Editing History of Cornwall

{{Short description|County in England, United Kingdom}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
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{{Use British English|date=July 2019}}

{{History of Cornwall}}
[[File:Boscawen1.jpg|thumb|Boscawen-Un stone circle looking north]]
[[Image:Wheal Owles historic tin mine Cornwall UK.jpg|thumb|right|Ruin of Cornish tin mine]]
[[Image:Truro Cathedral welcome 20070527.jpg|thumb|Entrance at [[Truro Cathedral]] has welcome sign in several languages, including Cornish]]
The '''history of Cornwall''' goes back to the [[Paleolithic]], but in this period Cornwall only had sporadic visits by groups of humans.  Continuous occupation started  around 10,000 years ago after the end of the [[Younger Dryas|last ice age]]. When recorded history started in the first century [[Common Era|BCE]], the spoken language was [[Common Brittonic]], and that would develop into [[Southwestern Brittonic languages|Southwestern Brittonic]] and then the [[Cornish language]]. [[Cornwall]] was part of the territory of the tribe of the [[Dumnonii]] that included modern-day [[Devon]] and parts of [[Somerset]]. After a period of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule, Cornwall reverted to rule by independent [[Romano-British culture|Romano-British]] leaders and continued to have a close relationship with [[Brittany]] and [[Wales]] as well as southern Ireland, which neighboured across the [[Celtic Sea]]. After the collapse of [[Dumnonia]], the remaining territory of Cornwall came into conflict with neighbouring [[Wessex]].

By the middle of the ninth century, Cornwall had fallen under the control of Wessex, but it kept its own culture. In 1337, the title [[Duke of Cornwall]] was created by the English monarchy, to be held by the king's eldest son and heir. Cornwall, along with the neighbouring county of [[Devon]], maintained [[Stannary law|Stannary institutions]] that granted some local control over its most important product, tin, but by the time of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] most vestiges of Cornish autonomy had been removed as England became an increasingly centralised state under the [[Tudor dynasty]]. Conflicts with the centre took place with the [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497]] and [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] of 1549.

By the end of the 18th century, Cornwall was administered as an integral part of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] along with the rest of England and the [[Cornish language]] had gone into steep decline. The [[Industrial Revolution]] brought huge change to Cornwall, as well as the adoption of [[Methodism]] among the general populace, turning the area [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconformist]]. Decline of mining in Cornwall resulted in mass emigration overseas and the [[Cornish diaspora]], as well as the start of the [[Celtic Revival]] and [[Cornish revival]] which resulted in the beginnings of [[Cornish nationalism]] in the late 20th century.

Cornwall's [[Early Middle Ages|Early Medieval]] history, in particular the early Welsh and Breton references to a Cornish King named [[Arthur]], have featured in such legendary works as [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', predating the Arthurian legends of the [[Matter of Britain]] (see the [[list of legendary rulers of Cornwall]]).

==Pre-Roman Cornwall==
{{Main|Prehistoric Cornwall}}
{{See also|Dumnonia}}

===Stone Age===
Cornwall was only sporadically occupied during the [[Palaeolithic]], but people returned around 10,000 years ago in the [[Mesolithic]], after the end of the [[Younger Dryas|last ice age]]. There is substantial evidence of occupation by hunter gatherers in this period.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a208/28fba2514993c79a65fa5990f3bd27a89e10.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228114747/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a208/28fba2514993c79a65fa5990f3bd27a89e10.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 February 2019|title=The Mesolithic Period in Cornwall|first1=Peter|last1=Berridge|first2=Alison|last2=Roberts|journal=Cornish Archaeology|number=25|year=1986|pages=7–34|s2cid=1366803}}</ref>

The upland areas of Cornwall were the parts first open to settlement as the vegetation required little in the way of clearance: they were perhaps first occupied in [[Neolithic]] times (Palaeolithic remains are almost non-existent in Cornwall). Many [[megalith]]s of this period exist in Cornwall and prehistoric remains in general are more numerous in Cornwall than in any English county except [[Wiltshire]]. The remains are of various kinds and include [[menhir]]s, [[tumulus|barrow]]s and [[hut circle]]s.<ref>Hencken, H. O'Neill (1932) ''The Archaeology of Cornwall and Scilly.'' London: Methuen.</ref><ref>[[Nikolaus Pevsner|Pevsner, Nikolaus]] (1970). ''Cornwall''. "Introduction: Prehistory," pp. 25–29. Penguin Books</ref>

===Bronze Age===
{{Main|Cornish Bronze Age}}

[[Image:Cornwall - Men-an-Tol.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Mên-an-Tol]] ("The holed stone"), an Early Bronze Age monument near [[Madron]], in the far west of Cornwall.]]
Cornwall and neighbouring [[Devon]] had large reserves of [[tin]], which was mined extensively during the [[Bronze Age]] by people associated with the [[Beaker culture]]. Tin is necessary to make [[bronze]] from copper, and by about 1600 BCE the [[West Country]] was experiencing a trade boom driven by the export of tin across Europe. {{Citation needed|date=August 2017}} This prosperity helped feed the skilfully wrought gold ornaments recovered from [[Wessex culture]] sites. Ingots of tin, some recovered from shipwrecks dated to the 12th century BCE off the coast of modern Israel, were analysed isotopically and found to have originated in Cornwall.<ref>{{Cite news|date=16 September 2019|title=Groundbreaking study: Ancient tin ingots found in Israel were mined in England|work=The Times of Israel|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/groundbreaking-study-ancient-tin-ingots-found-in-israel-were-mined-in-england/|access-date=8 January 2022}}</ref>

There is evidence of a relatively large-scale disruption of cultural practices around the 12th century BCE that some scholars think may indicate an invasion or migration into southern Britain.{{Citation needed|date=March 2007}}

===Iron Age===
[[File:The Victoria history of the county of Cornwall (1906) (14591082390).jpg|thumb|A map of camps and earthworks in Cornwall]]
Around 750 BCE the [[Iron Age]] reached Britain, permitting greater scope of agriculture through the use of new iron ploughs and axes. The building of [[hill fort]]s also peaked during the [[British Iron Age]]. During broadly the same time (900 to 500 BCE), Celtic cultures and peoples spread across the British Isles.

