Editing History of Sardinia

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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
[[File:Statuamenhirlaconi.jpg|thumb|160px| [[Statue menhir]] from [[Laconi]]]]
{{History of Sardinia|width=210|picwidth=175}}
Archaeological evidence of prehistoric human settlement on the island of [[Sardinia]] is present in the form of [[nuraghe]]s and other prehistoric monuments, which dot the land. The recorded '''history of Sardinia''' begins with its contacts with the various people who sought to dominate western [[Mediterranean]] trade in [[classical antiquity]]: [[Phoenicians]], [[Punics]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]]. Initially under the political and economic alliance with the Phoenician cities, it was partly conquered by [[Carthage]] in the late 6th century BC and then entirely by Rome after the [[First Punic War]] (230 BC). The island was included for centuries in the [[Roman province]] of [[Sardinia and Corsica]], which would be incorporated into the [[diocese]] of ''[[Roman Italy#Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations|Italia suburbicaria]]'' in 3rd and 7th centuries.

In the [[Early Middle Ages]], through the European [[Migration Period|barbarian movements]], the waning of the [[Byzantine Empire]] influence in the western [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Saracen]] raids, the island fell out of the sphere of influence of any higher government; this led to the birth of four independent kingdoms called ''[[Sardinian medieval kingdoms|Judicates]]'' ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Judicati''; [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]: ''Judicados'') in the 8th through 10th centuries. Falling under [[Papacy|papal influence]], Sardinia became the focus of the rivalry of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], [[Republic of Pisa|Pisa]], and the [[Crown of Aragon]], which eventually subsumed the island as the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] in 1324. The Iberian Kingdom was to last until 1718, when it was ceded to the [[House of Savoy]]; from [[Principality of Piedmont|Piedmont]], the Savoyards pursued a policy of expansion to the rest of the Italian peninsula, having their Kingdom of Sardinia be later renamed into "[[Kingdom of Italy]]" in 1861.

==Prehistory==
{{See also|Pre-Nuragic Sardinia}}
[[File:Monted'accoddisardegna.png|thumb|right|220px|Prehistoric temple of [[Monte d'Accoddi]], one of the [[List of the oldest buildings in the world|oldest buildings in the world]].]]
[[File:Area archeologica di Pranu Muttedu 02.jpg|thumb|[[Necropolis of Pranu Mutteddu]]]]
[[File:DOLMEN DI MORES.JPG|right|thumb|220px|Dolmen of [[Mores, Sardinia|Mores]] dated to the 3rd millennium BC]]
The oldest trace in Sardinia of the [[anthropomorphic]] [[prehistoric]] primate called ''[[Oreopithecus bambolii]]'' is dated to 8.5 million years ago. In 1996 a [[hominid]] finger bone, dated up to 250.000 BC, was found in a cave in the [[Logudoro]] region.<ref>[http://www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/258?s=19714&v=2&c=2650&t=7 SardegnaCultura, Le più antiche tracce della presenza umana]{{in lang|it}}</ref>

[[Modern humans]] appeared in the island during the [[Upper Paleolithic]], a phalanx dated to 18000 BC had been found in the ''[[Corbeddu Cave|Corbeddu cave]]'', near [[Oliena]].<ref>[http://www.eva.mpg.de/evolution/staff/spoor/pdf/Spoor_Deinsea99_Corbeddu-homs.pdf The human fossils from Corbeddu Cave,. Sardinia: a reappraisal. Spoor, F., 1999] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924004322/http://www.eva.mpg.de/evolution/staff/spoor/pdf/Spoor_Deinsea99_Corbeddu-homs.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> [[Mesolithic]] human remains had been discovered at ''Su Coloru cave'' of [[Laerru]]<ref>[http://eprints.uniss.it/6328/1/Melis_P_Approdo_della_costa_di.pdf Paolo Melis – Un approdo della costa di Castelsardo, fra età nuragica e romana]</ref> but also in the south (Sirri, [[Arbus, Sardinia|Arbus]]).

Already in the Stone Age, [[Monte Arci]] played an important role. The old volcano was one of the central places where [[obsidian]] was found and worked for cutting tools and arrowheads. Even now the volcanic glass can be found on the sides of the mountain.

The [[Neolithic]] began in Sardinia in the [[6th millennium BC]] with the [[Cardium pottery|Cardial culture]]. Later, important cultures like the [[Ozieri culture]] and the [[Arzachena culture]] of the late Neolithic and the Abealzu-Filigosa and Monte Claro culture of the [[Chalcolithic]] period, developed in the island contemporaneously with the appearance of the [[Megalith|megalithic phenomenon]].

The dolmens culture, around the end of the 3rd millennium BC, passed with other typical material aspects of [[Western Europe]] (e.g. [[Beaker culture|Bell Beaker]]) through by the Sardinian coast even in [[Sicily]].<ref>Salvatore Piccolo, ''Ancient Stones: The Prehistoric Dolmens of Sicily''. Abingdon: Brazen Head Publishing, 2013, {{ISBN|9780956510624}}, p. 32.</ref>

Prehistoric and Pre-nuragic monuments and constructions that characterise the Sardinian landscapes are the [[Domus de Janas]] ({{langx|sc|House of the Fairies, House of the Witches}}), the [[menhir]] and [[Statue menhir]] and the [[dolmens]].

===Chronology of Pre-Nuragic Sardinia===
Archeological cultures of Sardinia in the pre-Nuragic period:<ref>Giovanni Ugas-L'Alba dei Nuraghi p. 12</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Archaeological culture]]
! Years before Christ
|-
| [[Cardium pottery]] or [[Filiestru culture]]
| 6000–4000
|-
| [[Bonu Ighinu culture]]
| 4000–3400
|-
| [[San Ciriaco culture]]
| 3400–3200
|-
| [[Ozieri culture]]
| 3200–2700
|-
| [[Abealzu-Filigosa culture]]
| 2700–2400
|-
| [[Monte Claro culture]]
| 2400–2100
|-
| [[Bell Beaker culture]]
| 2100–1800
|-
| [[Bonnanaro culture]] (A phase)
| 1800–1600
|}

===Nuragic period===
[[File:Nuraghe Losa.jpg|thumb|right|220px|[[Nuraghe Losa]]]]
{{Main|Nuragic civilization}}
[[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]] Sardinia is characterised by stone structures called [[nuraghe]]s, of which there are more than 8,000. The most famous is the [[Su Nuraxi di Barumini|complex of Barumini]] in the [[province of Medio Campidano]]. The nuraghes were mainly built in the period from about 1800 to 1200 BC, though many were used until the Roman period. Characteristics of this period are also the [[Nuragic holy well|holy well temples]] (for example Santa Cristina, [[Paulilatino]]), the megara temples and the [[Giants' grave]]s.

