Editing History of Southeast Asia

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2018}}
[[File:Southeast Asia (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|260px|{{center|[[Southeast Asia]]}}]]
{{History of Southeast Asia}}
The '''history of Southeast Asia''' covers the people of [[Southeast Asia]] from [[prehistory]] to the present in two distinct sub-regions: [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] (or Indochina) and [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] (or Insular Southeast Asia). Mainland Southeast Asia comprises [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]] (or Burma), [[Peninsular Malaysia]], [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]] whereas Maritime Southeast Asia comprises [[Brunei]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[East Malaysia]], [[East Timor]], [[Indonesia]], [[Philippines]] and [[Singapore]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Daigorō Chihara|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-10512-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Victor T. King|title=The Sociology of Southeast Asia: Transformations in a Developing Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54s1JHO69OMC|year=2008|publisher=NIAS Press|isbn=978-87-91114-60-1}}</ref>

The earliest ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' presence in Mainland Southeast Asia can be traced back to 70,000 years ago and to at least 50,000 years ago in Maritime Southeast Asia. Since 25,000 years ago, East Asian-related (Basal East Asian) groups expanded southwards into Maritime Southeast Asia from Mainland Southeast Asia.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal|last1=Larena|first1=Maximilian|last2=Sanchez-Quinto|first2=Federico|last3=Sjödin|first3=Per|last4=McKenna|first4=James|last5=Ebeo|first5=Carlo|last6=Reyes|first6=Rebecca|last7=Casel|first7=Ophelia|last8=Huang|first8=Jin-Yuan|last9=Hagada|first9=Kim Pullupul|last10=Guilay|first10=Dennis|last11=Reyes|first11=Jennelyn|date=2021-03-30|title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=118|issue=13|pages=e2026132118|doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118|issn=0027-8424|pmc=8020671|pmid=33753512 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=August 2021|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6|pmc=8387238|pmid=34433944|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C|issn=1476-4687|hdl=10072/407535|s2cid=237305537|hdl-access=free}}</ref> As early as 10,000 years ago, [[Hoabinhian]] settlers from Mainland Southeast Asia had developed a tradition and culture of distinct artefact and tool production. During the [[Neolithic]], [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] peoples populated Indochina via land routes, and sea-borne [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] immigrants preferably settled in Maritime Southeast Asia. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivated [[millet]] and [[Paddy field|wet-rice]] emerged around 1700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Indochina.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hall |first=Kenneth R. |title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500}}</ref>

The [[Phung Nguyen culture]] (modern northern Vietnam) and the [[Ban Chiang]] site (modern Thailand) account for the earliest use of copper by around 2,000 BCE, followed by the [[Dong Son culture]], which by around 500 BCE had developed a highly sophisticated industry of [[bronze]] production and processing. Around the same time, the first Agrarian Kingdoms emerged where territory was abundant and favourable, such as [[Funan (Southeast Asia)|Funan]] at the lower [[Mekong]] and [[Van Lang]] in the [[Red River Delta]].<ref name=funan>{{cite journal |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/view/9966/0  |title= Trade and Exchange Networks in Iron Age Cambodia: Preliminary Results from a Compositional Analysis of Glass Beads |last=Carter |first=Alison Kyra |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=30 |date=2010 |access-date=12 February 2017|doi=10.7152/bippa.v30i0.9966|doi-broken-date= 2 November 2024 }}</ref> Smaller and insular principalities increasingly engaged in and contributed to the rapidly expanding sea trade.

The wide topographical diversity of Southeast Asia has greatly influenced its history. For instance, Mainland Southeast Asia with its continuous but rugged and difficult terrain provided the basis for the early [[Cham people|Cham]], [[Khmer people|Khmer]], and [[Mon people|Mon]] civilizations. The sub-region's extensive coastline and major river systems of the [[Irrawaddy River|Irrawaddy]], [[Salween River|Salween]], [[Chao Phraya River|Chao Phraya]], Mekong and [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]] have directed socio-cultural and economic activities towards the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[South China Sea]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/Chinese_trade.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/Chinese_trade.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Chinese trade  |publisher=Britishmuseum.org |access-date=11 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Culture%20and%20Regionalism.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Culture%20and%20Regionalism.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Culture, Regionalism and Southeast Asian Identity  |publisher=Amitavacharya.com |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref>