During the [[British Iron Age]] Cornwall, like all of Britain south of the [[Firth of Forth]], was inhabited by [[Celts]] known as the [[Britons (Celtic people)|Britons]]. The [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] spoken at the time, [[Common Brittonic]], eventually developed into several distinct tongues, including [[Cornish language|Cornish]].<ref name="payton">[[Philip Payton]]. (1996). ''Cornwall: A History.'' Fowey: Alexander Associates</ref>

The first account of Cornwall comes from the Sicilian Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] (c. 90 BCE&nbsp;– c. 30 BCE), supposedly quoting or paraphrasing the 4th-century BCE geographer [[Pytheas]], who had sailed to Britain:

{{blockquote|The inhabitants of that part of Britain called ''Belerion'' (or Land's End) from their intercourse with foreign merchants, are civilised in their manner of life. They prepare the tin, working very carefully the earth in which it is produced ... Here then the merchants buy the tin from the natives and carry it over to [[Gaul]], and after travelling overland for about thirty days, they finally bring their loads on horses to the mouth of the Rhône.<ref>Halliday, F. E. (1959) ''A History of Cornwall''. London: Duckworth {{ISBN|1-84232-123-4}}, p. 51.</ref>}}

[[Image:England Celtic tribes - South.svg|350px|thumb|A map of [[Iron Age tribes in Britain|Iron Age Celtic tribes of Southern Britain]].]]
[[File:Ogham.Inscriptions.Cornwall.jpg|thumb|350px|A map of inscription stones, with and without [[Ogham inscription]]s.]]
Claims have been made that the [[Phoenicia|Phoenicians]] traded directly with Cornwall for tin. There is no archaeological evidence for this and modern historians have debunked earlier antiquarian constructions of "the Phoenician legacy of Cornwall",<ref>[[#Halliday|Halliday]], p.52.</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Kendrick
| first =  Thomas D.
| author-link = T. D. Kendrick
| title = British antiquity
| publisher= Methuen & Co.
| location = London
| year= 1950
| id= BNBNo.b5007301}} pp. 107, 132</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Penhallurick
| first =  Roger D.
| title = Tin in antiquity: its mining and trade throughout the ancient world with particular reference to Cornwall
| publisher= The Institute of Metals
| location = London
| year= 1986
| isbn= 0-904357-81-3}} pp.123–131 (Chapter 21 "The Phoenician myth")</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Gerrard
| first =  Sandy
| title = The early British tin industry
| publisher= Tempus Publishing
| location = Stroud, Glos
| year= 2000
| isbn=0-7524-1452-6}} p. 21.</ref> including belief that the Phoenicians even settled Cornwall.

===Toponymy===
By the time that Classical written sources appear, Cornwall was inhabited by tribes speaking [[Celtic languages]]. The ancient Greeks and Romans used the name ''Belerion'' or ''Bolerium'' for the south-west tip of the island of Britain, but the late-Roman source for the [[Ravenna Cosmography]] (compiled about 700 CE) introduces a place-name ''Puro coronavis'', the first part of which seems to be a misspelling of ''Duro'' (meaning Fort). This appears to indicate that the tribe of the [[Cornovii (Cornwall)|Cornovii]], known from earlier Roman sources as inhabitants of an area centred on modern Shropshire, had by about the 5th century established a power-base in the south-west (perhaps at [[Tintagel]]).<ref>Cornwall Guide [http://www.cornwalls.co.uk/history/ancient/ Ancient History page].</ref>

The tribal name is therefore likely to be the origin of ''Kernow'' or later ''Curnow'' used for Cornwall in the Cornish language. [[John Morris (historian)|John Morris]] suggested that a contingent of the Shropshire Cornovii was sent to South West Britain at the end of the Roman era, to rule the land there and keep out the invading Irish, but this theory was dismissed by Professor [[Philip Payton]] in his book ''Cornwall: A History''.<ref name="payton"/> Given the geographical separation between the three tribes known as Cornovii–the third being found in modern-day [[Caithness]]– and the absence of any known connection, the Cornish Cornovii are generally assumed to compose a completely separate tribe. While their name may derive from their inhabitation of a peninsula, the absence of a peninsula in the other two cases has led to the postulation of a derivation from these tribes' worship of a "horned god."<ref name=T>Todd, Malcolm (1987). The South West to AD 1000. A Regional History of England. Longman. pp. 203, 217. {{ISBN|0-582-49274-2}}.</ref>

The English name, Cornwall, comes from the Celtic name, to which the [[Old English]] word ''Wealas'' "foreigner" is added.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=8994 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311164902/http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=8994 |archive-date=11 March 2014 |date=6 August 2009 |title=Overview of Cornish History|publisher=[[Cornwall County Council]] |access-date=12 September 2013}}</ref>

In pre-Roman times, Cornwall was part of the kingdom of [[Dumnonia]], and was later known to the Anglo-Saxons as "''West'' Wales", to distinguish it from "North Wales" (modern-day Wales).<ref>{{cite book|last=Deacon|first=Bernard|title=A Concise History of Cornwall|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOUWAQAAIAAJ|year=2007|publisher=University of Wales Press|isbn=978-0-7083-2032-7|page=4}}</ref>

==Roman Cornwall==
{{Further|Roman Britain}}

During the time of [[Roman Britain|Roman dominance in Britain]], Cornwall was rather remote from the main centres of Romanisation. The Roman road system extended into Cornwall, but the only known significant Roman sites are three forts:- Tregear near [[Nanstallon]] was discovered in early 1970s, the other two found more recently at [[Restormel Castle]], Lostwithiel (discovered 2007) and a fort near to St Andrew's Church in [[Calstock]] (discovered early in 2007).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.culture24.org.uk/history/archaeology/roman+archaeology/art53684|title=Roman Fort Discovered&nbsp;– Were The Romans Using Cornish Silver?|website=culture24.org.uk|access-date=27 March 2018}}</ref> A Roman style villa was found at [[Illogan#Antiquities|Magor Farm]] near [[Camborne]].<ref>[http://www.roman-britain.org/places/illogan.htm Roman-British Villa Magor Farm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225003753/http://www.roman-britain.org/places/illogan.htm |date=25 February 2008 }}, Illogan, Redruth, Cornwall.</ref>