The Nuragic Sards also produced a vast collection of [[Nuragic bronze statuettes|bronze statuettes]] and the so-called [[giants of Mont'e Prama]], which might constitute the first anthropomorphic statues of Europe.

It is known that the [[Sardinians]] had contact with the [[Mycenaean Greece|Myceneans]], who traded with the western Mediterranean. Contact with powerful cities of Crete, such as [[Kydonia]], is clear from pottery recovered in [[archaeological]] excavations in Sardinia.<ref>C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10881/cydonia.html#fieldnotes "Cydonia"], ''Modern Antiquarian'', 23 January 2008</ref> The alleged connection with the [[Sherden]], one of the sea peoples who invaded [[Egypt]] and other areas of eastern Mediterranean, has been supported by scholars like the professor Giovanni Ugas from the [[University of Cagliari]];<ref>[http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/sardi_%28Dizionario-di-Storia%29/ Sardi in ''Dizionario di Storia'' (2011), Treccani]</ref><ref>[http://www.sardiniapost.it/culture/nuovo-studio-dellarcheologo-ugas-e-certo-i-nuragici-erano-gli-shardana/ Nuovo studio dell’archeologo Ugas: "È certo, i nuragici erano gli Shardana"]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sardiniapoint.it/5085.html |title=''Shardana, sardi nuragici: erano lo stesso popolo?'', Interview with Giovanni Ugas (in Italian) |access-date=13 February 2017 |archive-date=5 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200405144452/http://www.sardiniapoint.it/5085.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> this hypothesis has been however opposed by other archaeologists and historians.<ref>Stephen L. Dyson and Robert J. Rowland, ''Archaeology And History in Sardinia From The Stone Age to the Middle Ages: Shepherds, Sailors, & Conquerors'' (UPenn Museum of Archaeology, 2007: {{ISBN|1-934536-02-4}}), p. 101 (with refs).</ref>

The name of the island could result from ''[[Sardus]]'' (known amongst the Romans as ''Sardus Pater''), a mythological hero of the Nuragic pantheon.

==Early and classical antiquity==

===Phoenician settlement===
{{Further|Phoenician-Punic Sardinia}}
[[File:Colonne a tharros.jpg|220px|right|thumb|Ruins of the [[Phoenicia]]n and then Punic and Roman town of [[Tharros]]]]
From the 8th century BC, Phoenicians founded several cities and strongholds on strategic points in the south and west of Sardinia, often peninsulas or islands near estuaries, easy to defend and natural harbours, such as [[Tharros]], [[Bithia, Italy|Bithia]], [[Sulci]], [[Nora, Italy|Nora]] and Caralis ([[Cagliari]]). The majority of the inhabitants in these cities were of indigenous nuragic stock while the Phoenician element was, although culturally predominant, in minority.{{sfn|Brigaglia|Mastino|Ortu|2006|p=25}}<ref>{{cite journal
|author = Piero Bartoloni
|title = Monte Sirai
|pages = 38–39
|publisher = Carlo Delfino Editore
|year = 2004
|url= http://www.sardegnacultura.it/documenti/7_4_20060402094934.pdf
|access-date = 28 October 2016
}}</ref> The Phoenicians came originally from what is now [[Lebanon]] and founded a vast trading network in the [[Mediterranean]]. Sardinia had a special position because it was central in the Western Mediterranean between [[Carthage]], Spain, the river [[Rhône]] and the [[Etruscan civilization]] area. The mining area of the [[Iglesiente]] was important for the metals [[lead]] and [[zinc]]. After the Phoenicians, the [[Carthaginians]] took over control in this part of the Mediterranean, around 510 BC, after which a first attempt of conquest of the island in 540 BC ended in failure.{{sfn|Brigaglia|Mastino|Ortu|2006|p=27}} They expanded their influence to the western and southern coast from [[Bosa]] to Caralis, consolidating the existing [[Colonies in antiquity#Phoenician colonies|Phoenician colonies]], administered by plenipotentiaries called ''[[Shophet|Suffetes]]'', and founding new ones such as [[Olbia]], [[Cornus, Sardinia|Cornus]] and [[Neapolis, Sardinia|Neapolis]];{{sfn|Brigaglia|Mastino|Ortu|2006|pp=30–31}} Tharros probably became the capital of the province.{{sfn|Brigaglia|Mastino|Ortu|2006|pp=30–31}} Carthage stressed the growing of [[grain]] and [[cereals]] and prohibited{{why?|date=August 2022}} [[fruit trees]].{{sfn|Brigaglia|Mastino|Ortu|2006|p=28}}

Tharros, Nora, Bithia, [[Monte Sirai]] etc. are now important archaeological monuments where architecture and city planning can be studied.

===Roman Republic and Empire===
{{Further|Corsica and Sardinia}}
[[File:Antas Tempel1.JPG|220px|thumb|left|[[Temple of Antas|Antas Temple]] near [[Fluminimaggiore]]]]
[[File:Roman amphitheatre, half carved in the rock in the 2nd century AD, Caralis (Cagliari), Sardinia (16558175351).jpg|220px|thumb|Ruins of the [[Roman amphitheatre]] of Cagliari]]
[[File:0981 - Nerone - Museo Archeologico, Cagliari - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, November 11 2016.jpg|thumb|Marble bust of [[Nero]] from Olbia, [[Museo archeologico nazionale (Cagliari)]]]]
In 240 BC, in the course of the [[First Punic War]], the Carthaginian mercenaries on the island revolted and gave the Romans, who some years earlier had defeated the Carthaginians in the [[Battle of Sulci|naval battle of Sulci]], the opportunity to land on Sardinia and occupy it. In 238 BC the Romans took over the whole island, without meeting any resistance. They took over an existing developed infrastructure and urbanized culture (at least in the plains). Along with [[Corsica]] it formed the province of [[Corsica et Sardinia]], under a [[praetor]].<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Sardinia}}</ref> Together with Sicily it formed one of the main granaries of Rome until the Romans conquered Egypt in the 1st century BC.