In Maritime Southeast Asia, apart from exceptions such as [[Borneo]] and [[Sumatra]], the patchwork of recurring land-sea patterns on widely dispersed islands and archipelagos admitted moderately sized [[Thalassocracy|thalassocratic]] states indifferent to territorial ambitions, where growth and prosperity were associated with sea trade.<ref>{{cite web |author=Willem van Schendel |title=Geographies of knowing, geographies of ignorance: jumping scale in Southeast Asia 2002 – Willem van Schendel Asia Studies in Amsterdam |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/3964885/152914_262131.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/3964885/152914_262131.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |access-date=8 February 2017 |publisher=University of Amsterdam}}</ref> Since around 100 BCE, Maritime Southeast Asia has occupied a central position at the crossroads of the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[South China Sea]] trading routes, immensely stimulating its economy and influencing its culture and society. Most local trading polities selectively adopted [[India]]n [[Hindu]] elements of statecraft, religion, culture and administration during the early centuries of the [[Common Era|common era]], which marked the beginning of recorded history in the area and the continuation of a characteristic cultural development. Chinese culture diffused into the region more indirectly and sporadically, as trade was mostly based on land routes like the [[Silk Road]]. Long periods of Chinese isolationism and political relations that were confined to ritualistic tribute procedures prevented deep [[acculturation]].<ref>{{cite book|author=John M. Hobson|title=The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQN85hrJyT4C&pg=PA50|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-54724-6|page=50}}</ref>

[[Buddhism]], particularly in Indochina, began to affect political structures beginning in the 8th to 9th centuries CE. [[Islam]]ic ideas arrived in insular Southeast Asia as early as the 8th century, and the first Muslim societies in the area emerged by the 13th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Woodward |first1=Mark |chapter=Islamic Societies in Southeast Asia |date=1 September 2009 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195137989 |editor1-last=Juergensmeyer |editor1-first=Mark |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.academia.edu/3805977 |title=Islam in Southeast Asia  |publisher=Oxford University Press |author=Muhamad Ali |access-date=22 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.wisc.edu/history459_spring1993.pdf |title=BUDDHISM AND SOCIETY IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN HISTORY |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |author=Thongchai Winichakul |access-date=22 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204020806/http://history.wisc.edu/history459_spring1993.pdf |archive-date=4 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The era of European [[colonialism]], [[Early modern period|early Modernity]] and the [[Cold War]] era revealed the reality of limited political significance for the various Southeast Asian polities. [[Aftermath of World War II|Post-World War II]] national survival and progress required a modern state and a strong national identity.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.seasite.niu.edu/crossroads/wilson/colonialism.htm |title= Colonialism and Nationalism in Southeast Asia |publisher= Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University |author= Constance Wilson |access-date= 9 March 2018 |archive-date= 4 June 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190604074539/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/crossroads/wilson/colonialism.htm |url-status= dead }}</ref> Most modern Southeast Asian countries enjoy a historically unprecedented degree of political freedom and self-determination and have embraced the practical concept of intergovernmental co-operation within the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54/181.html |title=S-E Asia's identity long in existence |publisher=Hartford-hwp com |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.uchicago.edu/~tginsburg/pdf/articles/TheStateOfSovereigntyInSoutheastAsia.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://home.uchicago.edu/~tginsburg/pdf/articles/TheStateOfSovereigntyInSoutheastAsia.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=SOVEREIGNTY AND THE STATE IN ASIA: THE CHALLENGES OF THE EMERGING INTERNATIONAL ORDER |publisher=University of Chicago |access-date=13 January 2018}}</ref>

==Name==
[[File:Ptolemy Asia detail.jpg|thumb|right|Detail of Asia in [[Ptolemy]]'s world map. Gulf of the Ganges left, Southeast Asian peninsula in the centre written as ''Avrea Chersonesvs'', China Sea right, with "Sinae" (China).]]

