Editing History of Libya

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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{History of Libya}}
[[Libya]]'s history involves its rich mix of ethnic groups, including the indigenous [[Berbers]]/Amazigh people. Amazigh have been present throughout the entire history of the country. For most of its history, Libya has been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control, from Europe, Asia, and Africa.

The '''history of Libya''' comprises six distinct periods: Ancient Libya, the Roman era, the Islamic era, Ottoman rule, Italian rule, and the Modern era.

==Prehistoric and Berber Libya==
{{main|Prehistoric North Africa}}
[[File:Tadrart Acacus 1.jpg|thumb|left|Prehistoric Libyan rock paintings in Tadrart Acacus reveal a Sahara once lush in vegetation and wildlife.]]
Tens of thousands of years ago, the [[Sahara]] Desert, which now covers roughly 90% of Libya, was lush with green vegetation. It was home to lakes, forests, diverse wildlife and a temperate [[Mediterranean]] climate. Archaeological evidence indicates that the coastal plain was inhabited by [[Neolithic]] peoples from as early as 8000 BCE. These peoples were perhaps drawn by the climate, which enabled their culture to grow, subsisting on the [[animal husbandry|domestication]] of cattle and the cultivation of crops.<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0013) "Early History of Libya"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120922002708/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0013) |date=22 September 2012 }}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved 11 July 2006.</ref>

Egyptian inscriptions from the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] are the oldest available documentation of the Berber people. The inscriptions record Berber tribes raiding the Nile Delta.<ref>{{Cite book|last=St. John|first=Ronald Bruce|url=|title=Libya : From Colony to Revolution|publisher=Oneworld Publications|others=Nathan St. John|year=2017|isbn=978-1-78607-240-5|edition=3|location=London, England|oclc=988848424}}</ref> [[Rock art|Rock paintings]] at [[Wadi Mathendous]] and the mountainous region of [[Acacus Mountains|Jebel Acacus]] are the best sources of information about prehistoric Libya, and the [[pastoralism|pastoralist]] culture that settled there. The paintings reveal that the [[Neolithic Subpluvial|Libyan Sahara contained rivers]], grassy plateaus and an abundance of wildlife such as giraffes, elephants and crocodiles.<ref>[[Roland Oliver|Oliver, Roland]] (1999), ''The African Experience: From Olduvai Gorge to the 21st Century'' (Series: History of Civilization), London: [[Weidenfeld & Nicolson|Phoenix Press]], revised edition, pg 39.</ref>

The onset of the [[Piora Oscillation]]'s intense [[aridification]] resulted in the "green Sahara" rapidly transforming into the [[Sahara Desert]]. Dispersal in Africa from the Atlantic coast to the [[Siwa Oasis]] in Egypt seems to have followed, due to climatic changes which caused increasing [[desertification]].

The African ancestors of the [[Berber people]] are assumed to have spread into the area by the [[Late Bronze Age]]. The earliest known name of such a tribe is that of the [[Garamantes]], who were based in [[Germa]], southern Libya. The Garamantes were a Saharan people of Berber origin who used an elaborate underground irrigation system; they were probably present as tribal people in the Fezzan by about 1000 BCE, and were a local power in the Sahara between 500 BCE and 500 CE. By the time of contact with the [[Phoenicia]]ns, the first of the Semitic civilizations to arrive in Libya from the East, the Lebu, Garamantes, Berbers and other tribes that lived in the Sahara were already well established.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}}

==Phoenician and Greek Libya==
{{Further|Ancient Libya|Carthage|Phoenicia|Ancient Greece}}
[[File:Temple of Zeus - Cyrene.jpg|thumb|The temple of [[Zeus]] in the ancient Greek city of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]]. Libya has a number of World Heritage Sites from the ancient Greek era.]]
The Phoenicians were some of the first to establish coastal trading posts in Libya, when the merchants of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] (in present-day [[Lebanon]]) developed commercial relations with the various [[Berber people|Berber tribes]] and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials.<ref>Herodotus, (c.430 BCE), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herod-libya1.html "'The Histories', Book IV.42–43"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409023843/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/herod-libya1.html |date=9 April 2013 }} ''Fordham University, New York''. Retrieved 18 July 2006.</ref><ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0014) "Tripolitania and the Phoenicians"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120922002706/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0014) |date=22 September 2012 }}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved 11 July 2006.</ref> By the 5th century BCE, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, [[Carthage]], had extended its [[hegemony]] across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as [[Punic]], came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (later Tripoli), Libdah (later [[Leptis Magna]]) and [[Sabratha]]. These cities were in an area that was later called [[Tripolis (region of Africa)|Tripolis]], or "Three Cities", from which Libya's modern capital Tripoli takes its name.

In 630 BCE, the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] colonized Eastern Libya and founded the city of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]].<ref>Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0015) "Cyrenaica and the Greeks"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120922002705/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ly0015) |date=22 September 2012 }}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''. Retrieved 11 July 2006.</ref> Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area that became known as [[Cyrenaica]]: [[Barca (ancient city)|Barce]] (later [[Marj, Libya|Marj]]); Euhesperides (later Berenice, present-day [[Benghazi]]); [[Taucheira]] (later Arsinoe, present-day Taucheria); Balagrae (later Bayda and Beda Littoria under Italian occupation, present-day [[Bayda, Libya|Bayda]]); and [[Apollonia, Cyrenaica|Apollonia]] (later Susa), the port of Cyrene.<ref>[http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaLibya.htm History of Libya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128173621/http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsAfrica/AfricaLibya.htm |date=28 January 2013}}, The History Files. Retrieved 29 September 2011</ref> Together with Cyrene, they were known as the Pentapolis (Five Cities). Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, and was famous for its medical school, learned academies, and architecture. The Greeks of the Pentapolis resisted encroachments by the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians from the East, as well as by the Carthaginians from the West.

== Achaemenid and Ptolemaic Libya ==
{{Further|Achaemenid Empire|Ptolemaic Kingdom}}
[[File:Xerxes I tomb Libyan soldier circa 480 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Libyan soldier of the [[Achaemenid army]], {{circa|480 BCE}}. [[Xerxes I]] tomb relief.]]
In 525 BCE the Persian army of [[Cambyses II]] overran Cyrenaica, which for the next two centuries remained under Persian or Egyptian rule. [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] was greeted by the Greeks when he entered Cyrenaica in 331 BCE, and Eastern Libya again fell under the control of the Greeks, this time as part of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]. Later, a federation of the Pentapolis was formed that was customarily ruled by a king drawn from the Ptolemaic royal house.

==Roman Libya==
{{Main|Roman Libya|Tripolitania (Roman province)|Crete and Cyrenaica}}
{{further|North Africa during Antiquity|Byzantine North Africa|Praetorian prefecture of Africa|Exarchate of Africa}}
After the fall of [[Carthage]], the Romans did not immediately occupy [[Tripolitania]] (the region around Tripoli), but left it under control of the Berber kings of [[Numidia]], until the coastal cities asked and obtained its protection.<ref name="be202">Bertarelli (1929), p. 202.</ref> [[Ptolemy Apion]], the last Greek ruler, bequeathed Cyrenaica to Rome, which formally annexed the region in 74 BCE and joined it to Crete as [[Creta et Cyrenaica|a Roman province]]. During the [[Roman civil wars]] Tripolitania (still not formally annexed) and Cyrenaica sustained [[Pompey]] and [[Marc Antony]] against respectively [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] and [[Octavian]].<ref name="be202" /><ref name="be417">Bertarelli (1929), p. 417.</ref> The Romans completed the conquest of the region under Augustus, occupying northern [[Fezzan]] ("Fasania") with [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger|Cornelius Balbus Minor]].<ref name="be382">Bertarelli (1929), p. 382.</ref> As part of the [[Africa Nova]] province, Tripolitania was prosperous,<ref name="be202" /> and reached a golden age in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, when the city of [[Leptis Magna]], home to the [[Severan dynasty]], was at its height.<ref name="be202" /> On the other side, Cyrenaica's first Christian communities were established by the time of the [[Claudius|Emperor Claudius]]<ref name="be417" /> but was heavily devastated during the [[Diaspora revolt]],<ref name="ro364">Rostovtzeff (1957), p. 364.</ref> and almost depopulated of Greeks and Jews alike,<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], lxviii. 32</ref> and, although repopulated by Trajan with military colonies,<ref name="ro364" /> from then started its decadence.<ref name="be417" />