A revolt, led by two Sardo-Punic notables from [[Cornus, Sardinia|Cornus]] and Tharros, [[Hampsicora]] and Hanno, broke out after the crushing Roman defeat at [[Cannae]] (216 BC). A Roman army of 22,000 infantrymen and 1,200 cavalry, under [[Titus Manlius Torquatus (dictator)|Titus Manlius Torquatus]], reached Sardinia landing in Caralis and defeating Hiostus, the son of Hampsicora, near [[Milis]]. The Romans then met the Carthaginian-Sardinian allied forces in the south of the island, defeating them in a [[Battle of Decimomannu|pitched battle]] that took place between [[Sestu]] and [[Decimomannu]], and killing 12,000 men.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=104}} Another major revolt took place in 177-176 BC when the [[Balares]] and the [[Ilienses]] were defeated by [[Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul 177 BC)|Tiberius Gracchus]], who, according to [[Livy]], killed or enslaved about 80,000 natives.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=107}} The last organized revolts were repressed by [[Marcus Caecilius Metellus (consul)|Marcus Caecilius Metellus]] in 115-111 BC and [[Titus Albucius]] in 106.<ref>Ettore Pais, ''Storia della Sardegna e della Corsica durante il dominio romano'', tomo I p.73</ref> However the Sardinians living in the impervious mountains of the interior resisted the Roman colonization well into [[Roman Empire|Imperial times]].

Punic culture remained strong during the first centuries of the Roman domination. However, in the long run, [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] prevailed, and [[Latin]] became the speech of the majority of the inhabitants,{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=110}} ultimately developing into the modern [[Sardinian language]]. The [[Roman religion]] began to spread among Sardinians as well.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=114}} Caralis, the provincial capital, Nora and Sulci obtained the status of [[Municipium]] within the 1st century AD{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=110}} and a [[Roman colony]] named Turris Libissonis ([[Porto Torres]]) was founded in the north-west {{sfn|Casula|1994|p=108}} while the village of [[Usellus]] become perphans a Roman colony under [[Trajan]].{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=116}} Four great [[Roman roads|roads]] were built: two along the coasts and two in the interior connecting all the major cities.

During the [[ancient Rome|Roman period]], the geographer [[Ptolemy]] noted that Sardinia was inhabited by the following tribes, from north to south: the [[Tibulati]] and the [[Corsi people|Corsi]], the [[Coracenses]], the [[Carenses]] and the [[Cunusitani]], the [[Salcitani]] and the [[Lucuidonenses]], the [[Æsaronenses]], the [[Æchilenenses]] (also called Cornenses), the [[Rucensi]], the [[Celsitani]] and the [[Corpicenses]], the [[Scapitani]] and the [[Siculensi]], the [[Neapolitani]] and the [[Valentini (ancient people)|Valentini]], the [[Solcitani]] and the [[Noritani]].<ref>Ptol. III, 3.</ref>

In the year 212 AD, every inhabitant of the empire became a [[Roman citizen]] by the [[Constitutio Antoniniana]], better known as the "Edict of Caracalla".{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=117}} At that time, many islanders from the ''Municipia'' and ''Coloniae'' were Roman citizens, while those living in the interior were not. Around the year 286 AD, Sardinia was incorporated into the Italian [[Roman diocese|diocese]] during the empire of [[Diocletianus]], and in 324 AD, under the rule of the emperor [[Constantine the Great]], in the ''[[Italia suburbicaria|suburbicaria]]'' Italian diocese, until the conquest by the [[Vandals]] in 456 AD.

==Middle Ages==
===Vandals, Goths and Byzantines===
{{Further|Vandal Sardinia|Byzantine Sardinia}}
After the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], Sardinia was subject to several conquests. In 456, the [[Vandals]], an [[East Germanic tribe]], coming from North Africa, occupied the coastal cities of the island; they imposed garrisons guarded by African auxiliaries, like the [[Mauri (people)|Mauri]]. The Vandals followed [[Arianism]] and deported a number of African [[Bishop]]s in the island such as [[Fulgentius of Ruspe]].{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=128}} In 533, Sardinia rebelled under the Vandal governor [[Godas]], a [[Goths|Goth]], who proclaimed himself ''rex'' of Sardinia, asking the Byzantines for aid.{{sfn|Casula|1994|pp=131–133}}
[[File:San Giovanni di Sinis abside.jpg|thumb|220px|Byzantine era church of San Giovanni di Sinis]]
In the summer of 533 Vandal forces (5,000 men and 120 ships), led by [[Tzazo]], arrived in Sardinia to stifle Godas' rebellion and conquered Caralis, killing Godas and his followers.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=134}} In early 534, the Vandals of Sardinia surrendered immediately to the Byzantines when faced with news of the [[Vandalic War|Vandal collapse in Africa]];{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=135}} thenceforth the island was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]], included as a province in the [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa]]. The local governor sat in Caralis. During the [[Gothic Wars (6th century)|Gothic Wars]], much of the island fell easily to the [[Ostrogoths]], but the final fall of the Germanic resistance in [[mainland Italy]] reassured [[Byzantine]] control.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=142}} Sardinia was subsequently included in the [[Exarchate of Africa]] until its end by the [[Arabs]] in 698 AD, when the island was likely aggregated to the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]].{{sfn|Casula|1994|pp=146–151}} In 599 and during the 7th century, the [[Longobard]] fleet tried to attack Caralis and Turris Libissonis ([[Porto Torres]]), but in vain.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=148}}

One of the few ethnic Sardinians known from this period was [[Ospitone]], a leader of the ''Barbaricinos'' (people of [[Barbagia]]). According to the [[Pope Gregory I]]'s letters, a Romanized and Christianized area existed on the island (that of the ''provinciales'') that co-existed with, in the interior, pagan or semi-pagan cultures (''Gens Barbaricina''). The ruler of one of the latter, [[Ospitone]], converted to Christianity in 594 after a diplomatic exchange. Christianization however remained long influenced by eastern and Byzantine culture.
Other known religious figures of Sardinian origin of that period (5th–6th centuries) are [[Pope Hilarius]] and [[Pope Symmachus]].

===Iberian invasions===
{{Further|Pisan–Genoese expeditions to Sardinia}}
Starting from the 8th century, the [[Taifa of Zaragoza|Iberians]] from Denia and Zaragoza (recently conquered by Muslims) harassed the population of the coastal cities. Details about the political situation of Sardinia in the following centuries are scarce. Due to Saracen attacks, in the 9th century [[Tharros]] was abandoned in favor of [[Oristano]], after more than 1,800 years of human occupation while [[Cagliari|Caralis]] was abandoned in favor of [[Santa Igia]]; numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate (Nora, Sulci, Bithia, Cornus, Bosa, Olbia etc.).{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=160}} There was another [[Taifa of Denia|Denia invasion]] in 1015−16 from [[Balearics]], led by [[Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī]] (Latinized as ''Museto''), the [[Sharq_al-Andalus|Denians]] attempt of invasion of the island was stopped by Sardinian Judicates with the support of the Fleets of the [[Maritime Republics]] of [[Republic of Pisa|Pisa]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], called by Pope [[Benedict VIII]].