Pottery and other evidence suggesting the presence of an ironworks have been found at the undisclosed location near St Austell, Cornwall. Experts say the discovery challenges the belief that Romans did not settle in the county and stopped in east Devon where [[Isca Dumnoniorum]] became a flourishing provincial capital of the [[Dumnonii]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/7847003/Romans-may-have-settled-as-far-south-west-as-Cornwall.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/7847003/Romans-may-have-settled-as-far-south-west-as-Cornwall.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Romans 'may have settled as far south-west as Cornwall'|date=22 June 2010|access-date=27 March 2018|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Prof. [[Barry Cunliffe]] notes that "in the south-west peninsula of Devon and Cornwall the lack of Romanization, after a brief military occupation in the first century, is particularly striking. West of [[Exeter]] the native socio-economic system simply continued unhindered".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |title=The Ancient Celts |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=9780198752929 |edition=2nd |pages=381}}</ref>

[[File:Roman stone in St Materiana's Church, Tintagel (5014).jpg|thumb|The Roman milestone in St Materiana's Church, Tintagel]]
Only a few [[Roman roads#Milestones and markers|Roman milestone]]s have been found in Cornwall; two have been recovered from around Tintagel in the north, one at Mynheer Farm<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mynheerfarm.co.uk/romanmilestone.html|title=Mynheer Farm – Self Catering Holidays in Cornwall – The Roman Milestone|website=www.mynheerfarm.co.uk|access-date=27 March 2018}}</ref> near the hill fort at [[Carn Brea, Redruth]], another two close to [[St Michael's Mount]], one of which is preserved at [[Breage Parish Church]], and one in [[St Hilary's Church, St Hilary (Cornwall)]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/institutions/st-hilarys-church-st-hilary|title=St. Hilary's Church|publisher=Roman Inscriptions of Britain}}</ref> The stone at [[Tintagel Parish Church]] bears an inscription to Imperator Caesar [[Licinius]], and the other stone at [[Trethevy]] is inscribed to the Imperial Caesars [[Trebonianus Gallus]] and [[Volusianus]].<ref>[http://www.roman-britain.org/places/statio_deventiasteno.htm Roman Milestones near Nanstallon] The Trethevy stone can be dated c. 252 as both Caesars died in the following year.</ref> According to [[Léon Fleuriot]], however, Cornwall remained closely integrated with neighbouring territories by well-travelled sea routes. Fleuriot suggests that an overland route connecting [[Padstow]] with [[Fowey]] and [[Lostwithiel]] served, in Roman times, as a convenient conduit for trade between [[Gaul]] (especially [[Armorica]]) and the western parts of the British Isles.<ref>Fleuriot, Léon (1982) ''Les Origines de la Bretagne''. Paris: Payot; p. 18</ref>

Archaeological sites at [[Chysauster Ancient Village]] and [[Carn Euny]] in West Penwith and the [[Isles of Scilly]] demonstrate a uniquely Cornish 'courtyard house' architecture built in stone of the Roman period, entirely distinct from that of southern Britain, yet with parallels in Atlantic Ireland, North Britain and the Continent, and influential on the later development of stone-built fortified homesteads known in Cornwall as "[[Ringfort|Rounds]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historic-cornwall.org.uk/flyingpast/continuity.html#courtyard|title=Flying Past – The Historic Environment of Cornwall: Continuity and Change|website=www.historic-cornwall.org.uk|access-date=27 March 2018}}</ref>

==Post-Roman and Medieval periods==
{{Further|Sub-Roman Britain}}
[[Image:King-donierts-stone.jpg|thumb|right|[[King Doniert's Stone]], memorial [[High cross]] to Dungarth, the last recorded King of Cornwall 875 CE.]]
[[Image:British kingdoms c 800.svg|thumb|right|The kingdom of [[Dumnonia]] around the year 800.]]
[[Image:British isles 802.jpg|right|thumb|West Wales and [[Wessex]] 936.]]
In the wake of the Roman withdrawal from Great Britain in about 410, Saxons and other Germanic peoples were able to conquer and settle most of the east of the island over the next two centuries. In the west, Devon and Cornwall held out as the British kingdom of [[Dumnonia]].

Dumnonia had close cultural contacts with Christian Ireland, Wales, Romano-Celtic [[Brittany]] and [[Byzantium]] via the West Atlantic trade network, and there is exceptional archaeological evidence for [[Late Antique]] trading contacts at the stronghold of [[Tintagel]] in Cornwall.<ref name="Tintagel Castle 1999">Excavations at Tintagel Castle, Cornwall, 1990–1999, R Barrowman, C Batey, C Morris, Society of Antiquities, London 2007</ref> The Breton language is closer to Cornish than to Welsh, showing the close contacts between the areas.<ref>Charles-Edwards, ''Wales and the Britons'', p. 23</ref>

===Relationship with Wessex===
The early kings of Wessex are notable for the possible [[List of monarchs of Wessex|prevalence of Brythonic names]] among them<ref name="Dumville">David Dumville: Britons and Anglo Saxons in the Early Middle Ages : The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List and the chronology of Wessex [1977]</ref> and therefore care should be exercised in assuming a stark ethnic antipathy between emergent 'British' and 'English' identities, peoples and culture; rather a struggle for dominance of warring elites more or less aligned with eastern 'Germanic' and western 'Romano-Celtic' cultures and peoples.<ref name="Dumville"/> Atlantic Brythons were often recorded in alliance with Scandinavian forces such as the [[Danes]], or [[Normans]] in Brittany, up to the period of the [[Norman Conquest]].<ref>''La Bretagne; des origines à nos jours''; Bernard Medrignac, Éditions Ouest France, 2009</ref>

In the early eighth century, Cornwall was probably a sub-division of Dumnonia, and the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' records that in 710, [[Geraint of Dumnonia|Geraint]], king of Dumnonia, fought against [[Ine of Wessex|Ine]], king of Wessex. The ''[[Annales Cambriae]]'' states that in 722, the [[Battle of Hehil]] "among the Cornishmen" was won by the Britons. In the view of the historian [[Thomas Charles-Edwards]], this probably indicates that Dumnonia had fallen by 722, and that the British victory of that year against Wessex secured the survival of the new kingdom of Cornwall for another one hundred and fifty years. There were intermittent battles between Wessex and Cornwall for the rest of the eighth century, and [[Cuthred of Wessex|Cuthred]], king of Wessex, fought against the Cornish in 743 and 753.<ref>Charles-Edwards, ''Wales and the Britons'' pp. 428–430</ref>

