hand. Afterwards, Noguchi decided to become a doctor. In 1893, sixteen year old Noguchi apprenticed with the same clinic as the doctor who had performed his surgery.<ref name=":37" />

Japan was undergoing a modernization of its medical system during the [[Meiji Restoration|Meji Restoration]]. In 1872, Japan introduced [[Medical license|medical examination]] for doctors, a costly and time consuming process. Although graduates of the [[University of Tokyo|Imperial University]], an exclusive and elite college, in Tokyo were exempt from the examinations.<ref name=":37" /> 

Noguchi was not able to get into the Imperial University because of his peasant class. In 1896, he left for Tokyo to receive formal training and prepare for his examination. After one month, Noguchi passed his written portion, and subsequently passed the clinical examinations at twenty years old.<ref name=":37" /> He worked at the port of Yokohama as a quarantine officer, earning 35 yen a month.<ref name=":56" />

During this period, he indulged in brothels and wine.<ref name=":56">{{Cite web |date=November 24, 204 |title=Discordant notes... |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2004/11/21/general/discordant-notes/}}</ref> In 1898, Noguchi changed his first name to Hideyo after reading a novel by Japanese author [[Tsubouchi Shōyō]] about a college student whose character had the same name as him. The character in the story, Seisaku, was an intelligent medical student but became lazy and ruined his life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tan |first1=Siang Yong |last2=Furubayashi |first2=Jill |date=October 2014 |title=Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928): Distinguished bacteriologist |journal=Singapore Medical Journal |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=550–551 |doi=10.11622/smedj.2014140 |issn=0037-5675 |pmc=4293967 |pmid=25631898}}</ref> 

Noguchi received a position at the [[Kitasato University|Kitasato Research]]. Although, he was an outsider as one of the few doctors to have not graduated from the Imperial University.<ref name=":37" /> 

=== Noguchi's patrons ===
[[File:Hideyo Noguchi.jpg|thumb|Young Hideyo Noguchi]]

Dr. Watanabe introduced Noguchi to [[Morinosuke Chiwaki|Chiwaki Morinosuke]] founder of the Takayama Dental College (precursor to the [[Tokyo Dental College]]) who made him an apprentice. Both Noguchi and Morinosuke became close friend. Morinosuke felt Noguchi showed great talent. 

Noguchi's main benefactors were, Sakae Kobayashi, his elementary school teacher and father figure,<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |location=Rutherford, N.J |publication-date=1980 |page=117}}</ref> Kanae Watanabe, the doctor who performed surgery on his hand,<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Yoshimine; Do; Moriyama; Yanagisawa; Takayesu; Ishikawa |first=Norio; Shinichi; Norinaga; Takaaki; Yoshinori; Tatsuya |date=1999 |title=The Villa of the Late Dr. Hideyo Noguchi in Shandaken, New York State and the Tokyo Dental College |url=https://archive.org/details/hideyo-noguchi-in-shandaken-new-york/The%20Villa%20of%20the%20Hideyo%20Noguchi%20ni%20Shandaken%20%281%29%20/mode/2up |journal=Journal of the Japanese Society of Dentistry History |volume=1 |issue=1 |via=National Library Diet Digital Collection}}</ref> and Morinosuke Chiwaki, who helped fund his travel to the United States.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |pages=viii}}</ref> 

=== Leaving Japan ===
Noguchi was inspired to go to the United States. Partly, motivated by difficulties in obtaining a medical position in Japan as it required expensive schooling.<ref name=":10" /> He experienced discrimination as employers were concerned his hand deformity would discourage patients.<ref name=":10" />

In 1899, Noguchi met [[Simon Flexner]] during his internship as his translator, being one of a few people who spoke English and Japanese at the Kitasato Institute.<ref name=":29">{{Cite journal |last=Lederer |first=Susan |date=March 1985 |title=Hideyo Noguchi's Luetin Experiment and the Antivivisectionists |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/232791 |journal=The History of Science Society |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=34 |doi=10.1086/353736 |jstor=232791 |pmid=3888912 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Flexner, who was visiting to see research being made on dysentery from foreign scientists, gave polite words of encouragement to his desire to work in the United States.<ref name=":29" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |pages=}}</ref> 

Noguchi decided that was that and bought a ticket on the ''[[America Maru]].'' Chiwaki took a loan to pay for it.<ref name=":56" />''<ref>{{Cite book |last=KIta |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life Of Medical Search and Discovery |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |pages=131}}</ref>'' Noguchi hosted a party to celebrate, spending most of his money before leaving.<ref name=":56" />

==Early career ==
On December 30, 1900, Noguchi arrived in [[Philadelphia]].<ref name=":50">Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickson University Press. p.&nbsp;72.</ref> He surprised Flexner at his position at the University of Pennsylvania. In spite of their brief encounter, Noguchi requested a position but he said the university had no funds. Although, Flexner did want to hire an assistant to investigate snake venoms.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":50" /> 

Later in Flexner's diary, he recognized his courage and persistence for traveling so far from his home country.<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickson University Press. p.&nbsp;73.</ref> The day after he arrived, Flexner asked, "Have you ever studied snake venom?"<ref name=":11" /> While not having much experience, but an abundance of determination, he said, "Yes, sir, I do know a little about it, but I'd like the chance to learn more."<ref name=":11" />

=== Research at University of Pennsylvania ===
[[File:Specimens_by_Hideyo_Noguchi.jpg|thumb|Specimens prepared by Hideyo Noguchi]]On January 4, 1901, Noguchi started his research position, earning eight dollars a month, coming straight out of Flexner's pocket.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":47" />  Flexner left for San Francisco to investigate an outbreak of the plague, leaving Noguchi for three months under the guidance of Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell.<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickson University Press. p.&nbsp;75.</ref><ref name=":12" /> Despite his lack of knowledge, Flexner returned to find he had written a 250 pages on snake venom.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |pages=136–138}}</ref> Flexner was impressed.<ref name=":12" />  In addition, Mitchell and Noguchi wrote a joint research paper, which was his first official publication.<ref name=":12" /> Both presented their scientific findings before the [[National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Science]] in Philadelphia, one of the greatest honors an American scientist could have at the time.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery Hardcover |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |pages=144–145}}</ref> Dr. Mitchell spoke during the presentation but Noguchi handled the specimens.<ref name=":14" />[[File:Hideyo_Noguchi_in_robes.jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi getting honorary degre]]Dr. Mitchell said after their research concluded...
<blockquote>"It is thanks to the great efforts of this young man that I have been able to bring my thirty years of research to their final conclusion."<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |page=145 |language=English}}</ref></blockquote>Although, Dr. Mitchell was concerned about his acceptance into larger Western society. <ref name=":12" /> During his research on snakes, Noguchi complained about live rabbits being fed to snakes in cages and felt the practice cruel, but colleagues said he was too sensitive.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |publication-date=2005 |page=140}}</ref> Nonetheless, Mitchell recommended him for the Carnegie Fellowship. Noguchi was accepted and became an official researcher and received funding from both the Carnegie Institute and National Academy of Science.<ref name=":15" /> [[Paul Ehrlich]] wrote to congratulate him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |page=146}}</ref>  On July 9, 1907, the University of Pennsylvania awarded Hideyo Noguchi an [[honorary degree]].<ref name=":15" /> On July 19, 1907, he wrote to about the accomplishment, <blockquote>"Everything is beautiful when it is still in a dream state, but when it becomes a reality it is no longer interesting to me... When one wish comes true, another is born... Now I intend to request a medical degree from the Japanese government."<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p.&nbsp;112.</ref></blockquote>

=== State institute and advocate for antivenom  ===
French scientist [[Albert Calmette]] was the first to produce an [[antitoxin]] for venomous snake bites in 1895.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Saurab |date=2021 |title=How Snake Antivenom is Developed? |url=https://vocal.media/fiction/how-snake-antivenom-is-developed |website=Fiction}}</ref> Mitchell had made attempts to produce a serum for rattlesnakes, but was unsuccessful and encouraged his protege.<ref name=":30" /> Subsequently, Noguchi received an invitation to research at the Statens Serum Institute in Copenhagen.<ref name=":0" /> He wrote several papers with fellow bacteriologist, Thorvald Madsen.<ref name=":0" /> Noguchi brought a hundred grams of dried rattlesnake venom to Copenhagen and with Madsen produced one of the first antiserums to treat North American rattlesnake bites in 1903.<ref name=":30" />  Noguchi was the first to propose the mass production of antivenom in the USA, but not having been realized until [[Afrânio do Amaral]] from the [[Instituto Butantan|Butantan Institute]] and his research contributed to the development of the first North American rattlesnake antivenom in 1927.<ref name=":31">Dixon, Bernard. [http://forms.asm.org/microbe/index.asp?bid=27061 "Fame, Failure, and Yellowjack"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328081354/http://forms.asm.org/microbe/index.asp?bid=27061|date=2012-03-28}}, ''Microbe Magazine'' ([[American Society for Microbiology]]). May 2004.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pucca |first1=M. B. |last2=Cerni |first2=F. A. |last3=Janke |first3=R. |last4=Bermúdez-Méndez |first4=E. |last5=Ledsgaard |first5=L. |last6=Barbosa |first6=J. E. |last7=Laustsen |first7=A. H. |date=2019 |title=History of Envenoming Therapy and Current Perspectives |journal=Frontiers in Immunology |volume=10 |page=1598 |doi=10.3389/fimmu.2019.01598 |pmc=6635583 |pmid=31354735 |doi-access=free}}</ref>  