[[File:Giudicati sardi 2.svg|right|thumb|The main four Judicates.]]

===Judicates (Judicados)===
{{Main|Giudicati}}
From the mid-11th century the [[Giudicati|Judicates]] ("held by judges") appeared. The title of ''Judex'' (judge, ''judike'' in medieval Sardinian) was an heir of that of the Byzantine governor after the creation of the [[Exarchate of Africa]] in 582 (''Prases'' or ''Judex Provinciae''). In the 8th and 9th centuries the four ''partes'' depending from Caralis grew increasingly independent, after that [[Byzantium]] was totally cut off from the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] by the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]] in 827. A letter from [[Pope Nicholas I]] in 864 mentions for the first time the Sardinian judges,{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=163}} and their autonomy is clear in a later letter by [[Pope John VIII]], which defined them as "Princes". A letter by [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]] to [[Pope John XV]] proves that the Judicates were known even in [[Poland]], and that they played a prestigious role in medieval Europe.<ref>Almanacco scolastico della Sardegna, p. 101</ref>

During the judicial era Sardinia had some 300.000 inhabitants, of which slightly more than 1/3 were free.{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=177}} These were subjected to the authority of local ''curators'' (administrators), in turn subjected to the judge (who also administered justice and was the commander of the army). The church was also powerful, and at this time it had completely abandoned the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Rite]]. The late 11th-century arrival of [[Benedictine]], [[Camaldolese]] and other monks from the [[Southern Italy|Italian Mezzogiorno]], [[Lombardy]] and [[Provence]], especially the monasteries of [[Montecassino]], [[Saint-Victor de Marseille]] and [[Vallombrosa Abbey|Vallombrosa]], boosted the agriculture in a land which was extremely underdeveloped. The ''[[condaghe]]s'' (catalogues, cartularies) of the monasteries, which record property transactions, are an important source for the study of the island and its language in the 11th and 12th centuries. Evidence from the ''condaghes'' of San Pietro di Silki, in Sassari, and Santa Maria di Bonarcado concerning the children of slaves has been adduced to show that differences in agricultural lifestyles between regions may affect the survival rate of females, hypothetically through increased infanticide of baby girls.<ref>R.J.Rowland, 1982.</ref> The abbacy of Santa Maria di Bonarcado contained more central, upland regions where a pastoral economy dominated and women were less economically useful; among children in that region, sex ratios are highly skewed in favour of men. On the other hand, in the region of San Pietro di Silki, less pastoral, child sex ratios are not skewed abnormally.

There were four (historically known) Judicates: [[Giudicato of Logudoro|Logudoro]] (or Torres), [[Giudicato of Cagliari|Cagliari]] (or Pluminos), [[Giudicato of Arborea|Arborea]] and [[Giudicato of Gallura|Gallura]]. Cagliari and Arborea and Logudoro (and perhaps Gallura) were united for a time in the 11th century.
[[File:Eleonora_di_Arborea.jpg|thumbnail|left|[[Eleanor of Arborea]]]]
[[File:Bas.saccargiasardegna.png|thumb|[[Basilica di Saccargia]], the major example of [[Pisan Romanesque]] in Sardinia]]
The initiatives of the [[Gregorian reform]]ers led to greater contact between Sardinia and the Italian peninsula, especially through the desires of the judges to establish monasteries with monks from continental monasteries at [[Montecassino]] and [[Marseille]]. By the 12th century, the Sardinian Judicates, though obscure, are visible through the mists of time. They professed allegiance to the [[Holy See]], which put them under the authority of the [[Archdiocese of Pisa]], superseding the ancient primacy of the [[Archdiocese of Cagliari]] on the island.

Often quarreling between one another, the Judicates made a great number of commercial concessions to the Pisans and the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]]. The [[Repubbliche Marinare]] soon became the true masters of the Sardinian economy.

In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, all four Judicates passed to foreign dynasties and the local families were relegated to minor positions. Arborea passed to the [[Catalan people|Catalan]] [[House of Cervera]] (Cervera-Bas) in 1185, though this was contested for the next few decades. In 1188, Cagliari was conquered by the [[House of Massa]] from the [[Republic of Pisa]]. Gallura became by marriage – it had been inherited by a woman, [[Elena of Gallura|Elena]] – a possession of the [[Visconti of Pisa|House of Visconti]], another Pisan family, in 1207. Only Logudoro survived to the end under local Sardinian rulers. However, its end was early. It passed to Genoa and to the [[Doria (family)|Doria]] and [[Malaspina family|Malaspina]] families in 1259 after the death of its last judge, [[Adelasia of Torres|Adelasia]]. Only a year before the others Judicates and the Pisans besieged [[Santa Igia]] and deposed the last ruler of Cagliari [[William III of Cagliari|William III]]. Gallura survived longer, but the enemies of the Visconti in Pisa soon removed the last judge, [[Nino Visconti|Nino]], a friend of [[Dante Alighieri]], in 1288.

About the same time, [[Sassari]] declared itself a free commune allied to Genoa. In the early 14th century, much of Eastern and Southern Sardinia, including Castel di Castro (Cagliari), was under the authority of Pisa and of the [[della Gherardesca]] family, who founded the important mining town of [[Villa di Chiesa]] (now Iglesias). Arborea, however, survived as the only indigenous kingdom until 1420. One of the most remarkable Sardinian figure of the Middle Ages, [[Eleanor of Arborea]], was co-ruler of that region in the late 14th century; she laid the foundations for the laws that remained valid until 1827, the [[Carta de Logu]].