According to John Reuben Davies, Dumnonia ceased to exist around the beginning of the ninth century, but:
:The kingdom of Cornwall, on the other hand, remained as an independent British territory in the face of pressure from Wessex, cut off from fellow Brittonic-speakers in Wales and Brittany by the sea and the West Saxons.<ref>Davies, "Wales and the West", p. 341</ref>

In 814, [[Egbert of Wessex|King Egbert]] of Wessex ravaged Cornwall "from the east to the west", and the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' records that in 825 the Cornish fought the men of Devon. In 838 the Cornish in alliance with [[Vikings]] were defeated by the West Saxons at the [[Battle of Hingston Down]].<ref>This was probably the Hingston Down in east Cornwall, although there is also a [[Hingston Down, Devon|Hingston Down]] in Devon. (Charles-Edwards, ''Wales and the Britons'', p. 431)</ref> This was the last recorded battle between Cornwall and Wessex: possibly, it resulted in the loss of Cornish independence.<ref name=Padel/> In 875, the ''Annales Cambriae'' record that king [[Donyarth|Dungarth]] of Cornwall drowned, yet [[Alfred the Great]] had been able to go hunting in Cornwall a decade earlier suggesting Dungarth was likely an underking (''[[Ecgberht, King of Wessex#Subregulus|subregulus]]''). [[Kenstec]] (c.833-c.870) became the first [[bishop of Cornwall]] to profess obedience to the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], and in the same period the [[bishop of Sherborne]] was instructed to visit Cornwall annually to "root out the errors of the Cornish Church", further indications that Cornwall was becoming subject to Wessex in the middle of the ninth century.<ref>Davies, "Wales and the West" p. 342</ref><ref name=CE431>Charles-Edwards, ''Wales and the Britons'', p. 431</ref> In the 880s Alfred the Great was able to leave estates in Cornwall in his will.<ref name=K175>Keynes & Lapidge eds, ''Alfred the Great'', p. 175</ref>

[[William of Malmesbury]], writing around 1120, says that in about 927, King [[Æthelstan]] of England expelled the Cornish from [[Exeter]] and fixed Cornwall's eastern boundary at the [[River Tamar]]. T. M. Charles-Edwards dismisses William's account as an "improbable story" on the ground that Cornwall was by then firmly under English control.<ref name="Charles-Edwards, pp. 22, 432">Charles-Edwards, ''Wales and the Britons'', pp. 22, 432</ref> John Reuben Davies sees the expedition as the suppression of a British uprising, which was followed by the confinement of the Cornish beyond the [[River Tamar|Tamar]] and the creation of a separate bishopric for Cornwall.<ref name="Davies p. 343">Davies, "Wales and the West", p. 343</ref> Although English kings granted land in the eastern part in the ninth century, no grants are recorded in the western half until the mid-tenth century.<ref name=Padel>[[Oliver Padel]], "Cornwall"</ref>

Cornwall now acquired Anglo-Saxon administrative features such as the hundred system. Unlike Devon, Cornwall's culture was not anglicised. Most people still spoke Cornish, and place-names are still mainly Brittonic.<ref name="Charles-Edwards, pp. 22, 432"/><ref name="Davies p. 343"/> In 944 Æthelstan's successor, [[Edmund I of England|Edmund I]], styled himself 'King of the English and ruler of this province of the Britons'.<ref name=T287>Todd, ''The South West to AD 1000,'' pp. 287–9.</ref>

The antiquarian [[William Camden]] wrote in his book ''Britannia'' in 1607:
:As for those Cornwallians, although they stoutly bent all their force together in defence of their Countrey, yet soone became they subject to the Saxons, as who neither matched then in number, neither was their Countrey sufficiently fenced by nature to defend them.<ref name=camden>Camden, ''Britannia''</ref>

===The Cornish Church===
{{see also|Christianity in Cornwall}}
The first centuries after the Romans left are known as the [[Age of the Saints]] in [[Celtic Christianity]], and a revival of [[Celtic art]] spread from Ireland, Wales and Scotland into Great Britain, [[Brittany]], and beyond. According to tradition the area was evangelised in the 5th and 6th centuries by the children of [[Brychan|Brychan Brycheiniog]] and [[saint]]s from Ireland. [[List of Cornish Saints|Cornish saints]] such as [[Saint Piran|Piran]], [[St Meriasek|Meriasek]], or [[Geraint of Dumnonia|Geraint]] exercised a religious and arguably political influence; they were often closely connected to the local civil rulers and in some cases were kings themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SeaDogIT |title=The Age of the Saints |url=https://www.cornwallheritagetrust.org/timeline/the-age-of-the-saints/ |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=Cornwall Heritage Trust |language=en}}</ref> There was an important monastery at [[Bodmin]] and sporadically, [[Bishop of Cornwall|Cornish bishops]] are named in various records.

[[File:Will of Alfred the Great (New Minster Liber Vitae) - BL Stowe MS 944, f 30v.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Will of [[Alfred the Great]], AD 873–888 (11th-century copy, [[British Library]] Stowe MS 944, ff. 29v–33r)<ref>Charter [http://www.esawyer.org.uk/charter/1507.html S 1507] at the Electronic Sawyer</ref>]]
By the 880s more Saxon priests were being appointed to the Church in Cornwall and they controlled some church estates like Polltun, Caellwic and Landwithan (Pawton, in [[St Breock]] or Pillaton in east Cornwall); perhaps Celliwig (Kellywick in [[Egloshayle]] or possibly [[Callington]] (formally Kellywick)); and [[Lawhitton]]. Eventually they passed these over to Wessex kings. However, according to [[Alfred the Great]]'s will the amount of land he owned in Cornwall was very small.<ref name=K175 /> West of the Tamar [[Alfred the Great]] only owned a small area in the [[Stratton, Cornwall|Stratton]] region, plus a few other small estates around [[Lifton, Devon|Lifton]] on Cornish soil east of the Tamar). These were provided to him through the Church whose Canterbury appointed priesthood was increasingly English dominated.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}