=== Major publications ===
Between 1905 and 1908, Noguchi produced 28 papers and reports on his work with snake venoms and the routine observations of immunologic relationships, as well as tetanus.<ref name=":49">Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p.&nbsp;109.</ref> In 1907, he wrote the chapter on venoms in [[William Osler]] and [[Thomas McCrae (physician)|Thomas McCraes]] Modern Medicine.<ref name=":49" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1929 |title=Modern Medicine: Its Theory and Practice in Original Contributions by American and Foreign Authors. |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |volume=44 |issue=3 |page=464 |doi=10.1001/archinte.1929.00140030163018 |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/536586|url-access=subscription }}</ref>     [[File:Statens Serum Institut hovedbygning.JPG|thumb|Statens Serum Institute in Copenhagen]]In 1909, Noguchi released a comprehensive monograph on snake venom, ''Snake Venoms: An Investigation of Venomous Snakes with Special Reference to the Phenomena of Their Venoms''.<ref name=":0" />  The publication contained drawings and several photographs of specimens.<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1980 |page=125}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> In the preface, it stated,<blockquote>“No single work in the English language exists at this time which treats of the facts of zoological, anatomical, physiological, and pathological features of venomous snakes, with particular reference to the properties of their venoms."<ref name=":19" /></blockquote>In 1904, he returned from Copenhagen. Flexner had offered him a position at the Rockefeller Institute alongside six others members.<ref name=":53">Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p.&nbsp;105-106.</ref><ref name=":51">Flexner, James Thomas. (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?id=zHUQdmAlX-4C&pg=PA51 ''Maverick's Progress,'' pp. 51]–52.</ref> Noguchi moved to [[Lexington Avenue]] in New York City. He was introduced to another medical student Norio Araki, who was roommates with Hideyo Noguchi for three years.<ref name=":46">{{Cite web |last=Araki; Araki |first=Teruo; Miyako |title=Norio Araki |url=https://www.historyofjapaneseinny.org/artifacts/norio-araki/}}</ref>

== Career at the Rockefeller Institute ==
[[File:Hideyo_Noguchi's_laboratory_at_Rockefeller_Institute.jpg|thumb|359x359px|Hideyo Noguchi's laboratory at Rockefeller Institute]]In 1905, Treponema pallidum was first identified as the cause of syphilis by Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann.<ref name=":29" /> Flexner put Noguchi onto syphilis research as he selected syphilis as one of the major diseases to focus research on at the institute.

In 1906, Noguchi was the first person in the United States to confirm the [[Spirochaete|spirochete]] sixty days after its discovery.<ref name=":29" /> Between 1906 to 1915, Noguchi made some of his most long lasting discoveries and scientific contributions to syphilis.<ref name=":47" />

=== Butyric acid test ===
When the [[Wassermann test|Wasserman test]] was announced in 1906, Noguchi began working on refining it as it utilized serum reactions, which he was familiar from the course of his research of snake venom. 

Noguchi and J. W. Moore created the butyric acid test for diagnosing syphilis, which used fluid from the spinal column, it was considered valuable tool in the early days of syphilis diagnosis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |pages=170}}</ref> Physicians reported finding the test more sensitive. During the distribution to hospitals, doctors reported,  “Noguchi had prepared for us all the antigen and ambocepter tests that we used. He also spent about two weeks at our laboratory and helped us materially by making many of the tests."<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickson University Press |year=1980 |page=130}}</ref>  

In particular, it was effective at diagnosing neurosyphilis as it detected 90 percent of cases of general paralysis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Noguchi |first=Hideyo |title=The butyric acid test for syphilis in the diagnosis of metasyphilitic and other nervous disorders |journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine|date=1909 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=604–613 |doi=10.1084/JEM.11.4.604 |pmid=19867270 |pmc=2124732 |s2cid=17663831 }}</ref> Although, the test was used less as more refined tests were developed and it was technically demanding and required more specialized expertise. 

In 1909, he published twelve papers on syphilis.<ref name=":49" /> In 1910, Noguchi published his manuscript, ''Serum Diagnosis of Syphilis'', his most popular publication, assisting doctors and physicians in the diagnosis and treatment of syphilis.<ref name=":41">{{Cite journal |last=Tan-1 Furubayashi-2 |first=Siang-1 Jill-2 |date=October 2014 |title=Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928): Distinguished bacteriologist |journal=Singapore Medical Journal |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=550–551 |doi=10.11622/smedj.2014140 |pmc=4293967 |pmid=25631898}}</ref>

=== Controversial pure culture of syphilis ===
Dr. Flexner told him to focus his efforts on obtaining a pure culture of the spirochete.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickson University Press |year=1980 |pages=126}}</ref> Flexner wrote in his diary, “Once he was started on a problem he would pursue it to the bitter end." Noguchi set up hundreds of tubes for his cultures and used thousands of microscopic slides in his lab.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickson University Press |year=1980 |page=128}}</ref> 

In February 1911, Noguchi believed that he had grown a pure culture and wrote to his childhood mentor Kobayashi, “I feel as if I am dancing in heaven." He thought it might eradicate of syphilis.'''<ref name=":32" />''' Although few were able to reproduce his results and his pure culture was considered unreproducible.<ref name=":54" /><ref name=":25" /> In 1934, [[Hans Zinsser]], a personal friend of Noguchi, reluctantly said it had not been successful. It was prone to contamination.<ref name=":54" /> Over the next century, bacteriologists and researchers continued struggled to produce a stable culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2021 |title=In Vitro Cultivation of the Syphilis Spirochete Treponema pallidum |journal= Current Protocols|volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=e44 |doi=10.1002/cpz1.44 |pmc=7986111 |pmid=33599121 |last1=Edmondson |first1=Diane G. |last2=Norris |first2=Steven J. }}</ref>

=== Presence of ''Treponema pallidum'' in paresis ===
[[File:Hideyo_Noguchi's_Microscope.jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi's personal microscope used to identify syphilis]]

Wards Island State Hospital, located on an island in the East River, held the New York State Pathologic Institute and was located opposite of the Rockefeller Institute. Staff members at the Rockefeller Institute, [[Phoebus Levene]] and [[James Bumgardner Murphy|James B. Murphy]] worked at the Pathologic Institute and were well aware of the issue of paresis and brought this up in conversation with Hideyo Noguchi.<ref name=":33" />

When left untreated  between 1911 and 1918  87% of patients suffering from neurosyphilis died and 9% improved with 3.5% seen as remissions.<ref>Mortimer WR. Remissions in general paralysis. ''Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry'' 1924; 12: 419–425– Crossref.</ref> Some researchers held out some hope that understanding the pathophysiology of paresis could lead to a cure for late stage neurosyphilis.<ref>Brown EM. Why Wagner-Jauregg won the Nobel Prize for discovering malaria therapy for general paresis of the insane. ''History of Psychiatry'' 2000; 11: 371–382– Crossref. Web of Science.</ref> 

Noguchi decided to remove the doubt and demonstrate the presence of caustive agent in paretic brains. He began collecting samples from spinal cords and brains of paretic patients to determine its relationship to syphilis.<ref>Noguchi H, Moore JW. A demonstration of Treponema pallidum in the brain in cases of general paralysis. ''Journal of Experimental Medicine'' 1913; 17: 232–238– Crossref. PubMed.</ref><ref name=":33" /> 