[[File:Leptis Magna Arch of Septimus Severus.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The Arch of [[Septimius Severus]] at Leptis Magna. The patronage of Roman emperor Septimus Severus allowed the city to become one of the most prominent in Roman Africa.]]
Regardless, for more than 400 years Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were part of a cosmopolitan state whose citizens shared a common language, legal system, and Roman identity. Roman ruins like those of Leptis Magna and [[Sabratha]], extant in present-day Libya, attest to the vitality of the region, where populous cities and even smaller towns enjoyed the amenities of urban life—the forum, markets, public entertainments, and baths—found in every corner of the Roman Empire. Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in North Africa, but the character of the cities of Tripolitania remained decidedly Punic and, in Cyrenaica, Greek. Tripolitania was a major exporter of olive oil,<ref name="ro335">Rostovtzeff (1957), p. 335.</ref> as well as a center for the trade of ivory and wild animals<ref name="ro335" /> conveyed to the coast by the [[Garamantes]], while Cyrenaica remained an important source of wines, drugs, and horses. The bulk of the population in the countryside consisted of Berber farmers, who in the west were thoroughly "romanized" in language and customs.<ref>Heuser, Stephen, (24 July 2005), [https://www.boston.com/travel/articles/2005/07/24/when_romans_lived_in_libya/ "When Romans lived in Libya"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040550/http://www.boston.com/travel/articles/2005/07/24/when_romans_lived_in_libya/ |date=14 November 2012 }}, ''The Boston Globe''. Retrieved 18 July 2006.</ref> Until the 10th century the [[African Romance]] remained in use in some Tripolitanian areas, mainly near the Tunisian border.<ref>Tadeusz Lewicki, "Une langue romane oubliée de l'Afrique du Nord. Observations d'un arabisant", Rocznik Orient. XVII (1958), pp. 415–480.</ref>

The decline of the Roman Empire saw the classical cities fall into ruin, a process hastened by the [[Vandals]]' destructive sweep though North Africa in the 5th century. The region's prosperity had shrunk under Vandal domination, and the old Roman political and social order, disrupted by the Vandals, could not be restored. In outlying areas neglected by the Vandals,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The decline and fall of the Roman empire|last1=Gibbon|first1=Edward|last2=Mueller|first2=Hans-Friedrich|date=2005|publisher=Modern Library|isbn=0345478843|edition=Modern Library mass market|location=New York|pages=1258|oclc=58549764}}</ref> the inhabitants had sought the protection of tribal chieftains and, having grown accustomed to their autonomy, resisted re-assimilation into the imperial system.<ref name=":0" />

When the Empire returned (now as [[Byzantine Empire|East Romans]]) as part of [[Justinian]]'s reconquests of the 6th century, efforts were made to strengthen the old cities, but it was only a last gasp before they collapsed into disuse. Cyrenaica, which had remained an outpost of the Byzantine Empire during the Vandal period, also took on the characteristics of an armed camp. Unpopular Byzantine governors imposed burdensome taxation to meet military costs, while the towns and public services—including the water system—were left to decay. Byzantine rule in Africa did prolong the Roman ideal of imperial unity there for another century and a half however, and prevented the ascendancy of the Berber nomads in the coastal region. By the beginning of the 7th century, Byzantine control over the region was weak, Berber rebellions were becoming more frequent, and there was little to oppose Muslim invasion.<ref>Rodd, Francis. "Kahena, Queen of the Berbers: A Sketch of the Arab Invasion of Ifrikiya in the First Century of the Hijra" Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, Vol. 3, No. 4, (1925), 731–2</ref>

==Islamic Libya==
{{Main|History of Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica}}
[[File:Awjila (Libia) - The Mosque of Atiq.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Atiq Mosque, Awjila|Atiq Mosque]] in [[Awjila]] is the oldest mosque in the [[Sahara]].]]
Tenuous [[Byzantine]] control over Libya was restricted to a few poorly defended coastal strongholds, and as such, the [[Arab people|Arab]] horsemen who first crossed into the Pentapolis of Cyrenaica in September 643 CE encountered little resistance. Under the command of [['Amr ibn al-'As]], the armies of Islam conquered Cyrenaica, and renamed the [[Cyrenaica#Christianization|Pentapolis]], [[Barqa]]. They took also Tripoli, but after destroying the Roman walls of the city and getting a tribute they withdrew.<ref name="be278">Bertarelli (1929), p. 278.</ref> In 647 an army of 40,000 Arabs, led by [[Abdullah ibn Saad]], the foster-brother of Caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]], penetrated deep into Western Libya and took Tripoli from the Byzantines definitively.<ref name="be278" /> From Barqa, the [[Fezzan]] was conquered by [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] in 663 and Berber resistance was overcome. During the following centuries, Libya came under the rule of several Islamic dynasties, under various levels of autonomy from [[Ummayad]], [[Abbasid]] and [[Fatimid]] caliphates of the time. Arab rule was easily imposed in the coastal farming areas and on the towns, which prospered again under Arab patronage. Townsmen valued the security that permitted them to practice their commerce and trade in peace, while the [[Punic]]ized farmers recognized their affinity with the Semitic Arabs to whom they looked to protect their lands.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} In Cyrenaica, [[Monophysite]] adherents of the [[Coptic Church]] had welcomed the Muslim Arabs as liberators from Byzantine oppression. The Berber tribes of the hinterland accepted Islam, however they resisted Arab political rule.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hourani, Albert|year=2002|title=A History of the Arab Peoples|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=0-571-21591-2|page=198}}</ref>

For the next several decades, Libya was under the purview of the Umayyad [[Caliph of Damascus]] until the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and Libya came under the rule of Baghdad. When Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] appointed [[Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab|Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab]] as his governor of [[Ifriqiya]] in 800, Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the [[Aghlabid]] dynasty. The Aghlabids were among the most attentive Islamic rulers of Libya; they brought about a measure of order to the region, and restored Roman irrigation systems, which brought prosperity to the area from the agricultural surplus. By the end of the 9th century, the Shiite [[Fatimids]] controlled Western Libya from their capital in [[Mahdia]], before they ruled the entire region from their new capital of [[Cairo]] in 972 and appointed [[Bologhine ibn Ziri]] as governor. During Fatimid rule, Tripoli thrived on the trade in slaves and gold brought from the Sudan and on the sale of wool, leather, and salt shipped from its docks to Italy in exchange for wood and iron goods. Ibn Ziri's Berber [[Zirid dynasty]] ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from two troublesome Arab Bedouin tribes, the [[Banu Sulaym]] and [[Banu Hilal]] to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.<ref name="be202" /> [[Ibn Khaldun]] noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.<ref>"[http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm Populations Crises and Population Cycles] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527170154/http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm |date=27 May 2013 }}", Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell.</ref>

[[File:Roger II Sicily.jpg|thumb|left|[[Roger II of Sicily|King Roger II of Sicily]] was the first Norman King to rule Tripoli when he captured it in 1146.]]
Zirid rule in Tripolitania was short-lived though, and already in 1001 the Berbers of the [[Banu Khazrun]] broke away. Tripolitania remained under their control until 1146, when the region was overtaken by the Normans of Sicily.<ref name="be203">Bertarelli (1929), p. 203.</ref> The latter appointed a governor over it called Rafi Ibn Matruh, who established a kingdom and ruled under Roger I and his son Roger II until he revolted against him in the year 1158. The inhabitants of Tripoli revolted against him one year, and after the Almohads expelled the Normans from Mahdia, he pledged allegiance to the Almohads and remained governor of Tripoli until he asked for an exemption from it and traveled to Alexandria and died there.<ref>{{Cite book |last=المؤلف : الطاهر أحمد الزاوي |url=http://archive.org/details/kaoikaprophe_20180328 |title=ولاة طرابلس من بداية الفتح العربي إلى نهاية العهد التركي |date=2018-03-28}}</ref> For the next 50 years, Tripolitania was the scene of numerous battles between the Almohad rulers and insurgents of the [[Banu Ghaniya]]. Later, a general of the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], Muhammad ibn Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from 1207 to 1221 before the later establishment of a Tunisian [[Hafsid dynasty]]<ref name="be203" /> independent from the Almohads. in the period of Hafsids the [[Emirate of Banu Talis|emirate of banu talis]] established in the city of [[Bani Walid|bani walid]] and ruled the city until the Ottoman conquest. The Hafsids ruled Tripolitania for nearly 300 years, and established significant trade with the city-states of Europe. Hafsid rulers also encouraged art, literature, architecture and scholarship. [[Ahmad Zarruq]] was one of the most famous Islamic scholars to settle in Libya, and did so during this time. By the 16th century however, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire. After a successful invasion of Tripoli by [[Habsburg Spain]] in 1510,<ref name="be203" /> and its handover to the [[Knights of St. John]], the Ottoman admiral [[Sinan Pasha (Ottoman admiral)|Sinan Pasha]] finally took control of Libya in 1551.<ref name="be203" />