The early organisation and affiliations of the Church in Cornwall are unclear, but in the mid-9th century it was led by a Bishop [[Kenstec]] with his see at ''Dinurrin'', a location which has sometimes been identified as [[Bodmin]] and sometimes as [[Gerrans]]. Kenstec acknowledged the authority of [[Ceolnoth]], bringing Cornwall under the jurisdiction of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. In the 920s or 930s King Athelstan established a bishopric at [[St German's Priory|St Germans]] to cover the whole of Cornwall, which seems to have been initially subordinated to the see of [[Sherborne]] but emerged as a full bishopric in its own right by the end of the 10th century. The first few bishops here were native Cornish, but those appointed from 963 onwards were all English. From around 1027, the see was held jointly with that of [[Bishop of Crediton|Crediton]], and in 1050, they were merged to become the diocese of [[Bishop of Exeter|Exeter]].<ref name=T287 />

===The 11th century===
[[Image:EmpireNorth.JPG|thumb|At the time of [[Cnut the Great|King Cnut]], Wales and Cornwall fell outside his British realms]]
In 1013 Wessex was conquered by a Danish army under the leadership of the Viking leader and King of Denmark [[Sweyn Forkbeard]]. Sweyn annexed Wessex to his Viking empire which included Denmark and Norway. He did not, however, annex Cornwall, Wales and Scotland, allowing these "client nations" self-rule in return for an annual payment of tribute or "danegeld". Between 1013 and 1035 Cornwall, Wales, much of Scotland and Ireland were not included in the territories of King [[Canute the Great]].<ref>Shepherd, William R. (1911) ''Historical Atlas.'' "[[:Image:EmpireNorth.JPG|Dominions of Cnut]]".</ref>

The chronology of English expansion into Cornwall is unclear, but it had been absorbed into England by the reign of [[Edward the Confessor]] (1042–1066), when it apparently formed part of [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex|Godwin's]] and later [[Harold Godwinson|Harold's]] earldom of Wessex.<ref>''[[#ASC|Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' (2000), p.177. The Old English word translated by Swanton as "Cornwall" is "Wealas", which some translations render as "Wales". However, in the Anglo-Saxon period this terminology was applied equally to all [[Brython|Brythonic people]] and their lands, not specifically to Wales and the Welsh in the modern sense. Since this reference concerns a parcel of adjoining territories contiguous with Cornwall but not with Wales, and since Wales was not under English rule at this date whereas the evidence of Domesday Book indicates that Cornwall was, it may reasonably be concluded that the land in question was "West Wales" (i.e. Cornwall), not "North Wales".</ref> The records of Domesday Book show that by this time the native Cornish landowning class had been almost completely dispossessed and replaced by English landowners, the largest of whom was Harold Godwinson himself.<ref>Williams, Ann and Martin, G. H. (tr.) (2002) ''Domesday Book: a complete translation'', London: Penguin, pp. 341–357.</ref>

The [[Cornish language]] continued to be spoken, particularly in west and mid Cornwall, and evolved a number of characteristics that began to separate it from its descendant language of [[Breton language|Breton]]. The latter also went through evolution over the centuries, however they remain exceedingly similar. As well, Cornwall showed a very different type of settlement pattern from that of Saxon Wessex and places continued, even after 1066, to be named in the [[Celts|Celtic]] Cornish tradition.<ref name="Mills2010pp189–206">Mills, Jon (2010) Genocide and Ethnocide: The Suppression of the Cornish Language. In: Interfaces in Language. Cambridge Scholars, pp. 189–206. {{ISBN|9781443823999}}.</ref> Mills argues that the Breton rulers of Cornwall, as allies of the Normans, brought about an 'Armorican Return'<ref name="Mills2010pp189–206"/> with Cornu-Breton retaining its status as a prestige language.

===Post Norman conquest (1066–1485)===
{{Further|Norman conquest of England}}
[[Image:Tintagel b.jpg|right|thumb|[[Tintagel Castle]]: part of ruined curtain wall]]
Legend has it that [[Condor of Cornwall|Condor]], a survivor of the Cornish royal line, was kept as the first Earl of Cornwall by William the Conqueror following the [[Norman conquest of England]].<ref>{{cite book | first=Philip | last=Payton | author-link=Philip Payton | title=Cornwall: A History | year=2017 | edition=Revised and Updated | isbn=978-0-85989-232-2 | publisher=[[University of Exeter Press]] | publication-place=Exeter | chapter={{lang|la|Anglia et Cornubia}} }}</ref> In 1068 [[Brian of Brittany]], son of [[Eudes, Count of Penthièvre]], was created [[Earl of Cornwall]], and naming evidence cited by medievalist [[Edith Ditmas]] suggests that many other post-Conquest landowners in Cornwall were Breton allies of the Normans, the Bretons being descended from Britons who had fled to what is today France during the early years of the Anglo-Saxon conquest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://welshjournals.llgc.org.uk/browse/viewpage/llgc-id:1386666/llgc-id:1419899/llgc-id:1419912/get |title=Welsh Journals Online |publisher=Welshjournals.llgc.org.uk |access-date=2 November 2015}}</ref> and further proposed this period for the early composition of the [[Tristan and Iseult]] cycle by poets such as [[Béroul]] from a pre-existing shared Brittonic oral tradition.<ref>E. M. R. Ditmas (1969) ''Tristan and Iseult Twelfth Century Romance by Beroul retold from Norman French''</ref> Earl Brian defeated a second raid in the southwest of England, launched from Ireland by [[Harold Godwinson|Harold]]'s sons in 1069.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Matthew |title=Campaigns of the Norman Conquest |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=9781579583767 |location=London |publication-date=2013 |pages=52}}</ref> Brian was granted lands in Cornwall but by 1072 he had probably returned to Brittany: he died without issue{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}.

Much of the land in Cornwall was seized and transferred into the hands of a new Norman aristocracy, with the lion's share going to [[Robert, Count of Mortain]], half-brother of [[William I of England|King William]] and the largest landholder in England after the king. Some land was held by King William and by existing monasteries – the remainder by the [[Diocese of Exeter|Bishop of Exeter]], and a single manor each by [[Juhel de Totnes|Judhael of Totnes]] and Gotshelm<ref>''Domesday Book'', tr. Williams and Martin, pp. 341–357.</ref> (brother of [[Walter de Claville]]).