In 1912, Noguchi had collected a total of 200 brains and 12 spinal cords samples from patients in collboration with J. W. Moore, a psychiatrist at Wards Island.<ref name=":34">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1980 |page=131}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Eventually, he discovered the presence of ''Treponema pallidum'' in the spinal cord of a patient. Consequently, this discovery proved the homogeneity of a mental and physical disease and demonstrated that an organic agent could cause [[psychosis]].<ref name=":44" /><ref name=":34" /> Noguchi visited his friend and neighbor, Ichiro Hori, after his discovery. His friend reported that he bursted in the middle of the night, dancing and wearing nothing but his underwear, shouting, “I found it! I found it!"<ref name=":33" />

With this discovery, Noguchi's influence went beyond bacteriology. John C. Whiteborn wrote about the history of American psychiatry. <blockquote>“In the organicist tradition, the outstanding psychiatric achievement as well as the final and conclusive link in the demonstration of the etiologic role of syphilis in general paresis was Noguchi and Moore’s demonstration of the spirochete in the brains of general paretics."<ref name=":33" /></blockquote>Before his discovery, about 20 percent of the New York State mental hospitals were patients suffering from paresis that led to a patient’s death within five to seven years.<ref name=":33" /> Noguchi allowed for these patients to be diagnosed with syphilis. Noguchi proved that general paresis and tabes dorsalis are late stages of tertiary syphilis of the brain and spinal cords. Noguchi had discovered the delayed effects that could appear ten to twenty years after infection on the nervous system.<ref name=":55">{{Cite book |last=Renaud; Freney |first=Francois; Jean |title=Pioneers of Bacteriology |date=2011 |publisher=Eska Publishing |pages=164}}</ref> In 1925, [[Association of American Physicians]] granted him its prized [[Kober Medal]] for this discovery.<ref name=":34" />[[File:Picture of Dr. Hideyo Noguchi.jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi at work in his laboratory]]
When interviewed later, Noguchi said,<blockquote>"All you need is enough test tubes, sufficient money, dedication, and hard work. ...  and one more thing, you have got to be able to put up with endless failure."<ref name=":25">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |page=172}}</ref></blockquote>When compared to a genius, he said, "there was no such thing as genius. There was only the willingness to work three, four, even five times harder than the next man".<ref name=":25" /> Dr. Noguchi's name is remembered in the binomial attached to another spirochete, ''[[Leptospira noguchii]]''.<ref name=":31" /> 
=== Unusual research methods ===
Noguchi was prolific in his lab results. Flexner described his work as "superhuman".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |page=167}}</ref> His record for numbers of published papers in a single year was an unheard of nineteen submitted to journals. Noguchi published over 200 paper and gave lecture tours throughout Europe during his career.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha |page=164}}</ref> 

Noguchi rarely read extensively before his experimentation. He wanted to learn through his failure.<ref name=":38">{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=Paul |date=1959 |title=Hideyo Noguchi 1876–1928 |url=https://ia803201.us.archive.org/35/items/sim_bulletin-of-the-history-of-medicine_january-february-1959_33_1/sim_bulletin-of-the-history-of-medicine_january-february-1959_33_1.pdf |journal=Bulletin of History of Medicine |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=13 |pmid=13629181}}</ref> He report in a letter to his mentor,<blockquote>"Theories are not to be taught by anybody outside of ourselves. We are the best teachers of the truth — I mean by this that we ought to convince ourselves chiefly by our own experiences and own experiments."<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p.&nbsp;107.</ref></blockquote>Although, he tended to draw premature conclusions. During a lecture on the transmission of syphilis to rabbits, he had been successful in only one out of thirty-six cases.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickson University Press |year=1980 |page=144}}</ref> Noguchi did not label his test tubes, he insisted he had it memorized.<ref name=":32" /> He claimed to have a "special method".<ref name=":38" />

His work station was covered in cigarette butts.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |page=139}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> His friend Okumura witnessed  Noguchi drank and smoked a great deal, but was stunned at how Noguchi could get along without sleep.<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickson University Press. p.&nbsp;110.</ref> He could be irresponsible with his specimens. Once he swallowed solution of jaundice while pipetting a culture.<ref name=":39" /><ref name=":26" /> He washed his mouth out with alcohol but he felt he could have contracted [[jaundice]].<ref name=":26" />  

Early in his career, Noguchi's found it difficult for him to accept help as he wanted to ensure he received proper credit for his discoveries. Often washed his own test tubes and grounded his own mixtures which research assistants typically do. He once said, "I can't allow someone who doesn't know exactly what I'm doing here to interfere."<ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |page=166}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

When he met Evelyn Tilden, an English major, in Massachusetts, she was hired as his secretary. Tilden was profoundly impactful to the writing of his research papers. Eventually, Tilden became his apprentice and Noguchi encouraged her to enroll in courses in biology and organic chemistry at Columbia University. Eventually, she received a doctoral degree in 1931 and made a career for herself, becoming professor at the [[Northwestern University|North Western University]].<ref name=":47" />

== Personal life ==

=== Marriage and relationships ===
[[File:Mary Loretta Dardis.jpg|thumb|Mrs. Noguchi (Mary Loretta Dardis)]]
Noguchi secretly married Mary Loretta Dardis on April 10, 1912, whom he met for a single time after he returned from Copenhagen. He did not meet her again for years, "then ran into her on the street, had a rose in his hand, held it up to her."<ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=KIta |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |page=173}}</ref><ref name=":45">{{Cite news |date=1931 |title=The Hidden Romance of Dr. Noguchi's Life |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/st-louis-post-dispatch-romance-of-mary/8997521/?locale=en-CA |access-date= |work=The St. Louis Post-Dispatch Daily Magazine |pages=30}}</ref> Both came from a background of poverty. Mary, nicknamed Maize, called her husband, Hidey.<ref name=":0" /> 

The marriage was kept secret from his family, friends, and boss.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. |year=1980 |location=Rutherford, N.J. |page=119}}</ref> Flexner opposed his marriage to an American. Flexner felt he should marry someone of Japanese descent. Noguchi worried his marriage would put his promotion at risk because she would have to be added to his pension and the taboo of having an [[interracial marriage]].<ref name=":20" /> Their marriage did become known to the public until his death.<ref name=":45" /> 

Both of them moved into an apartment at 381 Central Park West.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Eckstein |first=Gustav |title=Noguchi |publisher=Harper |year=1931 |page=244}}</ref> He would turn the kitchen into a laboratory, leaving bacterial specimens in the refrigerator, have microscopes holding germ cultures on the dinner table, and put test tubes in the oven.<ref name=":45" /> 

Mary would read often to him at his microscope, whether it was old tales, Tolstoy, or Shakespeare. Mary had to endure his long absences on scientific exhibition.<ref name=":45" /><ref name=":27">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |pages=174}}</ref>
[[File:Hideyo Noguchi's letter.jpg|thumb|Letter from Hideyo Noguchi to his wife Mary Dardis]]
Noguchi would often be caught at the laboratory at night and people would ask him why he was not at home? His usual reply was, "Home? This is my home." Some people thought he was escaping from his relationship but it is revealed through letters their marriage brought great satisfaction. Mary provided a refuge and inspiration.<ref name=":35">{{Cite journal |last=Cruzado |first=Lizardo |date=2020 |title=Primera centuria de la presencia de Hideyo Noguchi en el Perú |url=https://www.redalyc.org/journal/3720/372064490006/html/ |journal=Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=177–191}}</ref> 

Suzanne Kamata has discussed how American women, such as Mary Dardis, have played a large part in the success of their Japanese husbands but have often gone unnoticed due to their nationality. She states "her assistance may have even helped to prolong his life."<ref>Kamata, Suzanne (2019). ''Critical Perspectives on Wives: Roles, Representations, Identities, Work''. Demeter Press. pp. 143–156.</ref>

Since he was notoriously bad with money, he often got  paid in two separate checks, one to hand on to his wife who paid the bills and the other to keep so that he would have something to spend it on. Mary could have stopped him from entering financial ruin.<ref name=":51" /> 

Hideyo was close friends with his neighbor, Ichiro Hori, a Japanese painter and photographer.<ref name=":20" /> During his studies, Noguchi befriended Hajime Hoshi in the United States.<ref name=":17" />Later Hoshi returned to Japan and started the successful Hoshi Pharmaceutical Co.<ref name=":17" /> Hoshi used his friendship with Noguchi and his reputation for his pharmaceutical company, which Hoshi offered to compensate him for. Noguchi said to give it to his family in Inawashiro.<ref name=":17" />

=== Return to Japan ===
[[File:Noguchi_Hideyo.png|right|thumb|250x250px|Hideyo Noguchi and his mother Shika]]
He would write often to his mentor, Kobayashi, who granted him permission to call him "father."<ref name=":17" />