==Ottoman Libya==
{{Main|Ottoman Libya}}
[[File:Capture of Tripoli by the Ottomans 1551.jpg|thumb|The [[Siege of Tripoli (1551)|Siege of Tripoli]] in 1551 allowed the Ottomans to capture the city from the Knights of St. John.]]
After a successful invasion by the [[House of Habsburg#Division of the house: Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs|Habsburgs of Spain]] in the early 16th century, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] entrusted its defense to the Knights of St. John in Malta. Lured by the piracy that spread through the [[Maghreb]] coastline, adventurers such as [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Barbarossa]] and his successors consolidated Ottoman control in the central Maghreb. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turks conquered Tripoli in 1551 under the command of Sinan Pasha. In the next year his successor [[Turgut Reis]] was named the [[Bey]] of Tripoli and later [[Pasha of Tripoli]] in 1556. As Pasha, he adorned and built up Tripoli, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African coast.<ref>{{cite book |author=Naylor, Phillip Chiviges | title= North Africa: a history from antiquity to the present | publisher=University of Texas Press | year=2009 | pages=120–121 | isbn=9780292719224 | quote=One of the most famous corsairs was Turghut (Dragut) (?–1565), who was of Greek ancestry and a protégé of Khayr al-Din.&nbsp;... While pasha, he built up Tripoli and adorned it, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African littoral.}}</ref> By 1565, administrative authority as regent in Tripoli was vested in a ''[[pasha]]'' appointed directly by the ''[[sultan]]'' in [[Constantinople]]. In the 1580s, the rulers of [[Fezzan]] gave their allegiance to the sultan, and although Ottoman authority was absent in Cyrenaica, a ''bey'' was stationed in Benghazi late in the next century to act as agent of the government in Tripoli.<ref name="be417" />

In time, real power came to rest with the pasha's corps of [[janissaries]], a self-governing military guild, and in time the pasha's role was reduced to that of ceremonial head of state.<ref name="be203" /> Mutinies and coups were frequent, and in 1611 the ''[[dey]]s'' staged a coup against the pasha, and Dey Sulayman Safar was appointed as head of government. For the next hundred years, a series of ''deys'' effectively ruled Tripolitania, some for only a few weeks, and at various times the dey was also pasha-regent. The regency governed by the dey was autonomous in internal affairs and, although dependent on the sultan for fresh recruits to the corps of janissaries, his government was left to pursue a virtually independent foreign policy as well. The two most important Deys were [[Mehmed Saqizli]] (r. 1631–49) and [[Osman Saqizli]] (r. 1649–72), both also Pasha, who ruled effectively the region.<ref name="be204">Bertarelli (1929), p. 204.</ref> The latter conquered also Cyrenaica.<ref name="be204" />

[[File:John Seller Elevation of Tripoli 1675.jpg|400px|thumb|left|An elevation of the city of Ottoman Tripoli in 1675]]
Tripoli was the only city of size in Ottoman Libya (then known as Tripolitania [[Eyalet]]) at the end of the 17th century and had a population of about 30,000. The bulk of its residents were [[Moors]], as city-dwelling Arabs were then known. Several hundred Turks and renegades formed a governing elite, a large portion of which were ''[[kouloughli]]s'' (lit. sons of servants—offspring of Turkish soldiers and Arab women); they identified with local interests and were respected by locals. Jews and [[Moriscos]] were active as merchants and craftsmen and a small number of European traders also frequented the city. European [[slave]]s and large numbers of enslaved blacks transported from Sudan were also a feature of everyday life in Tripoli. In 1551, Turgut Reis enslaved almost the entire population of the Maltese island of [[Gozo]], some 6,300 people, sending them to Libya.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert C. Davis|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800|url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405722392|url-access=registration|access-date=31 May 2012|date=5 December 2003|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-71966-4}}</ref> The most pronounced slavery activity involved the enslavement of black Africans who were brought via [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes. Even though the [[Slavery in Libya|slave trade]] was officially abolished in Tripoli in 1853, in practice it continued until the 1890s.<ref>Lisa Anderson, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/163044 "Nineteenth-Century Reform in Ottoman Libya"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010185714/http://www.jstor.org/stable/163044|date=10 October 2016}}, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3. (August 1984), pp. 325–348.</ref>

[[File:EnterpriseTripoli.jpg|thumb|USS ''[[USS Enterprise (1799)|Enterprise]]'' of the [[Mediterranean Squadron (United States)|Mediterranean Squadron]] capturing Tripolitan Corsair during the First Barbary War, 1801]]
Lacking direction from the Ottoman government, Tripoli lapsed into a period of military anarchy during which coup followed coup and few deys survived in office more than a year. One such [[1711 Karamanli coup|coup]] was led by Turkish officer [[Ahmed Karamanli]].<ref name="be204" /> The [[Karamanli dynasty|Karamanlis]] ruled from 1711 until 1735 mainly in Tripolitania, but had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid 18th century. Ahmed was a Janissary and popular cavalry officer.<ref name="be204" /> He murdered the Ottoman Dey of Tripolitania and seized the throne in 1711.<ref name="be204" /> After persuading Sultan [[Ahmed III]] to recognize him as governor, Ahmed established himself as pasha and made his post hereditary. Though Tripolitania continued to pay nominal tribute to the Ottoman [[padishah]], it otherwise acted as an independent kingdom. Ahmed greatly expanded his city's economy, particularly through the employment of corsairs ([[pirate]]s) on crucial [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] shipping routes; nations that wished to protect their ships from the corsairs were forced to pay tribute to the pasha. Ahmad's successors proved to be less capable than himself, however, the region's delicate balance of power allowed the Karamanli to survive several dynastic crises without invasion. The [[Libyan Civil War of 1791–1795]] occurred in those years. In 1793, [[Turkey|Turkish]] officer [[Trabluslu Ali Pasha|Ali Pasha]] deposed Hamet Karamanli and briefly restored Tripolitania to Ottoman rule. However, Hamet's brother [[Yusuf Karamanli|Yusuf]] (r. 1795–1832) reestablished Tripolitania's independence.

In the early 19th century war broke out between the United States and Tripolitania, and a series of battles ensued in what came to be known as the [[First Barbary War]] and the [[Second Barbary War]]. By 1819, the various treaties of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons; though Yusuf abdicated in 1832 in favor of his son Ali II, civil war soon resulted. Ottoman Sultan [[Mahmud II]] sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, but instead deposed and exiled Ali II, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania.<ref name="be205">Bertarelli (1929), p. 205.</ref> Anyway, order was not recovered easily, and the revolt of the Libyan under Abd-El-Gelil and Gûma ben Khalifa lasted until the death of the latter in 1858.<ref name="be205" />

The second period of direct Ottoman rule saw administrative changes, and what seemed as greater order in the governance of the three provinces of Libya. It would not be long before the [[Scramble for Africa]] and European colonial interests set their eyes on the marginal Turkish provinces of Libya. The Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II twice sent his aide-de-camp Azmzade Sadik El Mueyyed to meet Sheikh Senussi to cultivate positive relations and counter the West European scramble for Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gökkent |first=Giyas Müeyyed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b6CAzgEACAAJ |title=Journey in the Grand Sahara of Africa and Through Time |publisher=Menah |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-7371298-8-2 |language=en}}</ref> Reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion ([[Italo-Turkish War]], 1911–1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when [[Italy]] simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies.<ref>Country Profiles, (16 May 2006), [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm "Timeline: Libya, a chronology of key events"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023080030/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1398437.stm |date=23 October 2011 }} ''BBC News''. Retrieved 18 July 2006.</ref>

==Italian Libya==
{{Main|Italian Tripolitania|Italian Cyrenaica|Italian Libya}}
{{see also|Italian colonization of Libya}}
[[File:Territorial growth of Italian Libya.svg|thumb|Territorial growth of Italian Libya: Territory ceded by Ottoman Empire 1912 (dark-green) but effectively Italy controlled only five ports (black), territories ceded by France and Britain 1919 and 1926 (light-green), territories ceded by France and Britain 1934/35 (red)]]
[[File:9 Div Tobruk(AWM 020779).jpg|thumb|Australian infantry at [[Tobruk]] during World War II. Beginning on 10 April 1941, the [[Siege of Tobruk]] lasted for 240 days.]]
From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as [[Italian North Africa]]. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, [[Italian Cyrenaica]] and [[Italian Tripolitania]], run by Italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46562/Libya Libya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430102144/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/339574/Libya |date=30 April 2013 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>

[[File:Omar Mukhtar 13.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Omar Mukhtar]] was the leader of Libyan resistance in Cyrenaica against the Italian colonization.]]
In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony (made up of the three provinces of [[Cyrenaica]], [[Tripolitania]] and [[Fezzan]]). Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later [[Idris of Libya|King Idris I]]), Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two world wars.
[[Ilan Pappe]] estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through disease and starvation in camps)".<ref>[[Ilan Pappe]], ''The Modern Middle East''. Routledge, 2005, {{ISBN|0-415-21409-2}}, p. 26.</ref> Italian historian Emilio Gentile sets to about 50,000 the number of victims of the repression.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://retedue.rsi.ch/home/networks/retedue/oggilastoria/2011/03/01/patriota-cirenaica.html |title=Un patriota della Cirenaica |publisher=retedue.rsi.ch |date=1 March 2011 |access-date=24 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094034/http://retedue.rsi.ch/home/networks/retedue/oggilastoria/2011/03/01/patriota-cirenaica.html |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1934, the political entity called "Libya" was created by governor [[Italo Balbo|Balbo]] with capital Tripoli.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bjuniornewblog.blogspot.com/2019/03/italian-tripoli.html |title=Italian Tripoli |access-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044654/https://bjuniornewblog.blogspot.com/2019/03/italian-tripoli.html |archive-date=6 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Italians emphasized infrastructure improvements and public works. In particular, they hugely expanded Libyan railway and road networks from 1934 to 1940, building hundreds of kilometers of new roads and railways and encouraging the establishment of new industries and dozens of new agricultural villages.