Robert became Earl in succession to Brian; nothing is known of Cadoc apart from what [[William Worcester]] says four centuries later. Four Norman castles were built in east Cornwall at different periods, at [[Launceston Castle|Launceston]], [[Trematon]], [[Restormel Castle|Restormel]] and Tintagel. A new town grew up around Launceston castle<ref>The name Launceston belonged in Anglo-Saxon times to St Stephen's by Launceston (lan stefan tun) where there was a monastery.</ref> and this became the capital of the county. On several occasions over the following centuries noblemen were created [[Earl of Cornwall]], but each time their line soon died out and the title lapsed until revived for a new appointee. In 1336, [[Edward, the Black Prince]] was named [[Duke of Cornwall]], a title that has been awarded to the eldest son of the Sovereign since 1421.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}

A popular Cornish literature, centred on the religious-themed [[mystery play]]s, emerged in the 14th century (see [[Cornish literature]]) based around [[Glasney College]]—the college established by the Bishop of Exeter in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cole |first=Dick |date=2016 |title=Excavations at Glasney College, Penryn |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/59124485/Glasney_-_Cornish_Archaeol._201620190504-72769-cec0kv-libre.pdf?1557002084=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DExcavations_at_Glasney_College_Penryn_DI.pdf&Expires=1706231038&Signature=DxqI8ohGA74ToIhcXuM5t30Qrb9WBnmOsiwWtu2-QLw9kWzV~sLGsdZNmVrE4VM1Xx~jw-fM5ygWzXUBr4zY8Ti9A-gtsxJsuG2Oli9WiRP5Jv~iDXmlt5w7NhfC~e3jqRaioPN81Ei~w~cXWLFZSai9lZ5jvhNMcwqLsTfH6~BIcEXxwz4aOQ4uBvnU7~cOBHeHqYqFbHFoaHMXYU7UbfmDNtjvSe8qLAzhoVL5GzZHNmM9r~GL4tGHGG8qc4AIuBrbUlwwtJy8gj5x-ncLNn2QITbQLauKUhPm2hGIHfoXlqu~djoCQLV8cX8BjaK9uKQ9m0jJSjh2MQpR3~FYXA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |journal=[[Cornish Archaeology]] |volume=55 |pages=66}}</ref>

It has been claimed as one of the great ironies of history that three [[Cornish language|Cornish-speaking]] Cornishmen brought the [[English language]] back from the verge of extinction – [[John of Cornwall (grammarian)|John of Cornwall]], [[John Trevisa]] and Richard Pencrych.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cornish language and its literature |author=Peter Berresford Ellis |author-link=Peter Berresford Ellis |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-7100-7928-2 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L709AAAAIAAJ&q=John+Trevisa+ellis&pg=PA48 }}</ref>

[[John Trevisa|John of Trevisa]] was a Cornish cleric instrumental in translation of the Bible into English under [[John Wycliffe]]'s proto-Reformation and, ironically for a Cornish-speaker, is the third most cited source for the very first appearance of many words in the English language. He also added many notes to his translation c. 1387 of the [[Polychronicon]] relating to the geography and culture of Cornwall.

Norman absentee landlords became replaced by a new Cornish-Norman ruling class including scholars such as [[Richard Rufus of Cornwall]]. These families eventually became the new rulers of Cornwall, typically speaking [[Norman French]], Breton-Cornish, Latin, and eventually English, with many becoming involved in the operation of the [[Stannary law|Stannary Parliament]] system, the Earldom and eventually the [[Duchy of Cornwall]].<ref>Payton (2004), chapter 5.</ref> The [[Cornish language]] continued to be spoken.

==Tudor and Stuart period==
===1485–1603===
{{Further|Tudor England}}

[[File:Promontorium …. Proiectum Cornubia dicitur.jpg|thumb|180px|Atlas of Cornwall by [[Christopher Saxton]] from 1576]]

The general tendency of administrative centralisation under the Tudor dynasty began to undermine Cornwall's distinctive status. For example, under the Tudors, the practice of distinguishing between some laws, such as those related to the tin industry, that applied simply ''in Anglia'' or ''in Anglia et Cornubia'' (in England and Cornwall) ceased.<ref name=DaviesIsles>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Norman|title=The Isles: A History|year=2000|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-69283-7|pages=497}}</ref>

The [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497]] originated among Cornish tin miners who opposed the raising of taxes by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] to make war on [[Scotland]]. This levy was resented for the economic hardship it would cause; it also intruded on a special Cornish tax exemption. The rebels marched on London, gaining supporters as they went, but were defeated at the [[Battle of Deptford Bridge]].

The Cornish also rose up in the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] of 1549. Much of south-western Britain rebelled against the [[Act of Uniformity 1549]], which introduced the obligatory use of the Protestant [[Book of Common Prayer]]. Cornwall was mostly Catholic in sympathy at this time; the Act was doubly resented in Cornwall because the Prayer Book was in English only and most [[Cornish people]] at this time spoke the Cornish language rather than English. They therefore wished church services to continue to be conducted in Latin; although they did not understand this language either, it had the benefit of long-established tradition and lacked the political and cultural connotations of the use of English. Twenty percent of the Cornish population are believed to have been killed during 1549: it is one of the major factors that contributed to the decline in the Cornish language.<ref>[[A. L. Rowse|Rowse, A. L.]] (1941) ''Tudor Cornwall.'' London: Cape.</ref>

===English Civil War (1642–1649)===
[[Image:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG|thumb|180px|Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green), 1642–1645]]
{{Main|Cornwall in the English Civil War}}
{{Main|First English Civil War}}
Cornwall played a significant role during the [[English Civil War]], as it was a [[Cavalier|Royalist]] [[Enclave and exclave|semi-enclave]] in the generally [[Roundhead|Parliamentarian]] south-west. The reason for this was that Cornwall's rights and privileges were tied up with the royal [[Duchy]] and [[Stannaries]] and so the Cornish saw the King as protector of their rights and Ducal privileges. The strong local Cornish identity also meant the Cornish would resist any meddling in their affairs by any outsiders. The English Parliament wanted to reduce royal power. Parliamentary forces invaded Cornwall three times and burned the Duchy archives. In 1645 Cornish Royalist leader [[Sir Richard Grenville, 1st Baronet]] made [[Launceston, Cornwall|Launceston]] his base and he stationed Cornish troops along the [[River Tamar]] and issued them with instructions to keep "all foreign troops out of Cornwall". Grenville tried to use "Cornish particularist sentiment" to muster support for the Royalist cause and put a plan to the Prince which would, if implemented, have created a semi-independent Cornwall.<ref>[[Stoyle, Mark]] (2002). ''West Britons''. University of Exeter Press</ref><ref>Burne, A. H.  & Young, Peter (1959) ''The Great Civil War, a military history.''</ref><ref>Gardiner, S. R. (1888) ''History of the Great Civil War'' vol. i.</ref><ref>Gaunt, Peter (1987) ''The Cromwellian Gazetteer''</ref>

==18th and 19th centuries==
[[Image:Grose-map-cornwall-q80-2340x1899.jpg|thumb|350px|A 1783 map of Cornwall.]]