His childhood mentor encouraged Noguchi to return and establish his career in Japan.<ref name=":21" /> In 1912, he told his family that he did not plan to return to Japan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1980 |pages=132}}</ref>

His mother, Shika, who was notably illiterate, wrote, “Please come home soon, please come home soon, please come home soon, please come home soon.<ref name=":17" />” She worked as a midwife but did not have much of an income and his family was at risk of losing the Noguchi home. Noguchi began sending money every month to his family.<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1980 |pages=115}}</ref>

His mother's health declined. Noguchi sent an unsubtle telegram to Hoshi and asked for enough money to return home. Hoshi was generous and immediately sent him enough to return to Japan Noguchi bought a ticket and sailed to visit her and accept the [[Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy|Imperial Prize]] on September 5, 1915.<ref name=":22" /> Noguchi was surrounded at the dock with reporters.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery |publisher=Kodansha USA |year=2005 |pages=188}}</ref> He greeted his mentors Chiwaki and Kobayashi at the Imperial Hotel. Noguchi presented them with golden watches as gifts.<ref name=":22" /> 

When Noguchi greeted his mother, he showed her a photograph of Mary and she approved.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |pages=194–195}}</ref> Noguchi spent another ten whole days with his mother, but returned to the United States, and this would be the last time he would be back in Japan.<ref name=":28" /> In November 1918, his mother Shika died.<ref name=":17" />[[File:Hideyo_Noguchi's_Shandaken_house.jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi's house in Shandaken |254x254px]]
=== Illness and recovery in the Catskills ===
In 1917, Noguchi's health had declined.<ref name=":26">{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |date=2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |pages=202–203}}</ref> Earlier Noguchi was told he had [[Ventricular hypertrophy|enlarged heart]] from his irregular intense activity after a physical examination.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=Paul |date=1959 |title=Hideyo Noguchi 1876–1928 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44450585 |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=11 |jstor=44450585|pmid=13629181 }}</ref> Mary called an ambulance since he refused to go to the hospital and was brought to [[Mount Sinai Hospital (Manhattan)|Mount Sinai]] hospital. <ref name=":26" /> He was diagnosed with [[typhoid fever]], a severe case with [[Gastrointestinal perforation|perforation]] of his digestive tract.<ref name=":39">{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=Paul |date=1959 |title=Hideyo Noguchi 1876–1928 |url=https://ia803201.us.archive.org/35/items/sim_bulletin-of-the-history-of-medicine_january-february-1959_33_1/sim_bulletin-of-the-history-of-medicine_january-february-1959_33_1.pdf |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=12 |pmid=13629181 }}</ref>  He claimed it was jaundice after accidentally digesting. His fever worsened and Mary and those around him thought he might die.<ref name=":16" />[[File:Hideyo Noguchi sitting on the porch of his house in Shandaken, NY.jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi (top left) with friends on his porch]]

Hoshi financially supported him during his treatment.<ref name=":16" /> He made a slow recovery, Noguchi and Mary after seeing an advertisement in a newspaper took a four hour train ride to the [[Catskill Mountains|Catskills]]. Both of them booked a room at the Glenbrook Hotel in the small hamlet of [[Shandaken, New York|Shandaken]], which had less than a hundred people. Noguchi felt it reminded him of his hometown in Fukushima.<ref name=":0" />

Noguchi decided to purchase approximately two hectares and build a house in Shandaken, becoming one of the largest landowners in the hamlet.<ref name=":16" /> He bought it with the money he had leftover for his treatment.<ref name=":16" /> The construction was completed around June 15, 1918.<ref name=":16" /> Noguchi built his home alongside the [[Esopus Creek|Esopus]] river where he would fish and paint and spend most of his summers in 1918, 1922, and 1925 to 1927.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Eckstein |first=Gustav |title=Noguchi |date=1931 |publisher=Harper}}</ref>[[File:Noguchi_hideyo_photo_01-2.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Hideyo Noguchi using color photography|263x263px]]
=== Hobbies ===
Noguchi was gifted oil paints from Ichiro Hori and he started painting in Shandaken.<ref name=":0" /> He had excellent success. Ichiro said, "he would be good at anything" and was not surprised at his painting ability.<ref name=":39" /> His paintings hang in the [https://www.noguchihideyo.or.jp/idm/english/ Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Hideyo as His Natural Self |url=https://www.noguchihideyo.or.jp/about/exhi07.html |website=Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum}}</ref>

Noguchi was an amateur photographer. It was said that there is no scientific researcher who likes photography more than Noguchi.<ref name=":3" /> He might have been one of the first non hand colored photographs of a Japanese person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Yamaguchi |first=Masafumi |date=October 26, 2015 |title=Color photo of Hideyo Noguchi after 100 years (from Alumni Journal No. 401) |url=https://tdc-alumni.jp/2015/10/26/academia/tdca_120th_anniversary/401_noguchi_hideyo_photo/}}</ref> He achieved this through using [[Autochrome Lumière|autochrome lumière]]. He sent this in a letter, dated August 8, 1914, to his childhood mentor, Sakae Kobayashi.<ref name=":3" />

Noguchi was fluent in Japanese and English, but also spoke German, Dutch, French, Mandarin, Danish and Spanish.<ref name=":0" />  

== Luetin experiment and the antivivisectionists ==
In 1911 and 1912 at the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute]] in New York City, Noguchi was working on a syphilis skin test, which could provide an additional diagnostic procedure to complement the [[Wassermann test]] in the detection of syphilis.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Lederer |first=Susan |date=March 1985 |title=Hideyo Noguchi's Luetin Experiment and the Antivivisectionists |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/232791 |journal=The History of Science Society |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=31–48 |doi=10.1086/353736 |jstor=232791 |pmid=3888912 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Professor [[William H. Welch|William Henry Welch]], Board of Scientific Directors at the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute]] for Medical Research, urged Noguchi to conduct human trials.<ref name=":1" /> The subjects were gathered from clinics and hospitals across New York City. In the experiment, the doctors given the tests injected an inactive product of [[syphilis]], called luetin, under the skin on the upper arm of the patient.<ref name=":1" />

=== Method and Clinical Trials ===
Skin reactions were studied, as they varied among healthy subjects and syphilis patients, based on the disease's stage and its treatment. The lutein test gave a positive reaction almost 100 percent for [[Congenital syphilis|congenital]] and late syphilis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barker |first=Leslie |title=Value of Organic Latin in Diagnosis and Treatment of Syphilis: A Study of Nine Hundred Cases |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/514030 |journal=JAMA Dermatology|date=November 1934 |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=676–691 |doi=10.1001/archderm.1934.01460170068008 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> While his diagnostic test was effective, it never had a reliable supply from the organism in pure culture form, never yielding practical results.<ref name=":34" /> 

Of the 571 subjects, 315 had syphilis.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |author=Noguchi H |year=1912 |title=Experimental research in syphilis with especial reference to Spirochaeta pallida (Treponema pallidum) |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1423377 |journal=JAMA |volume=58 |issue=16 |pages=1163–1172 |doi=10.1001/jama.1912.04260040179001}}</ref> The remaining subjects were controls; some of which were orphans between the ages of 2 and 18 years.<ref name=":2" /> Most were hospital patients being treated for diseases, such as [[malaria]], [[leprosy]], [[tuberculosis]], and [[pneumonia]], and the subjects did not realize they were being experimented on and could not give consent.<ref name=":2" /> 

=== Public reactions to the experiment ===
Critics at the time, mainly from the [[anti-vivisectionist]] movement, noted that the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute]] violated the rights of vulnerable orphans and hospital patients. There was concern among anti-vivisectionists that the test subjects had contracted syphilis from the experiments, but were proven to be false.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="lederer">Lederer, Susan E. ''Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995/1997 paperback {{ISBN?}}{{page?|date=January 2025}}</ref>

In Dr. Noguchi's defense, Noguchi had performed tests on animals to ensure the safety of the lutein test.<ref name=":1" /> Rockefeller Institute business manager [[Jerome D. Greene]] wrote a letter to the Anti-Vivisection Society, which had pointed out that Noguchi had tested it on himself and his fellow researchers before administering it.<ref name=":1" />

In a letter to District Attorney [[Charles Seymour Whitman|Charles S. Whitman]], Greene said<blockquote>"What public institution would not welcome a harmless and painless test which would enable it to decide in the case of every person admitted whether that person was afflicted with a venereal disease or not?"<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>Much of the information came from newspapers, which did not consult medical professionals.<ref name=":1" /> Greene mentioned the steps taken to ensure the sterility.<ref name=":1" /> His explanation was considered a demonstration of the care that doctors were taking in research. 