==Kingdom of Sardinia==
{{Main article|Kingdom of Sardinia}}

===Kingdom of Sardinia in the Crown of Aragon and in the [[Spanish Empire]]===
{{Further|Aragonese conquest of Sardinia|Sardinian–Catalan war}}

[[File:MarghinottibattagliaSanluri.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of the battle of Sanluri by [[Giovanni Marghinotti]]]]

In 1323 an Aragonese army, under [[Alfonso IV of Aragon|Alfonso]], son of [[James II of Aragon|King James II]], disembarked near Palma di [[Sulcis]], in Southern Sardinia. After the [[Siege of Villa di Chiesa|fall of Villa di Chiesa]] the Pisans were defeated again, both by land and sea, at [[Battle of Lucocisterna|Lucocisterna]] and in the [[gulf of Cagliari]], and were forced to leave the island, maintaining only Castel di Castro until 1326.{{sfn|Casula|1994|pp=303–304}} The Cagliari area as well as Gallura thus became part of the first nucleus of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]], established nominally by [[Pope Boniface VIII]] in 1297, that was included in the [[Crown of Aragon]].{{sfn|Casula|1994|pp=303–304}}

In 1353 [[Marianus IV of Arborea]], allied with the [[Doria (family)|Doria]] family, waged war against the Aragonese, occupying much of the island but unable to capture Cagliari. The [[Peace of Sanluri]] (1355) ushered in a period of tranquility, but hostilities were resumed in 1365, with Arborea, led by Marianus IV and then, from 1391, by [[Brancaleone Doria]], initially able to capture much of the Island. However, in 1409 the Aragonese crushed a Genoese fleet coming in support the Sardinians, and destroyed the Judicial army at the [[Battle of Sanluri]]. [[Oristano]], the Arborean capital, fell on 29 March 1410. [[William II of Narbonne]], the last Judge of Arborea, sold his remaining territories to the Aragonese in 1420, in exchange for 100,000 [[gold]] [[Italian coin florin|florins]].{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=372}}
[[File:Stemma del Regno di Sardegna metà del XVI secolo.JPG|thumb|left|Historical flag of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] and official flag of Autonomous Region of Sardinia since 1999. Funeral of [[Charles I of Spain]]]]
In the 1470s an important revolt against the Aragonese was led by [[Leonardo Alagon]], [[Marquisate of Oristano|marquess of Oristano]], who managed to defeat the viceroyal army but was later crushed at the [[Battle of Macomer]] (1478). The island endured attacks from [[Barbary pirates|North African pirates]] and a series of plagues in 1582, 1652 and 1655.

In 1527, during the [[War of the League of Cognac|Franco-Spanish War]], a French army of 4000 men led by the Italian [[Renzo da Ceri]] attacked the north of the island, besieging [[Castelsardo|Castellaragonese]] and sacking [[Sorso]] and then [[Sassari]] for almost a month.<ref>Massimo Guidetti, ''Storia dei sardi e della Sardegna'', Volume 3 pp. 55–56</ref>

In 1566 the first [[typography]] of Sardinia was established in Cagliari, while in 1607 and 1617 were founded the [[University of Cagliari]] and the [[University of Sassari]].

In the late 15th and in the early 16th century the Spaniards built watchtowers all along the coast (today called "Spanish towers") to protect the island against Ottoman incursions. In 1637 a French fleet led by [[Henri, Count of Harcourt]] sacked Oristano for about a week.

===Kingdom of Sardinia under the House of Savoy===
{{Main|Kingdom of Sardinia}}
[[Kingdom of Sardinia (1700–1720)|Sardinia was disputed between 1700 and 1720]]. After the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] it was assigned to [[Emperor Charles VI]] in 1714, [[Philip V of Spain]] briefly [[Spanish conquest of Sardinia|recovered the island in 1717]], but in 1720 the European powers assigned Sicily to Charles VI and Sardinia to the [[House of Savoy]], so [[Vittorio Amedeo II]] became the King of Sardinia.
[[File:Ingresso a Sassari.jpg|thumb|[[Giovanni Maria Angioy]], the Emissary of the [[List of viceroys of Sardinia|Viceroy]] enters in Sassari (1795)]]
In 1793 Sardinians twice defeated the [[French Revolutionary Wars|French invaders]] ([[French expedition to Sardinia]]). On 23 February 1793, [[Domenico Millelire]], in command of the Sardinian fleet, defeated near the [[Maddalena archipelago]] the fleets of the French Republic, which included with the rank of lieutenant, the young and future Emperor of France [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. Millelire received the first [[Gold Medal of Military Valor]] of the [[Italian Navy]]. In the same month, Sardinians stopped the attempted French landing on the beach of [[Quartu Sant'Elena]], near the Capital of [[Cagliari]]. Because of these successes, the representatives of nobility and clergy (''[[Stamenti]]'') formulated five requests addressed to the King [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia]] in order to have the same rights as the Italian mainlanders, but they met with a refusal. Because of this discontent, on 28 April 1794, during an uprising in [[Cagliari]], two Piedmontese officials were killed. That was the start of a revolt (called the ''"Moti rivoluzionari sardi"'' or "''Vespri sardi''") all over the island, which culminated on 28 April 1794 (commemorated today as ''[[sa die de sa Sardigna]]'') with the expulsion of the officers for a few days from the capital [[Cagliari]].  On 28 December 1795, insurgents in [[Sassari]] demonstrating against feudalism, mainly from the region of [[Logudoro]], occupied the city. On 13 February 1796, in order to prevent the spread of the revolt, the viceroy Filippo Vivalda gave to the Sardinian magistrate [[Giovanni Maria Angioy]] the role of Alternos, which meant a substitute of the viceroy himself. Angioy moved from Cagliari to Sassari, and during his journey almost all the villages joined the uprising, demanding an end to feudalism and aiming to declare the island to be an independent republic,<ref>''Sardinia'', Dana Facaros & Michael Pauls, 2003</ref><ref>''Idee di Sardegna'', Carlo Pala, Carocci Editore, 2016, p.77</ref><ref name="AngioyNuova">[https://www.lanuovasardegna.it/tempo-libero/2019/12/06/news/angioy-ribelle-che-voleva-la-felicita-dei-sardi-1.38106808 Angioy, il ribelle che voleva la felicità dei sardi], La Nuova Sardegna, Franciscu Sedda</ref> but once he was outnumbered by [[Loyalism|loyalist]] forces he fled to Paris and sought support from the French to invade Sardinia and make it an independent Republic.<ref name="AngioyNuova" />