Though there are numerous ancient historic Asian designations for Southeast Asia, none are geographically consistent with each other. Names referring to Southeast Asia include ''[[Suvarnabhumi]]'' or ''Sovannah Phoum'' (''Golden Land'') and ''[[Suvarnadvipa]]'' (''Golden Islands'') in Indian tradition, the ''Lands below the Winds''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.library.ucla.edu/events/revisiting-lands-below-winds |title=Revisiting the "Lands Below the Winds" |publisher=Library.ucla.edu |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211083755/http://www.library.ucla.edu/events/revisiting-lands-below-winds |url-status=dead }}</ref> in [[Arabia]] and [[Persia]], ''[[Nanyang (region)|Nanyang]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 南洋; {{Literal translation|South Ocean}}) in China and ''[[South Seas Mandate|Nan’yō]]'' (南洋) in Japan.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kapur|author2=Kamlesh|title=History of Ancient India (portraits of a Nation), 1/e|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ic4BjWFmNIC&pg=PA465|year=2010|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-207-4910-8|page=465}}</ref> A 2nd-century world map created by [[Ptolemy]] of [[Alexandria]] names the [[Malay Peninsula]] as [[Golden Chersonese|''Chersonesus Aurea'']] ({{Literal translation|Golden Peninsula}}).<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://archeosciences.revues.org/2072 | title =Gold in early Southeast Asia | journal =ArchéoSciences | issue =33 | pages =99–107 |author= Anna T. N. Bennett |access-date= 9 March 2018 | doi =10.4000/archeosciences.2072 | year =2009 | volume =33 | doi-access =free }}</ref>

The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book ''Travels in South-Eastern Asia''. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book | date=1996 | first1=Joshua | last1=Eliot | title=Indonesia, Malaysia & Singapore Handbook | publisher=Trade & Trade & Travel Publications | location=New York City | first2=Jane | first3=Sebastian | last2=Bickersteth | last3=Ballard}}</ref> The term was officially used to designate the area of operation (the [[South East Asia Command]], SEAC) for Anglo-American forces in the [[Pacific War|Pacific Theater]] of [[World War II]] from 1941 to 1945.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.univpgri-palembang.ac.id/perpus-fkip/Perpustakaan/East%20Phylosopy/Economic%20Geography/Enclycopedia%20Asia%20Tenggara.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.univpgri-palembang.ac.id/perpus-fkip/Perpustakaan/East%20Phylosopy/Economic%20Geography/Enclycopedia%20Asia%20Tenggara.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=SOUTHEAST ASIA a Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor 2004 |publisher=Library of Congress |author=OOI KEAT GIN |access-date=8 February 2017}}</ref>{{Human history}}