In May 1912, the New York Society for the Prevention for Cruelty to Children asked the New York district attorney to press charges against Noguchi, but he declined.<ref>Susan E. Lederer. ''Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. pp. 86–87.</ref> Although, none of subjects were infected with syphilis, the Rockefeller Institute did test on patients without consent.<ref name=":1" />

Even though none of the subjects were injured in the experiment, Hideyo Noguchi had committed a wrong, it was 'a wrong without injury'.<ref name=":1" />[[Albert Leffingwell (physician)|Albert Leffingwell]], a  physician, social reformer, and advocate for vivisectionist restrictions, said in response to [[Jerome D. Greene]].<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>"If insurance could have been given that the luetin test implied no risk of any kind, might not the Rockefeller Institute have secured any number of volunteers by the offer of a gratuity of twenty or thirty dollars as a compensation for any discomfort that might be endured?"<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>

=== Lack of informed consent ===
During the period, consent in medical science was by no means customary.<ref name="lederer" />  The United States did not develop sufficient consensus about [[unethical human experimentation]] until the late 20th century, which brought laws about involving [[informed consent]] and the rights of patients to pass.<ref name=":1" />  

Noguchi received incredible scrutiny. One of the newspapers described him as "the Oriental admirer of the fruits of Western civilization."<ref name=":1" /> He made a wrong doing with his experiments, not obtaining consent, but he might have received more criticism due to his race and the perpetuated stereotype of [[Yellow Peril|yellow peril]].  

At the same time, notable microbiologists, such as [[Robert Koch]] in 1906 to 1907 operated medical concentration camps in Africa to find a cure for sleeping sickness and blinded patients, and [[Louis Pasteur]] experimented on nine-year-old [[Joseph Meister]] without a medical license and was suspected to have lied about conducting animal trials.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schwikowski |first=Martina |title=Robert Koch's dubious legacy in Africa |url=https://www.dw.com/en/robert-kochs-dubious-legacy-in-africa/a-61235897 |website=[[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Najera |first=Rene |title=The Other Side of Louis Pasteur's Discoveries in Science and Medicine |url=https://historyofvaccines.org/blog/the-other-side-of-louis-pasteurs-discoveries-in-science-and-medicine}}</ref>  They received far less scrutiny on their legacy. 

== Later career ==
[[File:Dr. Noguchi Hideyo.jpg|thumb|Noguchi decorated with medals]]
In July, 1914, Flexner made Noguchi a full member of the Institute.<ref name=":39" /> 

His name and discoveries began to appear regularly in American newspapers.<ref name=":54" /> Noguchi felt compelled to make more discoveries and pressure from his boss Simon Flexner and home country to bring respect and honor to his fellow Japanese.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Plesset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his Patrons |publisher=Rutherford, N.J. : Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1980 |publication-date=1980 |pages=244 |language=English}}</ref> He wrote in a letter,<blockquote>"I am almost exhausted and I feel the weight of my situation, because every one working at this Institute is expected by the outsiders to do something. Yet, as you know, we cannot find a new thing every day!"<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p.&nbsp;108.</ref></blockquote>

=== Successes in tropical diseases ===
Noguchi began to tackle Rocky mountain spotted fever, similar to another disease [[Tsutsugamuchi disease|Tsutsugamushi]] present in Japan, where deaths were common among rice planters and farmers.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Eckstein |first=Gustav |title=Noguchi |publisher=Harper |year=1931 |pages=236}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |date=July 1, 2005 |publisher=Kodansha USA |pages=201}}</ref>  Furthermore, he began researching [[jaundice]] after two Japanese scientists announced a discovery of a spirochete appearing in the liver of a guinea pig demonstrating jaundice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Otteraaen |first=Andrew |date=1919 |title=The Spirochete of Infectious Jaundice (Spiro- Chets Icterohemorrhagiae, Inada; Lep -Tospira, Noguchi) in House Rats in Chicago |journal=John McCormick Institute for Infectious Disease |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=485–488 |doi=10.1093/infdis/24.5.485}}</ref>

In June of 1918, Noguchi became chief investigator on a commission of the [[Rockefeller Foundation|International Health Board]] traveled throughout Central America and South America  to conduct research to develop a [[vaccine]] for yellow fever.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=Siang |date=2014 |title=Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928): Distinguished bacteriologist |journal=Singapore Medical Journal |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=550–551 |doi=10.11622/smedj.2014140 |pmc=4293967 |pmid=25631898}}</ref><ref name=":39" />

He once said, "Whether I succeed or not is another matter, but the problem is worth trying." Noguchi  dabbled in researching numerous diseases at the same time. He felt one might get results.<ref name=":9" />

In 1921, he was elected as a member of the [[American Philosophical Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Noguchi&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2021-05-03 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> In the meantime, Noguchi published a revision of ''Serum Diagnosis of Syphilis'' with assistance from [[Evelyn Butler Tilden|Evelyn Tilden]] in 1922, ''Laboratory Diagnosis of Syphilis'', which aided in the diagnosis and treatment of the disease.<ref>Plesset, Isabel (1980). ''Noguchi and his Patrons''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p.&nbsp;225</ref><ref name=":38" />

In 1923, Noguchi had attempted creating passive and active immunity for Rocky mountain spotted fever.<ref name=":38" /> One of his close assistants died during the research, which he mourned. He supported his assistants widow and children. <ref name=":0" /> He made a breakthrough when he produced the first antiserum for the disease to render partial immunity.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book |last=Eckstein |first=Gustav |title=Noguchi |publisher=Harper |year=1931 |pages=235}}</ref>

During his time in Peru and Ecuador, between 1925 to 1927, he worked on Carrions disease and verruca peruana, which was widespread in the regions, and proved the infections were due to the same species, ''Bartonella bacilliformis.<ref name=":55" />''[[File:Dr.Noguchi Hideyo - The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York - 1927 - Suzuki Rakan Seisaku.png|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi in his Rockefeller laboratory ]]His assistant, Akatsu, noted Noguchi showed discontent in his career even with recent breakthroughs.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Eckstein |first=Gustav |title=Noguchi |publisher=Harper |year=1931 |publication-date=1931 |pages=243}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kita |first=Atsushi |title=Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. |publisher=Kodansha USA |date=July 1, 2005 |pages=200}}</ref> Noguchi sometimes lost his temper and scolding his assistants, but outside of the laboratory, Noguchi was a different and more open person. He would invite him to restaurants and speak Japanese{{snd}}something he never did at the Rockefeller Institute.<ref name=":6" />


In a letter to Flexner, he wrote,<blockquote>
"Somehow I cannot manage to find enough time to sit quietly and think over things calmly and reflect upon many things and phases in life. I seem to be chasing something all the time, perhaps an acquired habit or rather the lack of poise".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mehl |first=Margaret |date=March 16, 2023 |title=From Fukushima to Ghana: Noguchi Hideyo, the Peasant Boy Who Made It |url=https://margaretmehl.com/from-fukushima-to-ghana-noguchi-hideyo-the-peasant-boy-who-made-it-3/#_edn2 |access-date=August 29, 2024 |website=Margaret Mehl}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Controversial research on yellow fever ===
[[File:Dr._Hideyo_Noguchi_dissecting_a_crocodile.jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi dissecting a crocodile along the Rio Grande]]
Noguchi decided to focus on yellow fever, which some of his colleagues died researching because of his experience with syphilis and spirochetes.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":36">{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Pinghu |date=2004 |title=Noguchi's Contributions to Science |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.305.5690.1565a |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5690 |page=1565 |doi=10.1126/science.305.5690.1565a |pmid=15361606|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He thought the disease could have been a spirochete after traveling to [[Mérida, Yucatán|Merida]], [[Mexico]] and seeing patients  demonstrate symptoms of [[Weil's disease]], but similar to yellow fever. Noguchi identified it as ''Leptospira icterohemorrhagiae''<ref name=":36" /> and mistakingly declaring it the causative agent of yellow fever.<ref name=":36" /> Other scientists unable to repeat his findings, it was questioned.<ref name=":36" />

During his career, whether yellow fever was a virus or a bacteria was a debated topic with viruses having been discovered in 1892.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lecoq |first=H |date=2001 |title=Discovery of the first virus, the tobacco mosaic virus: 1892 or 1898 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11570281/#:~:text=Abstract,world%20was%20discovered%3A%20filterable%20pathogens |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série III |volume=324 |issue=10 |pages=929–933 |doi=10.1016/s0764-4469(01)01368-3 |pmid=11570281}}</ref> Noguchi worked much of the next ten years to prove his theory that it was from spir bacteria. He even thought he developed a vaccine against it, unknowingly for Weil's disease.<ref name=":0" />

Following the death of British pathologist Adrian Stokes from yellow fever in September 1927,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1927/09/22/archives/prof-adrian-stokes-dies-of-yellow-fever-british-pathologist.html|title=Prof. Adrian Stokes Dies of Yellow Fever – British Pathologist Succumbs in Africa to Disease He Went There to Study|work=[[The New York Times]]|via=www.nytimes.com|date=September 22, 1927}}</ref> it became increasingly evident that yellow fever was caused by a virus, not by the bacillus ''Leptospira icteroides'', as Noguchi believed.<ref name=":0" />  He began preparing to travel to [[Ghana|Accra]], [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (modern-day [[Ghana]]) to study yellow fever and get closer to specimens. Noguchi believed himself immune to yellow fever because of his own vaccine. 