In 1799 King [[Charles Emmanuel IV]] was ousted from Piedmont by the [[Napoleonic Wars|French army]], and moved his court to Cagliari (his brother and successor [[Victor Emmanuel I]] returned to [[Turin]] only in 1814).{{sfn|Casula|1994|pp=472–475}} At the end of the 18th century, the Universities of [[University of Sassari|Sassari]] and [[University of Cagliari|Cagliari]] were restored. In 1820, the Savoyards imposed the "Enclosures Act" (''editto delle chiudende'') on the island, a legislative act which turned the land's traditional collective ownership, a cultural and economic cornerstone of Sardinia since the Nuragic times,<ref name="chiudende">[http://www.sardegnaambiente.it/j/v/152?s=25415&v=2&c=1548&t=1 ''Editto delle chiudende 1820: una pagina di conflittualità nella storia sarda.'' Sardegna Foreste]</ref> into private property. This gave rise to many abuses, as the reform favoured the landholders while excluding the poor Sardinian farmers and shepherds, who witnessed the abolition of the communal rights and the sale of the land. Many local rebellions like the [[Nuoro|Nuorese]] ''Su Connottu'' ("The Already Known" in Sardinian) riot in 1868,<ref>[http://www.contusu.it/a-su-connottu-la-ribellione-del-1868/ ''A su connottu: la ribellione del 1868'', Contus Antigus]</ref><ref>[http://love.sardegne.com/sardegna-info/citta-e-paesi/nuoro/226-su-connottu-la-rivolta-nuorese-contro-i-savoia/ ''Su Connottu, la rivolta nuorese contro i Savoia'', I Love Sardinia]</ref> all repressed by the King's army, resulted in an attempt to return to the past and reaffirm the right to use the once common land.

[[File:Montevecchio.jpg|thumb|The mine of Montevecchio, [[Guspini]].]]
In 1847, under King [[Charles Albert]], all the administrative differences between Sardinia and the Italian mainland were abolished through the so-called [[Perfect fusion]]: this manoveur had been presented as the only possible way to grant equal rights to all inhabitants of the Kingdom, which would become a [[unitary state]] and the basic legislation of the future united Italy as well.

New urban plans and new villages (for example [[Carloforte]], [[Calasetta]] and [[Santa Teresa di Gallura]]) were realised between the 18th and the 19th centuries. They often followed the urban model of Turin, which now was the capital of the Reign of Italy. New infrastructures were built under King [[Carlo Felice]]. The main road from the south (Cagliari) to the north (Sassari) was enhanced (the road still exists today and it still bears the name of Carlo Felice). Also, the first ferry route between the island and [[Genoa]] was established, using [[steamboats]] such as the [[Gulnara]]. The first railway was inaugurated in 1871. By the end of the 19th century the [[Royal Railways]] had received 30 locomotives, 106 passenger cars, and 436 cargo cars.

The economy was focused mainly on the primary sector (agriculture and sheep husbandry) and on mining. The majority of mining societies operating in Sardinia depended on non-Sardinian capital money. However, in 1848 the Sardinian entrepreneur [[Giovanni Antonio Sanna]] achieved the property of the mine of [[Montevecchio]], thus becoming the 3rd richest man of the Kingdom.

==United Italy==
[[File:Museo Garibaldino di Caprera 3.jpg|thumb|The statue of [[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] in [[Caprera]], [[La Maddalena]]. His house and farm are now the most visited Sardinian museum.]]

===Kingdom of Italy===
Most Sardinian forests were cut down at this time, in order to provide the Piedmontese with raw materials, like wood, used to make railway sleepers on the mainland. The extension of primary natural forests, praised by every traveller visiting Sardinia, would in fact be reduced to little more than 100,000 hectares at the end of the century.<ref>''Colpi di scure e sensi di colpa. Storia del disboscamento della Sardegna dalle origini a oggi'', Fiorenzo Caterini, Carlo Delfino editore, {{ISBN|978-88-7138-704-8}}</ref>

With the [[Unification of Italy]] in 1861, the Kingdom of Sardinia became the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. Since 1855 the national hero [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] bought most of the island of [[Caprera]] in the [[Maddalena archipelago]], where he moved because of the loss of his home town of [[Nice]]. His house, farm and tomb are now the most visited Sardinian museum (''Compendio Garibaldino'').

In 1883 the first train travelled between Cagliari and Sassari, and in these decades were made all the modern public works: roads, dams, schools, sewers and aqueducts, mainly in the cities.

During the [[First World War]] the Sardinian soldiers of the [[Brigata Sassari]] distinguished themselves, with several being decorated with gold medals and other honours. Following the war, in occasion of [[Anglo-Irish Treaty|Irish independence]] the ex-combatants organized themselves into a [[Sardinian nationalism|Sardinian nationalist]] movement, the [[Sardinian Action Party]], but was eventually outlawed in 1926. In 1924, the Italian Parliament led by [[Benito Mussolini]] passed a bill (called ''la legge del miliardo'') to establish a budget of one billion ''[[Italian lira|lire]]'' to develop infrastructure in order to encourage economic development. However, only a portion of the designated funds were ever distributed, and mainly in [[Cagliari]].

The writer [[Grazia Deledda]] won the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in 1926.

[[File:Piazza Roma Carbonia.jpg|thumb|The "fascist coal-city" of [[Carbonia, Sardinia|Carbonia]].]]
During the [[fascism|Fascist]] period, with the implementation of the policy of [[autarky]], several swamps around the island were drained and new agrarian communities founded. The main communities were in the area of Oristano, where the village of Mussolinia (now called [[Arborea]]), populated by people from [[Veneto]] and [[Friuli]], was located, and in the area adjacent the city of Alghero, within the region of [[Nurra]], where [[Fertilia]] was built, settled, after the World War II, by [[Istrians]] and [[Dalmatia]]ns from [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. Also established during that time was the city of [[Carbonia, Italy|Carbonia]], which became the main centre of mining activity. Works to drain the numerous waste lands and the growth of mining activities favoured the arrival of numerous settlers and immigrants from the Mainland.

The repression by the Fascist regime of its opponents within the region was ruthless. Rural Sardinia showed little interest in the Fascist state, while the urban bourgeoisie from the cities, some of which being repopulated by Italian mainlanders, were its staunchest supporters on the island.<ref>[http://www.filologiasarda.eu/documenti/eventi/A_History_of_Sardinia.pdf ''A History of Sardinia'', by Nicola Gabriele (translated by Sally Davies), University of Cagliari]</ref> [[Antonio Gramsci]], one of the founders of [[Italian Communist Party]], was arrested and died in prison. The anarchist [[Michele Schirru]] was executed after a failed assassination plot against [[Benito Mussolini]].