During [[WW2]], since June 1940 Libya was at the center of destructive fighting between the [[Axis Powers|Axis]] and the British empire: the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] conquered from Italy all of Libya only by February 1943.

From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under [[British Military Administration (Libya)|British military administration]], while the [[Fezzan-Ghadames (French Administration)|French controlled Fezzan]]. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in [[Cairo]] but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|1947 peace treaty]] with the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.<ref>Hagos, Tecola W., (20 November 2004), [http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm "Treaty Of Peace With Italy (1947), Evaluation And Conclusion"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207051037/http://www.tecolahagos.com/part4.htm |date=7 December 2012 }}, ''Ethiopia Tecola Hagos''. Retrieved 18 July 2006.</ref>

==Kingdom==
{{main|Kingdom of Libya}}
[[File:King Idris I of Libya 1960's.jpg|thumb|King Idris I announced Libya's independence on 24 December 1951, and was King until the 1969 coup that overthrew his government.]]
On 21 November 1949, the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before 1 January 1952. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. On 24 December 1951, Libya declared its independence as the [[Kingdom of Libya|United Kingdom of Libya]], a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King [[Idris of Libya|Idris]], Libya's only monarch.

1951 also saw the enactment of the [[Constitution of Libya (1951)|first Libyan Constitution]]. The Libyan National Assembly drafted the Constitution and passed a resolution accepting it in a meeting held in the city of Benghazi on Sunday, 6th Muharram, [[Hijri year|Hegiras]] 1371: 7 October 1951. [[Mohamed Abulas’ad El-Alem]], President of the National Assembly and the two vice-presidents of the National Assembly, [[Omar Faiek Shennib]] and Abu Baker Ahmed Abu Baker executed and submitted the Constitution to [[King Idris]] following which it was published in the Official Gazette of Libya.<ref>Chronology of International Events and Documents, Royal Institute of International Affairs. Vol. 7, No. 8 (5–18 April 1951), pp. 213–244</ref>

The enactment of the Libyan Constitution was significant in that it was the first piece of legislation to formally entrench the rights of Libyan citizens following the post-war creation of the Libyan nation state. Following on from the intense UN debates during which Idris had argued that the creation of a single Libyan state would be of benefit to the regions of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and Cyrenaica, the Libyan government was keen to formulate a constitution which contained many of the entrenched rights common to European and North American nation states. Though not creating a secular state – Article 5 proclaims Islam the religion of the State – the Libyan Constitution did formally set out rights such as equality before the law as well as equal civil and political rights, equal opportunities, and an equal responsibility for public duties and obligations, "without distinction of religion, belief, race, language, wealth, kinship or political or social opinions" (Article 11).

During this period, Britain was involved in extensive engineering projects in Libya and was also the country's biggest supplier of arms. The United States also maintained the large [[Wheelus Air Base]] in Libya.<ref>{{cite web |author=Holger Terp |url=http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/ordbog/lord/l170.htm |title=Fredsakademiet: Freds- og sikkerhedspolitisk Leksikon L 170 : Libya During the Cold War |publisher=Fredsakademiet.dk |access-date=2012-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231090551/http://www.fredsakademiet.dk/ordbog/lord/l170.htm |archive-date=31 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Arab Republic and ''Jamahiriya''==
{{main|History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi}}
{{anchor|Great Socialist People's Arab Jamahiriya}}{{anchor|Libyan Jamahiriya}}{{anchor|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}}
{{See also|Mukhabarat el-Jamahiriya}}
On 1 September 1969, a small group of military officers led by 27-year-old army officer [[Muammar Gaddafi]] staged a coup d'état against King Idris, launching the [[The Green Book (Muammar Gaddafi)|Libyan Revolution]].<ref name="SalakLibya">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0504/excerpt1.html |title=Rediscovering Libya |last=Salak |first=Kira |publisher=National Geographic Adventure |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923175457/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0504/excerpt1.html |archive-date=23 September 2011}}</ref> Gaddafi was referred to as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution" in government statements and the official Libyan press.<ref>US Department of State's Background Notes, (November 2005) [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm "Libya – History"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604185313/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5425.htm |date=4 June 2019 }}, ''U.S. Dept. of State''. Retrieved 14 July 2006.</ref>

[[File:Muammar al-Gaddafi at the AU summit.jpg|thumb|left|[[Muammar Gaddafi]], former leader of Libya, in 2009.]]
On the birthday of [[Muhammad]] in 1973, Gaddafi delivered a "Five-Point Address". He announced the suspension of all existing laws and the implementation of [[Sharia]]. He said that the country would be purged of the "politically sick". A "people's militia" would "protect the revolution". There would be an administrative revolution, and a cultural revolution. Gaddafi set up an [[Mukhabarat el-Jamahiriya|extensive surveillance system]]. 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for the Revolutionary committees, which monitored activities in government, in factories, and in the education sector.<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami">{{cite journal|url=http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-qadhafi-unrepentant|title=Libiya and the U.S.: Qadhafi Unrepentant|journal=The Middle East Quarterly|author=Mohamed Eljahmi|year=2006|access-date=4 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125172427/http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-qadhafi-unrepentant|archive-date=25 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Gaddafi executed dissidents publicly and the executions were often rebroadcast on state television channels.<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.|author=Brian Lee Davis}}</ref> Gaddafi employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of critical refugees around the world. [[Amnesty International]] listed at least 25 assassinations between 1980 and 1987.<ref name="Mohamed Eljhami" /><ref>The Middle East and North Africa 2003 (2002). Eur. p. 758</ref>

[[File:Flag of Libya (1977-2011).svg|thumb|Flag of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (lasting from 1977 to 2011), the national anthem of which was [[Allahu Akbar (anthem)|"الله أكبر"]] ({{lit|God is Great}})]]
In 1977, Libya officially became the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". Gaddafi officially passed power to the [[General People's Committee]]s and henceforth claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead,<ref>{{cite news|last=Wynne-Jones|first=Jonathan|title=Libyan minister claims Gaddafi is powerless and the ceasefire is 'solid'|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8393285/Libyan-minister-claims-Gaddafi-is-powerless-and-the-ceasefire-is-solid.html|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=22 October 2011|date=19 March 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029122048/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8393285/Libyan-minister-claims-Gaddafi-is-powerless-and-the-ceasefire-is-solid.html|archive-date=29 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> but domestic and international critics claimed the reforms gave him virtually unlimited power. Dissidents against the new system were not tolerated, with punitive actions including capital punishment authorized by Gaddafi himself.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-qadhafi-unrepentant|journal=Middle East Quarterly|title=Libya and the U.S.: Qadhafi Unrepentant|first=Mohamed|last=Eljahmi|year=2006|access-date=4 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125172427/http://www.meforum.org/878/libya-and-the-us-qadhafi-unrepentant|archive-date=25 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> The new "''jamahiriya''" governance structure he established was officially referred to as a form of [[direct democracy]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Robbins|first=James|title=Eyewitness: Dialogue in the desert|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6425873.stm|access-date=22 October 2011|date=7 March 2007|work=BBC News}}</ref> though the government refused to publish election results.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.europeanforum.net/country/libya#elections_and_political_situation_nbsp|work=European Forum|title=Libya country update|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518094049/http://www.europeanforum.net/country/libya#elections_and_political_situation_nbsp|archive-date=18 May 2011}}</ref> Later that same year, Libya and [[Egypt]] fought a four-day border war that came to be known as the [[Libyan-Egyptian War]], both nations agreed to a [[ceasefire]] under the mediation of the Algerian president [[Houari Boumediène]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/lay/libya/flibyaegypt1977.htm |title=Egypt Libya War 1977 |publisher=Onwar.com |access-date=2012-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324085920/http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/lay/libya/flibyaegypt1977.htm |archive-date=24 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 1977, Libya began to provide military supplies to [[Goukouni Oueddei]] and the [[People's Armed Forces]] in Chad. The [[Chadian–Libyan conflict]] began in earnest when Libya's support of rebel forces in northern Chad escalated into an [[Toyota war|invasion]]. Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring dozens of rebels groups around the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18239888 |title=Endgame in Tripoli |date=24 February 2011 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=4 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307152055/http://www.economist.com/node/18239888 |archive-date=7 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Libya: the struggle for survival|author=Geoffrey Leslie Simons|author-link=Geoff Simons|page=281}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=St. John|first=Ronald Bruce|title=Libyan terrorism: the case against Gaddafi|journal=Contemporary Review|date=1 December 1992|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Libyan+terrorism:+the+case+against+Gaddafi.-a014151801|access-date=4 February 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20110511121558/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Libyan+terrorism:+the+case+against+Gaddafi.-a014151801|archive-date=11 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> An airstrike failed to kill Gaddafi in 1986. Libya was accused in the 1988 bombing of [[Pan Am Flight 103]] over [[Lockerbie]], [[Scotland]] and the 1989 bombing of [[UTA Flight 772]] over [[Chad]] and [[Niger]]; Libya was finally put under United Nations sanctions in 1992. Gaddafi financed various other groups from anti-nuclear movements to Australian trade unions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |title=A Rogue Returns |publisher=AIJAC |date=February 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511102656/http://www.aijac.org.au/review/2003/282/Libya-return.html |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref>