===1755 Tsunami===
On 1 November 1755 at 09:40 the [[1755 Lisbon earthquake|Lisbon earthquake]] caused a [[tsunami]] to strike the Cornish coast at around 14:00. The epicentre was approximately {{convert|250|mi|km}} off [[Cape St Vincent]] on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] coast, over {{convert|1000|mi|km}}  south west of the Lizard. At [[St Michael's Mount]], the sea rose suddenly and then retired, ten minutes later it rose {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} very rapidly, then ebbed equally rapidly, and continued to rise and fall for five hours. The sea rose {{convert|8|ft|m|abbr=on}} in [[Penzance]] and {{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}} at [[Newlyn]]. The same effect was reported at St Ives and Hayle. The 18th-century French writer, [[Arnold Boscowitz]], claimed that "great loss of life and property occurred upon the coasts of Cornwall".<ref>[[#Council|Cornwall Council]]. [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/index.cfm/index.cfm?articleid=5772 Sources of Cornish History – The Lisbon Earthquake] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033857/http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/index.cfm/index.cfm?articleid=5772 |date=30 September 2007 }}</ref>

===Developments in tin mining===
[[Image:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg|thumb|[[Richard Trevithick]]'s steam engine.]]
At one time the Cornish were the world's foremost experts of mining (See [[Mining in Cornwall and Devon]] ) and a [[Camborne School of Mines|School of Mines]] was established in 1888. As Cornwall's reserves of tin began to be exhausted, many [[Cornish diaspora|Cornishmen emigrated]] to places such as the Americas, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa where their skills were in demand.

There is only one mine, [[South Crofty]] in Cornwall, that is currently being restarted. Also, a popular legend says that wherever you may go in the world, if you see a hole in the ground, you'll find a Cornishman at the bottom of it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Laviolette |first=Patrick |date=July 2003 |title=Landscaping Death: Resting Places for Cornish Identity |journal=[[Journal of Material Culture]] |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=238 |doi=10.1177/13591835030082005 }}</ref> Several Cornish mining words are in use in English language mining terminology, such as [[costean]], [[gunnies]], and [[vug]].

Since the decline of tin mining, agriculture and fishing, the area's economy has become increasingly dependent on tourism—some of Britain's most spectacular coastal scenery can be found here. However, Cornwall is one of the poorest parts of Western Europe and it has been granted [[Objective 1]] status by the EU.

In 2019, Canadian mining company, Strongbow Exploration announced it was looking to resume tin mining at [[South Crofty]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Strongbow reviving age-old Cornwall tin mining tradition |date=9 May 2019 |url=https://www.mining-journal.com/resourcestocks/resourcestocks/1362275/strongbow-reviving-age-old-cornwall-tin-mining-tradition |publisher=Mining Journal |access-date=13 May 2019}}</ref>

===Politics, religion and administration===
Cornwall and Devon were the site of a [[Jacobite uprising in Cornwall of 1715|Jacobite rebellion in 1715]] led by [[James Paynter (Jacobite)|James Paynter]] of St. Columb. This coincided with the larger and better-known [[Jacobite Rising of 1715|"Fifteen Rebellion"]] which took place in Scotland and the north of England. However, the Cornish uprising was quickly quashed by the authorities. James Paynter was tried for High Treason but claiming his right as a Cornish tinner was tried in front of a jury of other Cornish tinners and was cleared.

Industrialised communities have long appeared to weaken the pre-eminence of the [[Church of England]], and as the Cornish people were readily involved in mining, a rift developed between the Cornish people and their [[Church of England|Anglican]] clergy in the early 18th century.<ref>[[#Council|Cornwall County Council]] – [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=4956 Cornish Methodism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208083353/http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=4956 |date=8 February 2007 }}</ref> Resisting the [[Church of England|established church]], many ordinary Cornish people were [[Roman Catholic]] or non-religious until the late 18th century, when [[Methodism]] was introduced to Cornwall during a series of visits by [[John Wesley|John]] and [[Charles Wesley]]. Methodist separation from the Church of England was made formal in 1795.

In 1841 there were ten [[hundreds of Cornwall]]: [[Stratton (hundred)|Stratton]], [[Lesnewth (hundred)|Lesnewth]] and [[Triggshire|Trigg]]; [[Wivelshire|East]] and [[Wivelshire|West Wivelshire]]; [[Powdershire|Powder]]; [[Pydarshire|Pydar]]; [[Kerrier (hundred)|Kerrier]]; [[Penwith (hundred)|Penwith]]; and [[Scilly]]. The [[shire]] suffix has been attached to several of these, notably: the first three formed Triggshire; East and West appear to be divisions of [[Wivelshire]]; Powdershire and Pydarshire. The old names of Kerrier and Penwith have been re-used for modern [[Districts of England|local government districts]]. The ecclesiastical division within Cornwall into rural deaneries used versions of the same names though the areas did not correspond exactly: Trigg Major, Trigg Minor, East Wivelshire, West Wivelshire, Powder, Pydar, Kerrier and Penwith were all deaneries of the [[Diocese of Exeter]] but boundaries were altered in 1875 when five more deaneries were created (from December 1876 all in the [[Diocese of Truro]]).<ref>''Cornish Church Guide'' (1925). Truro: Blackford</ref>

=== Smuggling heyday ===
The peak of [[smuggling]] in Cornwall was evident in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Import taxes and other duties on goods led to a number of traders and consumers evading the extra price burden by using the county's ragged coastline as a landing point for dutiable goods. The most trafficked items were brandy, lace and tobacco, imported from [[Continental Europe]]. The [[Jamaica Inn]] pub on [[Bodmin Moor]] has been noted for its early association with smuggling. By the 19th century, a large proportion of the population of Cornwall – an estimated 10,000 people, including women and children – were thought to take part in the smuggling business. The rate of smuggling subsided in the coming century, and by the 1830s, two factors were established to have combined to make smuggling less worthwhile – improvements in [[Coast guard|coastguard services]] which led to capture, and the reduction of [[Excise|excise duties]] on imported goods.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Around Island Britain|last=Digest|first=Readers|publisher=Grafton Books|year=1989|pages=87}}</ref>

==20th and 21st centuries==
A revival of interest in Cornish studies began in the early 20th century with the work of [[Henry Jenner]] and the building of links with the other five Celtic nations.