=== West Africa ===
[[File:Medical Research Institute, Accra; medical researchers Wellcome V0030931.jpg|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi (facing backwards) and [[William Alexander Young|William Young]] in Accra]]
[[File:Medical Research Institute, Accra; disinfection with a Wellcome V0030932.jpg|thumb|Disinfecting Hideyo Noguchi's laboratory in Accra ]]
Feeling his reputation was at stake, Noguchi hastened to [[Lagos]] to carry out research.  However, he found the working conditions in Lagos did not suit him. At the invitation of Dr. [[William Alexander Young]], the young director of the British Medical Research Institute, he moved and made this his base in 1927.

The diaries of Oskar Klotz, another researcher with the Rockefeller Foundation,<ref name=":40">{{cite journal|url=http://www.cbmh.ca/index.php/cbmh/article/view/399|title=Diary Notes on a Trip to West Africa in Relation to a Yellow Fever Expedition under the Auspices of the Rockefeller Foundation, 1926, by Oskar Klotz.|first=H. J.|last=Barrie|date=1 January 1997|volume=14|issue=1|pages=133–163|doi=10.3138/cbmh.14.1.133|pmid=11619770|journal=Canadian Bulletin of Medical History|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref> describe Noguchi's temper and behavior as erratic and bordering on the paranoid. One reason might be he had untreated syphilis, for which he was diagnosed in 1913, but it could have progressed to neurosyphilis, prone to personality changes.<ref name=":0" />

According to Klotz, Noguchi inoculated huge numbers of monkeys with yellow fever, but failed to keep proper records.<ref name=":40" /> 

== Death ==
Despite this, Noguchi failed to keep infected mosquitoes in their secure containers. In May 1928, having been unable to find evidence for his theories, Noguchi was set to return to New York after spending six months in Africa, but became sick.<ref name=":0" /> Noguchi boarded to sail home but on May 12 was put ashore at Accra. He taken to a hospital and he died on 21 May.<ref>{{cite news |first= Wireless|last= To|title=Dr. Noguchi is Dead, Martyr of Science. Bacteriologist of Rockefeller Institute Dies of Yellow Fever on Gold Coast. Japanese, Ranked With Pasteur and Metchnikoff, Found Carrier of Own Disease. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1928/05/22/archives/dr-noguchi-is-dead-martyr-of-science-bacteriologist-of-rockefeller.html |quote=Professor Hideyo Noguchi, bacteriologist of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, died here today from yellow fever, which ... |work=[[New York Times]] |date=May 22, 1928 |access-date=2009-08-26 }}</ref>
During his last letters to Mary, he writes<blockquote>“I spend every moment of every day waiting for a telegram from you. When I am dispirited or tired, you are the one thing that raises my spirits. I am always thinking of you. It is rare that I dream but when I do, it is always of you.” <ref>Kamata, Suzanne (2019). ''Critical Perspectives on Wives: Roles, Representations, Identities, Work''. Demeter Press. pp. 143–156.</ref></blockquote>

In a letter home, Young states, "He died suddenly noon Monday. I saw him Sunday afternoon – he smiled – and amongst other things, said, “Are you sure you are quite well?" "Quite." I said, and then he said "I don’t understand."<ref>WA Young, personal letter dated 23 May 1928</ref> His obituary was featured in ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref name=":48" /> Doing his autopsy, he was found to have a syphilitic heart. Seven days later, despite exhaustive sterilization of the site, Young himself died of yellow fever.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Obituary, Dr. W.A. Young|journal=Nature|date=7 July 1928|volume=122|issue=3062|pages=29|doi=10.1038/122029a0|bibcode=1928Natur.122Q..29.|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Legacy==
Noguchi was profoundly influential during his lifetime. He brought newfound attention to obscure and [[neglected tropical diseases|tropical diseases]], such as trachoma, affecting a large part of developing countries in Africa, often ignored by western scientists. 

Furthermore, Noguchi and Tilden's identification of the [[leishmaniasis]] pathogen and proving [[Carrion's disease]] and Oroya fever one of the same. He was applauded for his discovery in South America and had a 2.1 km street in [[Guayaquil|Guayaquil, Ecuador]] named after him.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Dr. Hideyo Noguchi's Academic Achievements and Contribution to Africa |url=http://www.cao.go.jp/noguchisho/doc/academic-achievements-e.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

His most famous contribution was his identification of syphilis in the brain tissues of patients with paralysis due to [[meningoencephalitis]].<ref name=":5" /> In addition to his lasting contributions to the use of snake venom and serums for Rocky Mountain spotted fever.[[File:Noguchi hideyo memorial hall daikyocho.JPG|thumb|Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum]]In the 21st century, the Nobel Foundation archives were opened for public inspection and research. Noguchi was nominated several times for the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]: in 1913–1915, 1920, 1921 and 1924–1927.<ref name="nominationdb" /><ref>Japanese Government Internet TV: [http://nettv.gov-online.go.jp/eng/prg/prg1143.html "Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize," streaming video 2007/04/26]</ref>

=== Posthumous retractions ===
With the electron microscope, which was invented two years after his passing, some of his discoveries became understood as mistaken.<ref name="kantha">SS Kantha. "[http://www1.gifu-u.ac.jp/~srikanth/srikantha_library/file/History%20of%20science/Kitasato%20Arch%201989%20p1-9.pdf Hideyo Noguchi's Research on Yellow Fever (1918–1928) In The Pre-Electron Microscope Era] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194743/http://www1.gifu-u.ac.jp/~srikanth/srikantha_library/file/History%20of%20science/Kitasato%20Arch%201989%20p1-9.pdf|date=2013-10-29}}," ''Kitasato Arch. of Exp. Med.'', 62.1 (1989), pp. 1–9</ref> 

Some of his research, including his discovery of [[polio]], [[rabies]], trachoma, and yellow fever's cause were not able to be reproduced.<ref>{{cite book |author=Grant J |url=https://archive.org/details/corruptedscience0000gran/page/43 |title=Corrupted Science |publisher=Facts, Figures & Fun, 2007 |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-904332-73-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/corruptedscience0000gran/page/43 43] |url-access=registration}}</ref>  His finding that ''Noguchia granulosis'' causes trachoma was questioned within a year of his death. <ref>Beret E. Strong, G. Richard O'Connor. ''Seeking the Light: The Lives of Phillips and Ruth Lee Thygeson''. p. 57</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = de Rotth A | year = 1939 | title = The Problem of the Etiology of Trachoma Rickettsia | journal = Arch Ophthalmol | volume = 22 | issue = 4| pages = 533–539 | doi = 10.1001/archopht.1939.00860100017001 }}</ref> His identification of ''Leptospira icterohemorrhagiae'' as yellow fever was disproven after [[Max Theiler]] discovery. Furthermore, his rabies pathogen medium to cultivate bacteria was prone to contamination.<ref>Fielding H. Garrison. ''An introduction to the history of medicine''. WB Saunders Co., 4th ed., 1966. p. 588.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Wilson G.S. | year = 1959 | title = Faults and Fallacies in Microbiology: The Fourth Marjory Stephenson Memorial Lecture | journal = Microbiology | volume = 21 | issue = 1| pages = 1–15 | doi = 10.1099/00221287-21-1-1 | pmid = 13845061 | doi-access = free }}</ref>[[File:Statue of Hideyo Noguchi.jpg|thumb|200px|Statue of Hideyo Noguchi in [[Ueno Park]]]]A Rockefeller Institute researcher criticized him for being unwilling to issue retractions for his claims, but others said it was more flaws inside the system of peer review at the  Institute.<ref>Thomas Rivers. ''Tom Rivers: Reflections on a Life in Medicine and Science: An Oral History Memoir''. M.I.T. Press, 1967. pp. 95–98.</ref><ref>Isabel Rosanoff Plesset, ''Noguchi and his patrons''</ref>