From 1977 onward, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the fifth-highest in Africa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_afr_cou_by_gdp_per_cap_gdp_per_cap-african-countries-gdp-per-capita|title=African Countries by GDP Per Capita > GDP Per Capita (most recent) by Country|access-date=24 July 2011|publisher=NationMaster|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716042352/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_afr_cou_by_gdp_per_cap_gdp_per_cap-african-countries-gdp-per-capita|archive-date=16 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> while the [[Human Development Index]] became the highest in Africa and greater than that of [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="dailynews">{{cite web|last=Azad|first=Sher|title=Gaddafi and the media|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/10/22/fea02.asp|work=Daily News|access-date=22 October 2011|date=22 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040614/http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/10/22/fea02.asp|archive-date=14 November 2012}}</ref> This was achieved without borrowing any foreign loans, keeping Libya [[List of sovereign states by public debt|debt-free]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Zimbabwe: Reason Wafavarova – Reverence for Hatred of Democracy|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210928.html|publisher=[[AllAfrica.com]]|access-date=23 October 2011|date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107010212/http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210928.html|archive-date=7 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, the country's [[literacy]] rate rose from 10% to 90%, life expectancy rose from 57 to 77 years, [[Labour rights|employment opportunities]] were established for migrant workers, and welfare systems were introduced that allowed access to free education, free healthcare, and financial assistance for housing. The [[Great Manmade River]] was also built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country.<ref name="dailynews" /> In addition, financial support was provided for university scholarships and employment programs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shimatsu|first=Yoichi|title=Villain or Hero? Desert Lion Perishes, Leaving West Explosive Legacy|url=http://newamericamedia.org/2011/10/villain-or-hero-desert-lion-perishes-leaving-the-west-explosive-legacy.php|publisher=[[New America Media]]|access-date=23 October 2011|date=21 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022231158/http://newamericamedia.org/2011/10/villain-or-hero-desert-lion-perishes-leaving-the-west-explosive-legacy.php|archive-date=22 October 2011|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Gaddafi doubled the minimum wage, introduced statutory price controls, and implemented compulsory rent reductions of between 30 and 40%. Gaddafi also wanted to combat the strict social restrictions that had been imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the [[Revolutionary Women's Formation]] to encourage reform. In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and insisting on wage parity. In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a [[Libyan General Women's Federation]]. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under the age of sixteen and ensuring that a woman's consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage.<ref>Bearman, Jonathan (1986). Qadhafi's Libya. London: Zed Books</ref>

Gaddafi assumed the honorific title of "King of Kings of Africa" in 2008 as part of his campaign for a [[United States of Africa]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7588033.stm |title=Gaddafi: Africa's 'king of kings' |work=BBC News |date=29 August 2008 |access-date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630101640/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7588033.stm |archive-date=30 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the early 2010s, in addition to attempting to assume a leadership role in the [[African Union]], Libya was also viewed as having formed closer ties with [[Italy]], one of its former colonial rulers, than any other country in the [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,747745,00.html |work=Der Spiegel |title=Kissing the Hand of the Dictator: What Libya's Troubles Mean for Its Italian Allies |first=Hans-Jürgen |last=Schlamp |date=25 February 2011 |access-date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228020939/http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,747745,00.html |archive-date=28 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The eastern parts of the country have been "ruined" due to Gaddafi's economic theories, according to ''[[The Economist]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18290470 |title=A civil war beckons |date=3 March 2011 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=4 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220233049/http://www.economist.com/node/18290470 |archive-date=20 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/18239900 |title=The liberated east – Building a new Libya |date=24 February 2011 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=4 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227092930/http://www.economist.com/node/18239900 |archive-date=27 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==2011 uprising and the First Civil War==
{{Main|Libyan civil war (2011)|Anti-Gaddafi forces|National Transitional Council}}
[[File:Demonstration in Bayda (Libya, 2011-07-22).jpg|thumb|Demonstrations in [[Bayda, Libya|Bayda]], on 22 July 2011]]
After popular movements overturned the rulers of [[Tunisia]] and [[Egypt]], its immediate neighbors to the west and east, Libya experienced a full-scale revolt beginning on [[Revolution Day|17 February 2011]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/middle-east/2011/02/17/live-blog-libya |title=Live Blog – Libya |work=Al Jazeera |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=23 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223072304/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/middle-east/2011/02/17/live-blog-libya |archive-date=23 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 20 February, the unrest had spread to Tripoli. In the early hours of 21 February 2011, [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]], oldest son of Muammar Gaddafi, spoke on Libyan television of his fears that the country would fragment and be replaced by "15 Islamic fundamentalist emirates" if the uprising engulfed the entire state. He admitted that "mistakes had been made" in quelling recent protests and announced plans for a constitutional convention, but warned that the country's economic wealth and recent prosperity was at risk and warned of "rivers of blood" if the protests continued.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8339443/Libya-Saif-al-Islam-Gaddafis-defiant-speech.html|work=The Daily Telegraph|title=Libya: Saif al-Islam Gaddafi's defiant speech|date=21 February 2011|access-date=24 October 2011|location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224040626/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8339443/Libya-Saif-al-Islam-Gaddafis-defiant-speech.html|archive-date=24 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/02/21/138515.html|work=Al Arabiya|date=21 February 2011|access-date=24 October 2011|title=Gaddafi's son warns of "rivers of blood" in Libya|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102194514/http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/02/21/138515.html|archive-date=2 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 27 February 2011, the [[National Transitional Council]] was established under the stewardship of [[Mustafa Abdul Jalil]], Gaddafi's former justice minister, to administer the areas of Libya under rebel control. This marked the first serious effort to organize the broad-based opposition to the Gaddafi regime. While the council was based in Benghazi, it claimed Tripoli as its capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lse.co.uk/FinanceNews.asp?ArticleCode=77c8l0riig2uluz&ArticleHeadline=Ex_Libyan_minister_forms_interim_govtreport |title=Ex Libyan minister forms interim govt-report |work=LSE |date=26 February 2011 |access-date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513045506/http://www.lse.co.uk/FinanceNews.asp?ArticleCode=77c8l0riig2uluz&ArticleHeadline=Ex_Libyan_minister_forms_interim_govtreport |archive-date=13 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Hafiz Ghoga]], a human rights lawyer, later assumed the role of spokesman for the council.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2019-08-27|title=Libya opposition launches council|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011227175955221853.html|website=[[Aljazeera.com|Al Jazeera]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827052355/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011227175955221853.html|archive-date=27 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> On 10 March 2011, France became the first state to officially recognise the council as the legitimate representative of the Libyan people.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://ntclibya.com/InnerPage.aspx?SSID=6&ParentID=3&LangID=1 | title =The Council"International Recognition | publisher =National Transitional Council (Libya) | date =1 March 2011 | access-date =23 October 2011 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110926043358/http://www.ntclibya.com/InnerPage.aspx?SSID=6&ParentID=3&LangID=1 | archive-date =26 September 2011 | url-status =dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 |title=Libya: France recognises rebels as government |work=BBC News |date=10 March 2011 |access-date=23 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023041256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 |archive-date=23 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

By early March 2011, some parts of Libya had tipped out of Gaddafi's control, coming under the control of a coalition of opposition forces, including soldiers who decided to support the rebels. Eastern Libya, centered on the port city of [[Benghazi]], was said to be firmly in the hands of the opposition, while Tripoli and its environs remained in dispute.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011228143136646521.html |work=Al Jazeera |date=28 February 2011 |title=Protesters march in Tripoli |access-date=1 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105084402/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011228143136646521.html |archive-date=5 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 | work=BBC News | title=Libya: France recognises rebels as government | date=10 March 2011 | access-date=20 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023041256/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12699183 | archive-date=23 October 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/blog/2011/mar/10/libya-uprising-gaddafi-live#block-15 The Guardian Live Blog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822222539/https://www.theguardian.com/world/blog/2011/mar/10/libya-uprising-gaddafi-live#block-15 |date=22 August 2017 }}. Retrieved 10 March 2011</ref> Pro-Gaddafi forces were able to respond militarily to rebel pushes in Western Libya and launched a counterattack along the coast toward Benghazi, the ''de facto'' centre of the uprising.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/10/world/africa/10libya.html |title=Qaddafi Forces Batter Rebels in Strategic Refinery Town |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=9 March 2011 |access-date=9 March 2011 |first1=Kareem |last1=Fahim |first2=David D. |last2=Kirkpatrick |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506221756/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/10/world/africa/10libya.html |archive-date=6 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The town of [[Zawiya, Libya|Zawiya]], {{convert|48|km}} from Tripoli, was bombarded by [[Libyan Air Force|Air Force]] planes and [[Libyan Army (1951–2011)|Army]] tanks and seized by [[Armed Forces of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya|Jamahiriya troops]], "exercising a level of brutality not yet seen in the conflict".<ref>''The Independent'', 9 March 2011 P.4</ref>