A political party, [[Mebyon Kernow]], was formed in 1951 to attempt to serve the interests of Cornwall and to support greater [[Cornish self-government movement|self-government]] for the county. The party has had elected a number of members to county, district, town and parish councils but has had no national success, although the more widespread use of the [[Saint Piran's Flag|Flag of St Piran]] has been accredited to this party.{{Citation needed|date=March 2007}}

There have been some developments in the recognition of Cornish identity or [[ethnicity]]. In 2001 for the first time in the UK the inhabitants of Cornwall could record their ethnicity as Cornish on the national census, and in 2004 the schools census in Cornwall carried a Cornish option as a subdivision of white British. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the [[Europe]]an [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]].<ref name="bbc minority status">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cornwall-27132035 |title=Cornish people granted minority status within UK |publisher=BBC  |date=24 April 2014 |access-date=1 May 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Cornwall}}
*[[Timeline of Cornish history]]
*[[Constitutional status of Cornwall]]
*[[List of museums in Cornwall]]

'''General:'''
*[[History of the British Isles]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book |title=''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''|title-link=Anglo-Saxon Chronicle|translator-last=Swanton|translator-first=Michael|translator-link=Michael Swanton|year=2000|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Phoenix Press|ref=ASC}}. An online translation is also available at the [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/medieval/ang09.asp Avalon Project.]
*{{cite book|first=William |last=Camden|author-link=William Camden|title=Britannia|orig-year=1607|year =2004|others=Translated by Philemon Holland. A hypertext critical edition by Dana F. Sutton|chapter-url=http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/cambrit/coinseng.html#welchcorn1|chapter=Britans of Wales and Cornewale}}
*{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Charles-Edwards|title=Wales and the Britons 350–1064|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-821731-2}}
*{{cite web |author1=Cornwall Council |title=Home Page - Cornwall Council |url=http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/ |website=www.cornwall.gov.uk |language=en}}
*{{cite book|editor-first=Pauline|editor-last=Stafford|title=A Companion to the Early Middle Ages: Britain and Ireland c.500-c.1100|first=John Reuben|last=Davies|chapter=Wales and West Britain|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2013|isbn=978-1-118-42513-8}}
* {{cite book
| last = Halliday
| first =  Frank Ernest
| author-link = F.E.Halliday
| title = History of Cornwall, 2nd edition. Main text same as 1959 edition but with afterword by Halliday's son.
| publisher= House of Stratus
| location = Thirsk, North Yorkshire
| year= 2001
| isbn=0-7551-0817-5|ref=Halliday}}
*{{cite book|editor1-first=Simon|editor1-last=Keynes|editor1-link=Simon Keynes|editor2-first=Michael|editor2-last=Lapidge|editor2-link=Michael Lapidge|title=Alfred the Great:Asser's Life of King Alfred and other contemporary sources|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1983|isbn=978-0-14-044409-4}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England|editor1-first=Michael|editor1-last=Lapidge|editor1-link=Michael Lapidge|editor2-first=John |editor2-last=Blair|editor2-link=John Blair (historian)|editor3-first=Simon|editor3-last=Keynes|editor3-link=Simon Keynes|editor4-first=Donald|editor4-last=Scragg|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|edition=2nd|place=Chichester, UK|year=2014|isbn=978-0-470-65632-7|first= O. J.  |last= Padel |title=  Cornwall}}
* [[Philip Payton|Payton, Philip]] (1996) ''Cornwall''; Fowey: Alexander Associates {{ISBN|1-899526-60-9}}. Revised edition ''Cornwall : a history'', Fowey: Cornwall Editions Ltd, 2004  {{ISBN|1-904880-00-2}} (Available online on [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfCvxdhNLHIC&dq=%22james+whetter%22&pg=PP1 Google Books]).
*[[A. L. Rowse|Rowse, A. L.]] (1941) ''Tudor [[Cornwall]]''. London: Jonathan Cape
*{{cite book|first=Malcolm|last =Todd|author-link=Malcolm Todd|title=The South West to A.D.1000|publisher=Longman|year=1987|asin=B004X16B1E }}

==Further reading==
*[[John Thomas Blight|Blight, John Thomas]] (1872) ''Ancient Crosses and Other Antiquities in the East of Cornwall'' 3rd ed. (1872)
* Blight, John Thomas (1856) ''Ancient Crosses and Other Antiquities in the West of Cornwall'' (1856), 2nd edition 1858. (A reprint is offered online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20080515141738/http://www.menantolstudio.freeserve.co.uk/blightcrosses.htm Men-an-Tol Studios]) (3rd ed. Penzance: W. Cornish, 1872) (facsimile ed. reproducing 1856 ed.: ''Blight's Cornish Crosses''; Penzance : Oakmagic Publications, 1997)
*{{Cite book|title=Cornwall, Connectivity and Identity in the Fourteenth Century|last=Drake|first=S. J.|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|year=2019|isbn= 978-1-78327-469-7}}
*[[Leonard Elliott Elliott-Binns|Elliott-Binns, Leonard Elliott]] (1955) ''Medieval Cornwall''. London: Methuen & Co
* {{cite book
| last = Wood
| first =  Michael
| author-link = Michael Wood (historian)
| title = In Search of the Dark Ages
| publisher= BBC
| year= 1981
| isbn= 0-563-17835-3}} with several subsequent editions and reprints.

==External links==
*[https://cornisharchaeology.org.uk/publications/ Volumes 1&ndash;54 of ''Cornish Archaeology''], a peer-reviewed journal published by the [[Cornwall Archaeological Society]]

{{History of England|bar=yes}}
{{Cornwall}}

[[Category:History of Cornwall| ]]
[[Category:Military history of Cornwall]]
[[Category:History of England by county|Cornwall]]