During [[World War II]] [[Bombing of Cagliari in World War II|Sardinia was a theatre of bombing]]; from 1940 the Axis used its airfields for attacks across the Mediterranean, while from 1943 the island was under air attack from the Allies and the cities of [[Cagliari]] and [[Alghero]] were heavily bombed. (Air raids had also been conducted by an aircraft carrier of the [[Royal Navy]] in September 1940, shortly after Italy's entry into the war.) German troops were stationed on Sardinia and Corsica – occupied by the Italians – in 1943. By that July, most airbases in Sardinia had been rendered inoperable by Allied aerial bombing. A number of diversionary raids on Sardinia, [[Operation Hawthorn]], were carried out by the Allies in summer 1943 to distract Axis attention from the upcoming invasion of Sicily, [[Operation Husky]]. [[Operation Mincemeat]] was an elaborate diversion implemented by the Allies to persuade the Axis's intelligence that their planned invasion of southern Europe would take place in the Balkans and Italy and would feature an invasion of Sardinia. This succeeded in diverting Axis troops from Sicily, the real target of the invasion.
The war ended in Sardinia in September 1943, with the withdrawal of the [[Wehrmacht]] to [[Corsica]] following the surrender of Italy to the Allies under the [[Armistice of Cassibile]], and the island, together with [[Southern Italy]], became [[Kingdom of Italy#Civil war (1943–1945)|free]]. Allied forces landed on Sardinia on 14 September 1943 and the last German troops were expelled on the 18th.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

===Italian Republic and Sardinian autonomy===
[[File:Cagliari panoramica.jpg|thumbnail|800px|center|View of some areas of Cagliari and part of its metropolitan area. Together with Sassari and Olbia it is one of the most important economic hubs of the island]]

In 1946 more than 60% of Sardinians voted in [[Italian constitutional referendum, 1946|favour of monarchy]], just as much as in Southern Italy, but a few days later Italy became a Republic. In 1948 Sardinia obtained the status of autonomous region which, while being the highest degree of [[self-governance]] since the Judicates era, fell short of many Sardinians' expectations.<ref name="Simonis, Damien 2003 p. 17">Simonis, Damien. ''Lonely Planet Sardinia'', Lonely Planet Publications (June 2003), p. 17</ref> The first regional elections were held on 8 May 1949. By 1951, [[malaria]] was successfully eliminated with the support of the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].<ref name="Simonis, Damien 2003 p. 17"/> In the same years the [[Italian economic miracle]] led to the birth of Sardinian [[tourism|tourist]] "boom", mainly focused on beach holidays and luxury tourism, such as in [[Costa Smeralda]]. Today about ten million people visit the island every year.

[[File:Olbia-Stazione marittima.JPG|thumb|Due to its proximity to the peninsula and the great development of tourism in [[Gallura]], [[Olbia]] is the busiest Italian passengers port.]]
With the increase in tourism, coal decreased in importance. However, shortly after the Second World War a ponderous industrialization effort was commenced, the so-called "''Piani di Rinascita''" (Rebirth Plans), with the initiation of major infrastructure projects on the island.  This included the realization of new dams and roads, reforestation, agricultural zones on reclaimed marsh land, and large industrial complexes (primarily oil refineries and related petrochemical operations). These efforts to create jobs have largely failed due to the high costs of transportation that could not compensate the cheap labor. In the 1950s and 1960s many [[Sardinians]] migrated to [[Northern Italy|Northern]] and [[Central Italy]] ([[Lombardy]], [[Piedmont]], [[Liguria]], [[Tuscany]] and [[Rome]]) and the rest of Europe (mostly in [[Germany]], [[France]] and [[Belgium]]) but also from the interior of the island to the coastal cities of Cagliari, Olbia and Sassari. In the early 1960s with the creation of petrochemical industries, thousands of ex-farmers became specialised workers, and some others would commence to work on the newly established military bases,<ref>[http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1464884917700914 Esu, Aide; Maddanu, Simone. ''Military pollution in no war zone: The military representation in the local media'', SAGE Journals]</ref> created primarily for the [[NATO]]. Even now, around 60% of all Italian and US military installations in Italy are on Sardinia, whose area is less than one-tenth of all the Italian territory and whose population is little more than the 2,5%;<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.neweurope.eu/article/bc-us-stock-prices-us-214/ |title=Sardinia host 60 percent of Italy's state-owned lands used by NATO, non-NATO forces and weapon makers, NewEurope.eu |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-date=4 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404174657/https://www.neweurope.eu/article/bc-us-stock-prices-us-214/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> furthermore, they comprise over 35.000 hectares used for experimental weapons testing,<ref>[http://www.regione.sardegna.it/argomenti/ambiente_territorio/servitumilitari/ Sardegna, servitù militari – Official regional website]</ref><ref>[http://www.enricolobina.org/wp/2014/07/25/sardinia-and-the-right-to-self-determination-of-peoples-document-to-be-presented-to-the-european-left-university-berlin-2014/ Sardinia and the right to self-determination of peoples, Document to be presented to the European left University of Berlin – Enrico Lobina]</ref> where 80% of the military explosives in Italy are used.<ref>[http://espresso.repubblica.it/attualita/2016/02/29/news/silenzio-di-piombo-le-basi-militari-in-sardegna-e-quelle-morti-senza-risposte-1.252237 Silenzio di piombo: le basi militari in Sardegna e quelle morti senza risposte, Sara Dellabella, L'Espresso]</ref> Ever since, there has always been a local [[protest movement]] expressing deep concern over the [[environmental degradation]] the military activities would cause.<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/finance/business/other-industries/dark-truth-behind-sardinias-holiday-oasis/news-story/8a372818be6d3d0d2c969ab24914df05 Dark truth behind Sardinia's holiday oasis, News.com.au]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://warisacrime.org/downloads/sardinia.pdf |title=Sardinia: Militarization, Contamination and Cancer in Paradise |access-date=21 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626131218/http://warisacrime.org/downloads/sardinia.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Nevertheless, since 1973 the international oil crisis caused the firing of thousands of workers employed in the [[petrochemical industry]]. Especially because of the failed industrialization plans, Sardinia is actually the most polluted region in Italy, with over 445,000 hectares of contaminated soil still to be remediated.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.unionesarda.it/articolo/cronaca_sardegna/2015/03/07/la_sardegna_la_regione_pi_inquinata_d_italia_sono_445mila_gli_ett-6-410607.html |title=L'Isola è la regione più inquinata d'Italia: 445mila gli ettari ancora da bonificare – Unione Sarda |access-date=8 March 2015 |archive-date=13 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913223247/http://www.unionesarda.it/articolo/cronaca_sardegna/2015/03/07/la_sardegna_la_regione_pi_inquinata_d_italia_sono_445mila_gli_ett-6-410607.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://lanuovasardegna.gelocal.it/regione/2011/11/09/news/greenpeace-l-isola-e-la-regione-piu-inquinata-d-italia-1.3582760 Greenpeace: «L'isola è la regione più inquinata d'Italia» – La Nuova Sardegna]</ref>