In several public appearances, Gaddafi threatened to destroy the protest movement, and [[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] and other agencies reported his government was arming pro-Gaddafi militiamen to kill protesters and defectors against the regime in Tripoli.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011225165641323716.html |work=Al Jazeera |title=Gaddafi vows to crush protesters |date=25 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202060551/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/2011225165641323716.html |archive-date=2 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Organs of the United Nations, including [[United Nations Secretary General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Ban-Ki-moon-blasts-Gaddafi-calls-situation-dangerous/Article1-666108.aspx |title=Ban Ki-moon blasts Gaddafi; calls situation dangerous |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227021434/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Ban-Ki-moon-blasts-Gaddafi-calls-situation-dangerous/Article1-666108.aspx |archive-date=27 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]], condemned the crackdown as violating international law, with the latter body expelling Libya outright in an unprecedented action urged by Libya's own delegation to the UN.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-libya-20110226,0,6927383.story |title=Some backbone at the U.N. |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=26 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303053657/http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/editorials/la-ed-libya-20110226,0,6927383.story |archive-date=3 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=125800 |work=Sofia News Agency |title=Libya Expelled from UN Human Rights Council |date=2 March 2011 |access-date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511093052/http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=125800 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The United States imposed [[economic sanctions]] against Libya,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2011/02/20112261461685557.html |title=US slaps sanctions on Libyan govt |work=Al Jazeera |date=26 February 2011 |access-date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103144512/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2011/02/20112261461685557.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> followed shortly by Australia,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/australia-imposes-sanctions-on-libya-20110227-1b9k0.html |title=Australia imposes sanctions on Libya |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=27 February 2011 |access-date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228143407/http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/australia-imposes-sanctions-on-libya-20110227-1b9k0.html |archive-date=28 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Canada<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-imposes-additional-libyan-sanctions-1.1017281|title=Canada imposes additional Libyan sanctions|work=CBC News|date=27 February 2011|access-date=28 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301045737/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/2011/02/27/harper-libya.html|archive-date=1 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[United Nations Security Council]], which also voted to refer Gaddafi and other government officials to the [[International Criminal Court]] for investigation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/africa/news/article_1622265.php/UN-Security-Council-orders-sanctions-against-Libya-1st-Lead |work=Monsters & Critics |date=27 February 2011 |access-date=27 February 2011 |title=UN Security Council orders sanctions against Libya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227023153/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/africa/news/article_1622265.php/UN-Security-Council-orders-sanctions-against-Libya-1st-Lead |archive-date=27 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41785849 |title=U.N. Security Council slaps sanctions on Libya |date=26 February 2011 |work=NBC News |access-date=27 February 2011 }}</ref>

On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973|Resolution 1973]] with a 10–0 vote and five abstentions. The resolution sanctioned the establishment of a [[no-fly zone]] and the use of "all means necessary" to protect civilians within Libya.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808|title=Security Council authorizes 'all necessary measures' to protect civilians in Libya|publisher=United Nations News Service|date=17 March 2011|access-date=30 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503184921/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808|archive-date=3 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Shortly afterwards, Libyan Foreign Minister [[Moussa Koussa]] stated that "Libya has decided an immediate ceasefire and an immediate halt to all military operations".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12787739 | work=BBC News | title=Libya: Pro-Gaddafi forces 'to observe ceasefire' | date=18 March 2011 | access-date=20 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423005728/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12787739 | archive-date=23 April 2018 | url-status=live }}</ref>

On 19 March, the first Allied act to secure the no-fly zone began when French military jets entered Libyan airspace on a [[reconnaissance]] mission heralding attacks on enemy targets.<ref name="libyrate1" /> Allied military action to enforce the ceasefire commenced the same day when a French aircraft opened fire and destroyed a vehicle on the ground. French jets also destroyed five tanks belonging to the Gaddafi regime.<ref name="libyrate1">{{cite news |author=Jonathan Marcus |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |title=French military jets open fire in Libya |work=BBC News |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=20 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320125209/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |archive-date=20 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The United States and United Kingdom launched attacks on over 20 "integrated air defense systems" using more than 110 [[Tomahawk (missile family)|Tomahawk cruise missiles]] during operations [[Operation Odyssey Dawn|Odyssey Dawn]] and [[Operation Ellamy|Ellamy]].<ref name="bbc">{{cite news|title=Coalition launches Libya attacks|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12796972|access-date=20 March 2011|work=BBC|date=19 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320053754/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12796972|archive-date=20 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 27 June 2011, the [[International Criminal Court]] issued an arrest warrant for Gaddafi, alleging that Gaddafi had been personally involved in planning and implementing "a policy of widespread and systematic attacks against civilians and demonstrators and dissidents".<ref>{{cite news|author=Ian Black and David Smith|location=Tripoli|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/27/muammar-gaddafi-arrest-warrant-hague|title=War crimes court issues Gaddafi arrest warrant|work=The Guardian|date=27 June 2011|access-date=20 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930114624/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/27/muammar-gaddafi-arrest-warrant-hague|archive-date=30 September 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Arrott libya tripoli gadhafi effigy 480 29aug2011.jpg|left|thumb|An effigy of Muammar Gaddafi hangs from a scaffold in [[Martyrs' Square, Tripoli|Tripoli's Martyrs' Square]], 29 August 2011]]
By 22 August 2011, [[National Liberation Army (Libya)|rebel fighters]] had entered Tripoli and occupied [[Martyrs' Square, Tripoli|Green Square]],<ref name="Richburg">{{cite news |last1=Erdbrink |first1=Thomas |last2=Sly |first2=Liz |title=In Libya, Moammar Gaddafi's rule crumbling as rebels enter heart of Tripoli |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/libyan-rebels-converging-on-tripoli/2011/08/21/gIQAbF3RUJ_story.html?noredirect=on |newspaper=The Washington Post|language=en}}</ref> which they renamed to its original name, Martyrs' Square in honour of those killed during the Italian occupation. Meanwhile, Gaddafi asserted that he was still in Libya and would not concede power to the rebels.<ref name="Richburg" />

On 16 September 2011, the U.N. General Assembly approved a request from the National Transitional Council to accredit envoys of the country's interim controlling body as Tripoli's sole representatives at the UN, effectively recognising the National Transitional Council as the legitimate holder of that country's UN seat.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.opencanada.org/features/recognizing-states-and-governments-a-tricky-business/ | title =Recognizing States and Governments–A Tricky Business | publisher =Canadian International Council | author =Jennifer Welsh | date =20 September 2011 | access-date =23 October 2011 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110927084716/http://www.opencanada.org/features/recognizing-states-and-governments-a-tricky-business/ | archive-date =27 September 2011 | url-status =live }}</ref>

The National Transitional Council had been plagued by internal divisions during its tenure as Libya's interim governing authority. It postponed the formation of a caretaker, or "interim" government on several occasions during the period prior to the [[death of Muammar Gaddafi]] in his hometown of [[Sirte]] on 20 October 2011.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/21/world/africa/libyan-fighters-say-qaddafi-stronghold-has-fallen.html|work=The New York Times|date=20 October 2011|title=Qaddafi Is Dead, Libyan Officials Say|first=Kareem|last=Fahim|access-date=20 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020145506/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/21/world/africa/libyan-fighters-say-qaddafi-stronghold-has-fallen.html|archive-date=20 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/20111020111520869621.html|title=Muammar Gaddafi killed as Sirte falls|work=Al Jazeera|date=21 October 2011|access-date=23 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023031711/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/20111020111520869621.html|archive-date=23 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Mustafa Abdul Jalil]] led the National Transitional Council and was generally considered to be the principal leadership figure. [[Mahmoud Jibril]] served as the NTC's ''de facto'' head of government from 5 March 2011 through the end of the war, but he announced he would resign after Libya was declared to have been "liberated" from Gaddafi's rule.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2097333,00.html|title=In Tripoli, Libya's Interim Leader Says He Is Quitting|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |author=Vivienne Walt|date=19 October 2011|access-date=23 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022204525/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2097333,00.html|archive-date=22 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The "[[Liberation Day|liberation]]" of Libya was celebrated on 23 October 2011, and Jibril announced that consultations were under way to form an [[interim government]] within one month, followed by elections for a constitutional assembly within eight months and parliamentary and presidential elections to be held within a year after that.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/libya-to-declare-liberation-from-42-year-gadhafi-rule-132403478/147085.html|title=Libya Declares Liberation From 42-Year Gadhafi Rule|work=Voice of America|year=2011|access-date=23 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025213725/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Libya-to-Declare-Liberation-from-42-Year-Gadhafi-Rule-132403478.html|archive-date=25 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> He stepped down as expected the same day and was succeeded by [[Ali Tarhouni]].<ref name="declib">{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f459749a-fd86-11e0-a9db-00144feabdc0.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f459749a-fd86-11e0-a9db-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=Libya declares liberation after Gaddafi's death|date=23 October 2011|access-date=23 October 2011|first=Borzou|last=Daragahi|work=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> At least 30,000 Libyans died in the civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/9835879 |title=Libyan estimate: At least 30,000 died in the war |author=Karin Laub |agency=Associated Press |work=The Guardian |date=8 September 2011 |access-date=25 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104210601/http://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/9835879 |archive-date=4 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Transition and the Second Civil War==
{{Main|Aftermath of the Libyan civil war (2011)|Factional violence in Libya (2011–2014)|Libyan civil war (2014–2020)}}
After the [[Libyan civil war (2011)|First Civil War]], the [[National Transitional Council]] (NTC) has been responsible for the transition of the administration of the governing of Libya. The "liberation" of Libya was celebrated on 23 October 2011. Then Jibril announced that consultations were under way to form an interim government within one month, followed by elections for a constitutional assembly within eight months and parliamentary and presidential elections to be held within a year after that. He stepped down as expected the same day and was succeeded by [[Ali Tarhouni]].