==Selected works==
* 1904:   [https://books.google.com/books?id=diz1IVBy8_UC ''The Action of Snake Venom Upon Cold-blooded Animals.'']
:::Washington, D.C.: [[Carnegie Institution]]. {{OCLC|2377892}}
* 1909:   [https://books.google.com/books?id=-QcDAAAAIAAJ&q=hideyo+noguchi ''Snake Venoms: An Investigation of Venomous Snakes with Special Reference to the Phenomena of Their Venoms.'']
:::Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution. {{OCLC|14796920}}
* 1911:  [https://books.google.com/books?id=cs0KC_8dqsIC ''Serum Diagnosis of Syphilis and the Butyric Acid Test for Syphilis.'']
:::Philadelphia: [[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|J. B. Lippincott]]. {{OCLC|3201239}}
* 1923:  [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFQlGQAACAAJ ''Laboratory Diagnosis of Syphilis: A Manual for Students and Physicians.'']
:::New York: [[Harper & Brothers|P. B. Hoeber]].  {{OCLC|14783533}}

==Honors during Noguchi's lifetime==
Noguchi was honored with Japanese and foreign decorations. He received honorary degrees from a number of universities.[[File:Busto Hideyo Noguchi en Guayaquil Ecuador.jpg|thumb|200px|The bust of the Japanese scientist and doctor Hideyo Noguchi was inaugurated on June 22, 2018, outside the Crystal Palace in [[Guayaquil]]]]Noguchi was self-effacing in his public life, and he often referred to himself as "Funny Noguchi" as noted in Times Magazine. When Noguchi was awarded an honorary doctorate at Yale, [[William Lyon Phelps]] observed that the kings of Spain, Denmark and Sweden had conferred awards, but "perhaps he appreciates even more than royal honors the admiration and the gratitude of the people."<ref name="nyt1921">[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/06/23/109809214.pdf  "Angll Inaugurated at Yale Graduation; New President Takes Office Before a Distinguished Audience of University Men; 784 Degrees are given; Mme. Curie, Sir Robert Jones, Archibald Marshall, J.W. Davis and Others Honored,"] ''New York Times.'' June 23, 1921.</ref>
* [[Kyoto Imperial University]], [[Doctor of Medicine]], 1909.<ref>Kita, Atsushi. (2005). ''Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery,'' p. 169.</ref>
* Knight of the [[Order of Dannebrog]], 1913 ([[Denmark]]).<ref>Kita, p. 181.</ref>
* Commander of the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]], 1913 ([[Spain]]).<ref>Kita, p. 177;</ref>
* Commander of the [[Order of the Polar Star]], 1914 ([[Sweden]]).<ref name="k182">Kita, p. 182.</ref>
* [[Tokyo Imperial University]], [[Doctor of Science]], 1914.<ref name="k182" />
* [[Order of the Rising Sun|Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette]], 1915.<ref>Kita, Atsushi. (2005). ''Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery,'' p. 196; n.b., Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette, 1915.</ref>
* [[Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy|Imperial Award]], [[Japan Academy|Imperial Academy]] (Japan), 1915.<ref>Kita, p. 186.</ref>
* [[Central University of Ecuador]], 1919, ([[Ecuador]]).<ref name="jmofa2">Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/latin_e/episode.html#Hideyo  Noguchi & Latin America]</ref>
* [[National University of San Marcos]], 1920, (Peru)
* [[Medicine School of Merida]], "Doctor ''Honoris Causa'' en Medicina y Cirugía", 1920 (México)
* [[John Scott Medal]], 1921, (United States)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pleaset |first=Isabel |title=Noguchi and his patron |date=1980 |pages=222}}</ref>
* [[University of Guayaquil]], 1919, [[Ecuador]].<ref name="jmofa2"/>
* [[Yale University]], 1921, ([[United States]]).<ref name="nyt1921"/>
* Knight of the [[Legion of Honour]] of France, 1924<ref name="Japanese Wikipedia">Japanese Wikipedia</ref>
* Senior fifth rank in the order of precedence, Japanese government, 1925<ref name="Japanese Wikipedia"/>

==Posthumous honors==

[[File:1000 yen banknote 2004.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Hideyo Noguchi on the [[Banknotes of the Japanese yen#2004|¥1,000 banknote]]]]

[[File:Hideyo Noguchi Grave 1024.jpg|thumb|The grave of Hideyo Noguchi in [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx)|Woodlawn Cemetery]]]]

Noguchi's remains were returned to the United States and buried in [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx)|Woodlawn Cemetery]] in [[the Bronx]], New York City.<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE3D71E31F932A3575AC0A961958260 "A Place for All Eternity In Their Adopted Land"], ''New York Times.'' September 1, 1997.</ref>

In 1928, the Japanese government awarded Noguchi the [[Order of the Rising Sun|Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star]], which represents the second highest of eight classes associated with the award.<ref>[https://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F50D16FC3F58127A93C0A9178DD85F4C8285F9  "Mikado Honors Dr. Noguchi], '' New York Times.''  June 2, 1928.</ref>

In 1979, the [[Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research]] (NMIMR) was founded with funds donated by the Japanese government<ref>University of Pennsylvania: [http://www.med.upenn.edu/globalhealth/UPENNSOMGlobalHealthPrograms--InternationalOpportunitiesforStudents.shtml  Global Health Project]  {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312064445/http://www.med.upenn.edu/globalhealth/UPENNSOMGlobalHealthPrograms--InternationalOpportunitiesforStudents.shtml |date=March 12, 2008 }}</ref> at the [[University of Ghana]] in Legon, a suburb north of [[Accra]].<ref>University of Ghana: [http://ffhtechnical.org/partners/collaborating-organizations/university-of-ghana-noguchi-memorial-institute-for-medical-research Noguchi Institute (NMIMR).]  {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107145255/http://ffhtechnical.org/partners/collaborating-organizations/university-of-ghana-noguchi-memorial-institute-for-medical-research |date=January 7, 2009 }}</ref>

In 1981, the Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental (National Institute of Mental Health) "Honorio Delgado – Hideyo Noguchi" was founded with founds of the Peruvian Government and the JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) in Lima – Perú.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.insm.gob.pe/institucional/historia.html|title = Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental Honorio Delgado – Hideyo Noguchi}}</ref>

Dr. Noguchi's portrait has been printed on Japanese 1000-[[yen]] [[Banknotes of the Japanese yen|banknotes]] since 2004.<ref>Bank of Japan: [http://www.boj.or.jp/en/type/list/yuko/data/money01.pdf Valid Bank of Japan Notes, as of August 2004]; {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325223705/http://www.boj.or.jp/en/type/list/yuko/data/money01.pdf |date=2009-03-25 }} Brook, James. [https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/02/business/worldbusiness/02notes.html "Japan Issues New Currency to Foil Forgers,"] ''New York Times.'' November 2, 2004</ref> In addition, the house near Inawashiro where he was born and brought up is preserved. It is operated as part of a museum to his life and achievements.

Noguchi's name is honored at the [http://www.cir.uady.mx/ Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr. Hideyo Noguchi] at the [[Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uady.mx/directorio/cir.html|title=Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán – 2016 – Directorio Universitario|first=Departamento de|last=Teleinformática}}</ref>

==Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize==
[[File:The Footstone of Hideyo Noguchi in Woodlawn Cemetery.JPG|thumb|The footstone of Hideyo Noguchi in [[Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx)|Woodlawn Cemetery]], New York City]]The Japanese Government established the [[Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize]] in July 2006 as a new international medical research and services award to mark the official visit by Prime Minister [[Junichiro Koizumi|Jun'ichirō Koizumi]] to Africa in May 2006 and the 80th anniversary of Dr. Noguchi's death.<ref>Japan Science and Technology Agency: [http://sciencelinks.jp/content/view/616/246/  "Commemorative Lecture: The First Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328110113/http://sciencelinks.jp/content/view/616/246/ |date=2012-03-28 }} Science Links Japan web site.</ref>  The Prize is awarded to individuals with outstanding achievements in combating various infectious diseases in Africa or in establishing innovative medical service systems.<ref>Rockefeller Foundation: [http://www.rockfound.org/about_us/news/2006/072506noguchi.shtml Noguchi Prize, history] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070523172141/http://www.rockfound.org/about_us/news/2006/072506noguchi.shtml |date=May 23, 2007 }}</ref>  The presentation ceremony and laureate lectures coincided with the Fourth [[Tokyo International Conference on African Development]] in late April 2008.<ref>Japan, Cabinet Office: [http://www.cao.go.jp/noguchisho/english/keii/keii.html Noguchi Prize, chronology]</ref> In 2009, the conference venue was moved from Tokyo to Yokohama as another way of honoring the man after whom the prize was named. In 1899, Dr. Noguchi worked at the Yokohama Port Quarantine Office as an assistant quarantine doctor.<ref name="lifeEvts">Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum: [http://www.town.inawashiro.fukushima.jp/eng/main_eng_noguchi.html Noguchi, life events] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824071844/http://www.town.inawashiro.fukushima.jp/eng/main_eng_noguchi.html |date=August 24, 2010 }}</ref>