Among other factors, [[economic crisis]] and [[unemployment]] aggravated the crime rate, as evidenced by the increasing frequency of phenomena such as [[kidnappings]] and [[political subversion]] of the [[Anonima sarda]]: between the 1970s and the early 1980s, some [[communist]] and [[sardinian nationalism|nationalist]] militant groups, the most famous being ''Barbagia Rossa'' and the [[Sardinian Armed Movement]] (MAS), claimed several terrorist attempts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sisde.it/gnosis/Rivista3.nsf/ServNavigE/7 |title=Sardinia, a political laboratory |publisher=GNOSIS, Italian Intelligence Magazine |access-date=5 February 2015 |archive-date=18 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218082352/http://www.sisde.it/gnosis/Rivista3.nsf/ServNavigE/7 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>''The Dynamics of Subversion and Violence in Contemporary Italy'' – Vittorfranco Pisano, Hoover Institution Press (1987)</ref><ref>''Il codice barbaricino'' – Paola Sirigu, Davide Zedda Editore</ref> In the span of just two years (1987–1988), 224 bombing attacks were reported.<ref>Il codice barbaricino – Paola Sirigu, Davide Zedda Editore, p. 225</ref>

In 1983, for the first time ever a militant of a [[Sardinian nationalism|nationalist]] party, the [[Sardinian Action Party]] (''Partidu Sardu''-''Partito Sardo d'Azione''), was elected president of the regional parliament. Nevertheless, in the 1980s a number of even more radical pro-[[independence]] movements were born, some even managing to evolve into parties in the 1990s. In 1999, after a long period of Italian assimilation policies in Sardinia, the languages indigenous to the island were eventually recognized as "[[Languages of Italy#Historical linguistic minorities|historical language minorities]]" of the Country, and allowed to formally enjoy co-official status alongside Italian.

[[File:Aeroportoalgheroaho.jpg|thumb|[[Low-cost carrier]]s frequent [[Fertilia Airport]], resulting in major economic impact for Sardinia.]]
Also noticeable is the difference between coastal regions and the inland. Coastal regions have always been more open to outside influences. Nowadays Sardinia is most known for its coasts (La Maddalena, Costa Smeralda), the north-western coast near Sassari (Alghero, Stintino, Castelsardo) and Cagliari, because these are easily reachable by ship and by plane.

Today Sardinia is a phasing-in [[European Union|EU]] region, featured by a diversified economy, mainly focused on tourism and the tertiary. The economic efforts of last twenty years have reduced the supposed handicap of insularity, for example with low cost air companies and information and informatic technologies, thanks to the [[CRS4]] (Center for Advanced Studies, Research and Development in Sardinia). The CRS4 developed the first Italian [[website]], and invented the [[webmail]], in 1995, that brought to the birth of several [[telecommunication companies]] and [[internet service providers]] based on the island, such as [[Video On Line]] (1993), [[Tiscali]] (1998) and [[Andala UMTS]] (1999).

==See also==
{{portal|History|Italy}}
* [[History of mining in Sardinia]]
* [[History of the Jews in Sardinia]]
* [[List of Nuragic tribes]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Casula |first=Francesco Cesare |year=1994 |title=La Storia di Sardegna |publisher=Carlo Delfino Editore |place=[[Sassari]] |language=it |author-link=Francesco Cesare Casula |isbn=978-88-7138-084-1}}
* {{cite book | first1=Manlio | last1=Brigaglia | first2=Attilio | last2=Mastino | first3=Gian Giacomo | last3=Ortu | year=2006 | title=Storia della Sardegna. Dalle origini al Settecento| publisher= Laterza Editore | place=Roma-Bari | isbn= 978-88-420-7839-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=John C. |title=Pope Innocent III, Sardinia, and the Papal State |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |date= January 1987 |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=81–101 |doi=10.2307/2852567 |jstor=2852567 |s2cid=162788264 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2852567 |issn=0038-7134|url-access=subscription }}
* Laura Sannia Nowé, . ''Dai "lumi" dalla patria Italiana: Cultura letteraria sarda''. Modena: Mucchi Editore, 1996.
* Robert J. Rowland Jr., [https://web.archive.org/web/20071125141331/http://www.uwo.ca/english/florilegium/vol2/rowland2.html "The Sardinian Condaghi: Neglected Evidence for Mediaeval Sex Ratios."] ''[[Canadian Society of Medievalists|Florilegium]]'', Vol. 4 (1982), pp.&nbsp;117–122.
* D. Scano, "Serie cronol. dei giudici sardi." ''Arch. stor. sardo''. 1939.
* A. Solmi, ''Studi storici sulle istituzioni della Sardegna nel Medioevo''. Cagliari: 1917.
* [[Francesco Cesare Casula|Francesco Cesare Casùla]], ''La storia di Sardegna'' (1-8), La Nuova Sardegna, 2017.

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title= Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography |editor= William Smith |editor-link= William Smith (lexicographer) |location=London |publisher= Walton and Maberly |year=1854
|chapter= Sardinia 
|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-C0BAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA907
|title-link= Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography }}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Sardinia |volume= 24 |last= Ashby |first= Thomas |author-link=Thomas Ashby (archaeologist) | pages = 210&ndash;218 |short= 1}}
* {{Citation
|title = Haydn's Dictionary of Dates
|publisher = Ward, Lock & Co. |location = London
|author = Benjamin Vincent |edition = 25th
|date = 1910
|chapter= Sardinia
|via=HathiTrust
|ref=none
|hdl = 2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t41r6xh8t |title-link = Haydn's Dictionary of Dates }}

==External links==
{{commons category|History of Sardinia}}
* [http://www.filologiasarda.eu/documenti/eventi/A_History_of_Sardinia.pdf A History of Sardinia, by Nicola Gabriele (translated by Sally Davies), University of Cagliari]
* [http://www.tharros.info/ Archaeology and short history of Sardinia]

{{Sardinia}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Sardinia}}
[[Category:History of Sardinia| ]]
[[Category:Sardinia]]
[[Category:History of the Mediterranean|Sardinia]]
[[Category:History by island|Sardinia]]