On 24 November, Tarhouni was replaced by [[Abdurrahim El-Keib]]. El-Keib formed a [[cabinet of Libya|provisional government]], filling it with independent or CNT politicians, including women.

After the fall of Gaddafi, Libya has been faced with internal struggles. A protest started against the new regime of NTC.{{Clarify|date=February 2012}} The loyalists of Gaddafi rebelled and fought with the new Libyan army.{{Clarify|date=February 2012}}

Because the [[Libyan Constitutional Declaration|Constitutional Declaration]] allowed a multi-party system,  political parties, like the [[Democratic Party (Libya)|Democratic Party]], the [[Party of Reform and Development]], and the [[National Gathering for Freedom, Justice and Development]] appeared. The Islamist movement started. To stop it, the CNT (NTC) government denied power to parties based on religion, tribal and ethnic bases.

On 7 July 2012, Libyans voted in their first parliamentary elections since the end of Gaddafi's rule. The election, in which more than 100 political parties registered, formed an interim 200-member national assembly. This will replace the unelected National Transitional Council,<ref name="Gnan-8-Aug-Meet">{{Cite news |first=Michel |last=Cousins |title=National Congress to meet on 8 August: NTC |newspaper=Libya Herald |date=24 July 2012 |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/?p=11495 |access-date=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Ben-Sassi-8-Aug-Tarab-Post">{{Cite news|title=NTC to Transfer Power to Newly-Elected Libyan Assembly August 8 |newspaper=[[Tripoli Post]] |date=2 August 2012 |url=http://www.tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=8936 |access-date=4 August 2012|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807043644/http://www.tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=8936 |archive-date=7 August 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> name a prime minister, and form a committee to draft a constitution. The vote was postponed several times to resolve logistical and technical problems, and to give more time to register to vote, and to investigate candidates.<ref name="epatko1">{{cite web |title=In Libya, Expectations High as Parliamentary Vote Approaches |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/libya-elections |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us |date=5 July 2012 |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327085730/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/libya-elections |archive-date=27 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 8 August 2012, the [[National Transitional Council]] officially handed power to the wholly elected [[General National Congress]], which is tasked with the formation of an interim government and the drafting of a new Libyan Constitution to be approved in a general [[referendum]].<ref name="Esam-8-Aug">{{cite news |url=https://www.boston.com/news/world/middle-east/2012/08/08/libya-transitional-rulers-hand-over-power/uMPkXd9vTSSHg589mU9ykJ/story.html |title=Libya's transitional rulers hand over power |author=Esam Mohamed |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=8 August 2012 |publisher=Boston.com |access-date=8 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208121751/http://www.boston.com/news/world/middle-east/2012/08/08/libya-transitional-rulers-hand-over-power/uMPkXd9vTSSHg589mU9ykJ/story.html |archive-date=8 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 25 August 2012, in what "appears to be the most blatant sectarian attack" since the end of the civil war, unnamed organized assailants bulldozed a [[Sufism|Sufi]] mosque with graves, in broad daylight in the center of the Libyan capital [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]. It was the second such razing of a Sufi site in two days.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/fighters-bulldoze-sufi-mosque-central-tripoli-172020410.html|title=(Reuters by Yahoo News)|access-date=14 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827231155/http://news.yahoo.com/fighters-bulldoze-sufi-mosque-central-tripoli-172020410.html|archive-date=27 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 7 October 2012, Libya's Prime Minister-elect [[Mustafa A.G. Abushagur]] stepped down<ref>{{cite news |author=George Grant |title=Congress dismisses Abushagur |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/?p=15731 |date=7 October 2012 |access-date=7 October 2012}}</ref> after failing a second time to win parliamentary approval for a new cabinet.<ref>{{cite news |author=Sami Zaptia |title=Abushagur announces a smaller emergency cabinet |url=http://www.libyaherald.com/?p=15719 |date=7 October 2012 |access-date=7 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Libyan Prime Minister Mustafa Abu Shagur to stand down|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19864136|publisher=BBC|access-date=7 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007180429/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19864136|archive-date=7 October 2012|url-status=live|work=BBC News|date=7 October 2012}}</ref> On 14 October 2012, the General National Congress elected former GNC member and human rights lawyer [[Ali Zeidan]] as prime minister-designate.<ref>{{cite news|title=Libya Congress elects former congressman and rights lawyer Ali Zidan as new prime minister|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/libya-congress-elects-former-congressman-and-rights-lawyer-ali-zidan-as-new-prime-minister/2012/10/14/52504990-1634-11e2-a346-f24efc680b8d_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=14 October 2012|access-date=14 October 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015090717/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/libya-congress-elects-former-congressman-and-rights-lawyer-ali-zidan-as-new-prime-minister/2012/10/14/52504990-1634-11e2-a346-f24efc680b8d_story.html|archive-date=15 October 2012}}</ref>

[[2014 Libyan Constitutional Assembly election|Libyan Constitutional Assembly elections]] took place in Libya on 20 February 2014. Ali Zidan was ousted by the parliament committee and fled from Libya on 14 March 2014 after rogue oil tanker [[Morning Glory (oil tanker)|Morning Glory]] left the rebel port of [[Sidra, Libya]] with Libyan oil that had been confiscated by the rebels. Ali Zeidan had promised to stop the departure, but failed.<ref name=nyt>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/world/middleeast/libya-oil-tanker.html?_r=0|author=David D Kirkpatrick|title=U.S. Navy SEALs Take Control of Diverted Oil Tanker|work=The New York Times |date=17 March 2014|access-date=17 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321041136/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/world/middleeast/libya-oil-tanker.html?_r=0|archive-date=21 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=12 March 2014|title=Libya ex-PM Zeidan 'leaves country despite travel ban'|work=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26541979|access-date=16 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315025552/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26541979|archive-date=15 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 30 March 2014 General National Congress voted to replace itself with new House of Representatives.<ref name=lh30march>{{cite news|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2014/03/30/congress-votes-to-replace-itself-with-new-house-of-representatives/|title=Congress votes to replace itself with new House of Representatives|agency=Libya Herald|date=30 March 2014|access-date=1 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930132042/https://www.libyaherald.com/2014/03/30/congress-votes-to-replace-itself-with-new-house-of-representatives/|archive-date=30 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Abdullah al-Thani]] served as the prime minister since 11 March 2014 in interim capacity. He resigned on 13 April 2014, after he and his family were victims of a "traitorous attack" but continued to remain prime minister since there was no replacement.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/60814/libya-prime-minister-quits/|title=Libya PM Quits, Says He Was Targeted in Armed Attack|magazine=Time |date=13 April 2014|access-date=14 April 2014|author=Frizell, Sam|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531080848/http://time.com/60814/libya-prime-minister-quits/|archive-date=31 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ahmed Maiteeq]] was elected Prime Minister of Libya in May 2014 but his election as prime minister took place under disputed circumstances, Libyan Supreme Court ruled on 9 June that Maiteeq's appointment was illegal and Maiteeq resigned the same day.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2014/06/09/maetig-accepts-supreme-court-ruling/#axzz33mfyI2ck|title=Maetig accepts Supreme Court ruling and resigns|agency=Libya Herald|date=9 June 2014|access-date=9 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611111449/http://www.libyaherald.com/2014/06/09/maetig-accepts-supreme-court-ruling/#axzz33mfyI2ck|archive-date=11 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{As of|2014|05|18}}, the parliament building was [[May 2014 Tripoli clashes|reported to have been stormed]] by troops loyal to General [[Khalifa Haftar]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1264043/rogue-generals-troops-storm-libyan-parliament|title=Rogue General's Troops Storm Libyan Parliament|publisher=Sky News|date=18 May 2014|access-date=26 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519021352/http://news.sky.com/story/1264043/rogue-generals-troops-storm-libyan-parliament|archive-date=19 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> reportedly including the [[Zintan Brigade]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/05/gunfire-erupts-outside-libyan-parliament-2014518141318644382.html|title=Gunfire erupts outside Libyan parliament|date=18 May 2014|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=26 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518155902/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/05/gunfire-erupts-outside-libyan-parliament-2014518141318644382.html|archive-date=18 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> in what the Libyan government described as an attempted coup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/libya-rogue-general-khalifa-haftar-storms-parliament-attempted-coup-1449045|title=Libya: Rogue General Khalifa Haftar Storms Parliament in Attempted 'Coup'|author=Fiona Keating|date=18 May 2014|website=[[International Business Times]] |access-date=26 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519004259/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/libya-rogue-general-khalifa-haftar-storms-parliament-attempted-coup-1449045|archive-date=19 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[2014 Libyan House of Representatives election|House of Representatives elections]] were held in Libya on 25 June 2014.