The Prize is expected to be awarded every five years.<ref>World Health Organization: [http://www.afro.who.int/press/2007/pr20070430.html Noguchi Prize, WHO/AFRO involved]  {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130024613/http://www.afro.who.int/press/2007/pr20070430.html |date=January 30, 2010 }}</ref> The prize has been made possible through a combination of government funding and private donations.<ref>[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20080330TDY03103.htm  "Noguchi Africa Prize short by 70% of fund target,"] ''Yomiuri Shimbun'' (Tokyo). March 30, 2008. {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Japan|Medicine}}
* [[List of medicine awards]]
* [[Max Theiler]] – completed Noguchi's work, yellow fever vaccine (1926)
* [[Human experimentation in the United States]]
* ''[[Tōki Rakujitsu]]'' –  Japanese film

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
<!--alphabetize by author's surname, and please keep in alphabetical order with additions-->
* {{cite journal
|last=Bendiner
|first=E
|date=February 1984
|title=Noguchi: many triumphs and a brilliant failure
|journal=[[Hosp. Pract. (Off. Ed.)]]
|volume=19
|issue=2
|pages=222–223, 227, 231 passim
| issn = 8750-2836| pmid = 6421835
 |doi=10.1080/21548331.1984.11702758
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Clark
|first=P F
|year=1959
|title=Hideyo Noguchi, 1876–1928
|journal=[[Bulletin of the History of Medicine]]
|volume=33
|issue=1
|pages=1–20
| issn = 0007-5140| pmid = 13629181
 }}
* D'Amelio, Dan. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ss4YGQAACAAJ  ''Taller Than Bandai Mountain: The Story of Hideyo Noguchi.''] New York: [[Viking Press]]. {{ISBN|978-9997502384}} (cloth) {{OCLC|440466}}
* {{cite book
|last=Dolman
|first=C E
|year=1977
|title=Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928): his final effort
|series=[[Clio medica (Amsterdam, Netherlands)]]
|volume=12
|issue=2–3
|pages=131–145
| issn = 0045-7183| pmid = 72623
 }}
* Flexner, James Thomas. (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?id=zHUQdmAlX-4C  ''Maverick's Progress.''] New York: [[Fordham University Press]].  {{ISBN|978-0-8232-1661-1}} (cloth)
* {{cite journal | author = Flexner Simon | year = 1929 | title = Hideyo Noguchi: A Biographical Sketch | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zTUFHAAACAAJ&q=hideyo+noguchi | journal = Science | volume = 69 | issue = 1800| pages = 653–660 | doi=10.1126/science.69.1800.653| pmid = 17737643 | bibcode = 1929Sci....69..653F | url-access = subscription }}
* {{cite journal
|last=Haniu
|first=J
|year=2000
|title=Dr. Noguchi's laboratory
|journal=[[Scalpel & Tongs: American Journal of Medical Philately]]
|volume=44
|pages=97
| issn = 0048-9255| pmid = 11624705
 }}
* Kita, Atsushi. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=BpLSkxTg_o8C  ''Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery''] (tr., Peter Durfee). Tokyo: [[Kodansha]].  {{ISBN|978-4-7700-2355-1}} (cloth)
* {{cite journal
|last=Koide
|first=S S
|date=May 2000
|title=Hideyo Noguchi's last stand: the Yellow Fever Commission in Accra, Africa (1927–8)
|journal=[[Journal of Medical Biography]]
|volume=8
|issue=2
|pages=97–101
| issn = 0967-7720| pmid = 11042776
 |doi=10.1177/096777200000800413
|s2cid=40772728
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Lederer
|first=S E
|date=March 1985
|title=Hideyo Noguchi's luetin experiment and the antivivisectionists
|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]
|volume=76
|issue=281
|pages=31–48
| issn = 0021-1753| pmid = 3888912
| doi = 10.1086/353736
|s2cid=27969371
}}
* Lederer, Susan E. ''Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995/1997 paperback
* {{cite journal
|last=Liu
|first=Pinghui V
|date=September 2004
|title=Noguchi's contributions to science
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=305
|issue=5690
|pages=1565
| pmid = 15361606
|doi = 10.1126/science.305.5690.1565a
 |s2cid=11983110
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Masaki
|first=T
|year=1978
|title=[Hideyo Noguchi and oral spirochaete]
|journal=[[Shikai Tenbo = Dental Outlook]]
|volume=51
|issue=6
|pages=1265
| issn = 0011-8702| pmid = 394992
 }}
* {{cite journal
|last=Misawa
|first=M
|year=1991
|title=[Dr. Hideyo Noguchi and Hajime Hoshi] (Jpn)
|journal=[[Yakushigaku Zasshi]]
|volume=26
|issue=2
|pages=113–120
| issn = 0285-2314| pmid = 11623303
 }}
* {{cite journal
|last=Misawa
|first=M
|year=1991
|title=[Dr. Hideyo Noguchi and Hajime Hoshi]
|journal=[[Yakushigaku Zasshi]]
|volume=26
|issue=2
|pages=113–120
| issn = 0285-2314| pmid = 11623302
 }}
* {{cite journal
|last=Noguerea
|first=J J
|date=October 2007
|title=Hideyo Noguchi and trachoma (Inawashiro, Japan, 1876 – Accra, Ghana, 1928)
|journal=[[Archivos de la Sociedad Española de Oftalmología]]
|volume=82
|issue=10
|pages=661–662
| issn = 0365-6691| pmid = 17929213
| doi=10.4321/s0365-66912007001000014
 |doi-access=free
}}
* Sri Kantha, S. "Hideyo Noguchi's research on yellow fever (1918–1928) in the pre-electron microscopic era", ''Kitasato Archives of Experimental Medicine'', April 1989; 62(1): 1–9.
* {{cite journal
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|journal=[[Nippon Naika Gakkai Zasshi]]
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* {{cite journal
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|journal=[[Nippon Saikingaku Zasshi]]
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|pages=645–655
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* {{cite journal
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|title=[Hideyo Noguchi – pioneer bacteriologist]
|journal=[[Orvosi Hetilap]]
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 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hideyo Noguchi}}
* [http://www.noguchimedres.org/ Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon]
* Japanese Government Internet TV: [http://nettv.gov-online.go.jp/eng/prg/prg1143.html  streaming video, "Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize," 2007/04/26 (5 mins.)]
* Fukushima Prefecture: [http://www.pref.fukushima.jp/list_e/ym961_le.html "The Dreamer, Hideyo Noguchi," slide show] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810121258/http://www.pref.fukushima.jp/list_e/ym961_le.html |date=2015-08-10 }}
* [[Cabinet Office (Japan)|Cabinet Office]], [[Government of Japan]]: [http://www.cao.go.jp/noguchisho/english/index.html Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize]
* Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS): [http://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-noguchiafrica/index.html Purpose and Description of the Noguchi Prize]
* [[National Diet Library]]: [http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/e/datas/312.html?c=26 NDL portrait]
* [[Yomiuri Shimbun]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20130514045419/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/20080628TDY01306.htm  Noguchi – slightly less than 90% name recognition amongst primary school students in Japan], 2008.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Noguchi, Hideyo}}
[[Category:1876 births]]
[[Category:1928 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Fukushima Prefecture]]
[[Category:Japanese expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Japanese bacteriologists]]
[[Category:Japanese microbiologists]]
[[Category:Japanese Christians]]
[[Category:Japanese Protestants]]
[[Category:Ghana–Japan relations]]
[[Category:People from the Empire of Japan]]
[[Category:Scientists from Fukushima Prefecture]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour]]
[[Category:Laureates of the Imperial Prize]]
[[Category:Knights of the Order of the Dannebrog]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic]]
[[Category:Order of the Polar Star]]
[[Category:Members of the United Church of Christ in Japan]]
[[Category:Deaths from yellow fever]]
[[Category:Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)]]
[[Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society]]