On 14 July, the [[United States Support Mission in Libya]] evacuated its staff after 13 people were killed in clashes in Tripoli and Benghazi. The fighting, between government forces and rival militia groups, also forced [[Tripoli International Airport]] to close. A militia, including members of the [[Libya Revolutionaries Operations Room]] (LROR), tried to seize control of the airport from the [[Zintan Brigade|Zintan militia]], which has controlled it since Gaddafi was toppled. Both militias are believed to be on the official payroll.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Al-Warfalli|first1=Ayman|last2=Bosalum|first2=Feras|title=U.N. pulls staff out of Libya as clashes kill 13, close airports|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-violence-idUSKBN0FJ0ZT20140714|access-date=14 July 2014|work=Reuters|date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714182227/https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/07/14/us-libya-violence-idUSKBN0FJ0ZT20140714|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bbc.com">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28304004 New rocket attack on Tripoli airport] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812220053/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28304004 |date=12 August 2018 }} ''BBC News''. 15 July 2014.</ref> In addition [[Misrata Airport]] was closed, due to its dependence on Tripoli International Airport for its operations. Government spokesman, Ahmed Lamine, stated that approximately 90% of the planes stationed at Tripoli International Airport were destroyed or made inoperable in the attack, and that the government may make an appeal for international forces to assist in reestablishing security.<ref name="bbc.com"/>

In December 2015, the [[Libyan Political Agreement]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=52845#.VyJoBKMrLKI|title=UN welcomes 'historic' signing of Libyan Political Agreement|date=17 December 2015|publisher=UN}}</ref> was signed after talks in [[Skhirat]], as the result of protracted negotiations between rival political camps based in Tripoli, Tobruk, and elsewhere which agreed to unite as the [[Government of National Accord]] (GNA). On 30 March 2016, [[Fayez Sarraj]], the head of GNA, arrived in Tripoli and began working from there despite opposition from GNC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/30/chief-libyas-un-backed-government-fayez-sarraj-arrives-tripoli|title=Chief of Libya's new UN-backed government arrives in Tripoli|last=Stephen|first=Chris|date=30 March 2016|website=The Guardian|access-date=28 December 2018}}</ref>

On 4 April 2019, [[Khalifa Haftar]], the commander of the [[Libyan National Army]], called on his military forces to advance on Tripoli, the capital of the [[Government of National Accord|internationally recognized government of Libya]], in the [[2019–20 Western Libya campaign]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/06/libya-international-community-warns-haftar-against-tripoli-attack |title=Libya: international community warns Haftar against Tripoli attack |last=Wintour |first=Patrick |date=6 April 2019 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2019-04-06 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406180652/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/06/libya-international-community-warns-haftar-against-tripoli-attack |archive-date=6 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> This was met with reproach from United Nations Secretary General [[António Guterres]] and the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-libya-civil-war-20190404-story.html |title=Libya army leader Khalifa Haftar orders forces to march on Tripoli |date=4 April 2019 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=2019-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406182926/https://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-libya-civil-war-20190404-story.html |archive-date=6 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-06/libyan-air-force-strikes-haftar-positions-south-of-tripoli |title=Libya Lurches Toward Battle for Capital as Haftar Advances |last1=Mohareb |first1=Hatem |date=6 April 2019 |work=Bloomberg |access-date=2019-04-06 |last2=Sarrar |first2=Saleh |language=en |last3=Al-Atrush |first3=Samer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406111831/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-06/libyan-air-force-strikes-haftar-positions-south-of-tripoli |archive-date=6 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 23 October 2020, the ''5+5 Joint Libyan Military Commission'' representing the [[Libyan National Army]] and the GNA reached a "[[Libyan peace process#Military track: permanent ceasefire|permanent ceasefire agreement in all areas of Libya]]". The agreement, effective immediately, required that all foreign fighters leave Libya within three months while a joint police force would patrol disputed areas. The first commercial flight between Tripoli and Benghazi took place that same day.<ref name="auto6">{{cite news |last1=Nebehay |first1=Stephanie |last2=McDowall |first2=Angus |editor1-last=Jones|editor1-first=Gareth |editor2-last=Maclean |editor2-first=William|title=Warring Libya rivals sign truce but tough political talks ahead |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-security-ceasefire/warring-libya-rivals-sign-truce-but-tough-political-talks-ahead-idUSKBN2781BD?il=0 |access-date=23 October 2020 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=UN says Libya sides reach 'permanent ceasefire' deal |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/10/23/un-says-libya-sides-reach-permanent-ceasefire-deal |access-date=23 October 2020 |agency=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |date=23 October 2020}}</ref> On 10 March 2021, an interim [[Government of National Unity (Libya)|unity government]] was formed, which was slated to remain in place until the [[next Libyan presidential election]] scheduled for 10 December.<ref name="alj">{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/10/libyan-lawmakers-endorse-govt-of-pm-designate-dbeibah|title=Libyan lawmakers approve gov't of PM-designate Dbeibah|access-date=10 March 2021|agency=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|date=10 March 2021}}</ref> However, the election has been delayed several times<ref>{{Cite web|title=Libya electoral commission dissolves poll committees|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/21/libya-electoral-commission-dissolves-poll-committees|access-date=21 December 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=AfricaNews|date=17 January 2022|title=UN: Libya elections could be held in June|url=https://www.africanews.com/2022/01/17/libya-elections-could-be-in-june-un-official/|access-date=23 January 2022|website=Africanews|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-26 |title=Libya's PM Dbeibah proposes holding polls at end of 2022 |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/africa/libyas-pm-dbeibah-proposes-holding-polls-at-end-of-2022 |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=Daily Sabah}}</ref> since, effectively rendering the unity government in power indefinitely, causing tensions which threaten to reignite the war.

On September 10, 2023, catastrophic floods due to [[dam failure]]s generated by [[Storm Daniel]] devastated the port city of [[Derna, Libya|Derna]], killing nearly 7,000 and leaving over 10,000 missing. The floods were the worst natural disaster in Libya's modern history.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Elumami |first1=Ahmed |last2=Al-Warfali |first2=Ayman |last3=Alfetori |first3=Essam |title=Libya floods: search for blame for thousands of deaths |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/libya-flood-survivors-pick-through-ruins-search-missing-thousands-2023-09-14/ |work=Reuters |date=14 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

On 12 May 2025, [[Abdel Ghani al-Kikli]], widely known as “Gheniwa”, a very powerful  militia leader, was assassinated in Tripoli.<ref>{{cite news |title=Heavy gunfire, clashes in Libya’s Tripoli after killing of militia leader |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/5/12/un-urges-calm-as-heavy-fire-clashes-erupt-in-libyas-tripoli |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Arab Spring]]
*[[History of North Africa]]
*[[History of the Jews in Libya]]
*[[List of heads of state of Libya]]
*[[Military history of Libya]]
*[[Politics of Libya]]
* Tripoli [[Tripoli, Libya|history]] and [[Timeline of Tripoli|timeline]]
* Benghazi [[History of Benghazi|history]] and [[Timeline of Benghazi|timeline]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last=St John|first=Ronald Bruce|author-link= Ronald Bruce St. John|title=Historical dictionary of Libya|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md.|year=2006|isbn=0-8108-5303-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0004stjo}}
*{{cite book|editor-last=Chapin Metz |editor-first=Helen |editor-link=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Libya: A Country Study |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |location=Washington |year=1987}}
*{{cite book|last1=Nelson|first1=Harold D.|last2=Nyrop|first2=Richard F.|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lytoc.html|title=Libya: A Country Study|series=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|publisher=United States Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1987|oclc=5676518}}
*{{cite book|last=Wright|first=John L.|title=Nations of the Modern World: Libya|publisher=Ernest Benn Ltd|year=1969}}
*{{cite book|last=Bertarelli|first=L.V.|title=Guida d'Italia|volume=XVII|publisher=Consociazione Turistica Italiana|location=Milano|year=1929|language=it}}
* Tuccimei, Ercole (1999). ''La Banca d'Italia in Africa'', Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri, Laterza, Bari.
* Pierre Schill, Réveiller l’archive d’une guerre coloniale. Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912), Créaphis, 2018, 480 pages and 230 photographs. {{ISBN|978-2-35428-141-0}}.[https://bnf.hypotheses.org/6789]

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070420175934/http://www.libyaconnected.com/Tourism.html History of Libya {{!}} Libya Connected] (archived 20 April 2007)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130317233931/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552588 Libya in Crisis: Modern History of Libya] (archived 17 March 2013) from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]

{{Libya topics}}
{{History of Africa}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Libya}}
[[Category:History of Libya| ]]