==Prehistory==
{{further|Genetic history of Southeast Asia}}

===Paleolithic===
{{See also|Archaic humans in Southeast Asia|Peopling of Southeast Asia|Negrito}}
[[File:The main entrance to the Niah Caves at sunset..jpg|thumb|left|[[Niah National Park|Niah Cave]] entrance at sunset]]
The region was already inhabited by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the [[Middle Pleistocene]] age.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Bellwood|first=Peter|title=First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia|date=2017-04-10|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-119-25154-5|edition=1|language=en}}</ref> Data analysis of stone tool [[Assemblage (archaeology)|assemblages]] and fossil discoveries from [[Indonesia]], [[South China|Southern China]], the [[Philippines]], [[Sri Lanka]] and more recently [[Cambodia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.d.dccam.org/Projects/Genocide/pdf/Speaker_Series_(5).pdf |title=Results of New Research at La-ang Spean Prehistoric Site |publisher=dccam org |access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref> and [[Malaysia]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j4NR2q7FWeVMwDjWVzYcF_R4qXEg |title=Malaysian scientists find stone tools 'oldest in Southeast Asia' |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=31 January 2009 |access-date=2 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218222617/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j4NR2q7FWeVMwDjWVzYcF_R4qXEg |archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> has established ''Homo erectus'' migration routes and episodes of presence as early as 120,000 years ago, with even older isolated finds dating back to 1.8 million years ago.{{sfnm|1a1=Swisher|1y=1994|2a1=Dennell|2y=2010|2p=262}}{{sfn|Dennell|2010|p=266|ps=, citing {{harvnb|Morwood|2003}}}} [[Java Man]] (''Homo erectus erectus'') and ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' both discovered on Indonesia’s islands, attest to a sustained regional presence and isolation, long enough for notable diversification of the species' specifics. [[Rock art]] (parietal art) dating from 40,000 to 60,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of [[Sulawesi]] and [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aubert |first=M. |display-authors=et al. |date=11 December 2019 |title=Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art. |journal=Nature |volume=576 |issue=7787 |pages=442–445 |bibcode=2019Natur.576..442A |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y |pmid=31827284 |s2cid=209311825}}</ref><ref>[https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/11/the-worlds-oldest-figurative-drawing-depicts-a-wounded-animal/ Kiona N. Smith (11/9/2018) What the world’s oldest figurative drawing reveals about human migration]</ref> ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Morwood, M. J.|author2=Brown, P.|author3=Jatmiko|author4=Sutikna, T.|author5=Wahyu Saptomo, E.|author6=Westaway, K. E.|author7=Rokus Awe Due|author8=Roberts, R. G.|author9=Maeda, T.|author10=Wasisto, S.|author11=Djubiantono, T.|date=13 October 2005|title=Further evidence for small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=437|issue=7061|pages=1012–1017|bibcode=2005Natur.437.1012M|doi=10.1038/nature04022|pmid=16229067|s2cid=4302539}}</ref> Distinct ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' groups, ancestral to East-Eurasian (East Asian-related) populations, and South-Eurasian (Papuan-related) populations, reached the region by 50,000{{Nbsp}}BCE to 70,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, with some arguing earlier.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Reich |first2=David |date=April 2017 |title=A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=889–902 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msw293 |issn=0737-4038 |pmc=5400393 |pmid=28074030}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=20 August 2012 |title=Oldest bones from modern humans in Asia discovered |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/oldest-bones-from-modern-humans-in-asia-discovered/ |access-date=21 August 2016 |publisher=CBSNews}}</ref> These immigrants might have, to some extent, merged and reproduced with members of the archaic population of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', as the fossil discoveries in the [[Tam Pa Ling Cave]] suggest.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Demeter |first1=Fabrice |last2=Shackelford |first2=Laura |last3=Westaway |first3=Kira |last4=Duringer |first4=Philippe |last5=Bacon |first5=Anne-Marie |last6=Ponche |first6=Jean-Luc |last7=Wu |first7=Xiujie |last8=Sayavongkhamdy |first8=Thongsa |last9=Zhao |first9=Jian-Xin |last10=Barnes |first10=Lani |last11=Boyon |first11=Marc |last12=Sichanthongtip |first12=Phonephanh |last13=Sénégas |first13=Frank |last14=Karpoff |first14=Anne-Marie |last15=Patole-Edoumba |first15=Elise |date=7 April 2015 |title=Early Modern Humans and Morphological Variation in Southeast Asia: Fossil Evidence from Tam Pa Ling, Laos |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0121193 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1021193D |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0121193 |pmc=4388508 |pmid=25849125 |doi-access=free |last16=Coppens |first16=Yves |last17=Braga |first17=José |last18=Macchiarelli |first18=Roberto}}</ref> During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as [[Sundaland]] due to lower sea levels.

[[File:Leang Panninge genetic.png|upright=1.1|thumb|Genetic difference between Leang Panninge(one [[Holocene]] hunter-gatherer in Maritime Southeast Asia) and East and southeast Asian and Near Oceanian groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=August 2021|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6|issn=1476-4687|pmid=34433944|pmc=8387238|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C|hdl-access=free|hdl=10072/407535}}</ref>]]
Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one [[Holocene]] hunter-gatherer from cave of Leang Panninge in [[South Sulawesi]], had ancestry from both the South-Eurasian lineage (represented by [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]] and [[Aboriginal Australians]]), and the East-Eurasian lineage (represented by [[East Asian people|East Asians]]). The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately 50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors writing about the individual concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, long before the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=August 2021|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6 |pmc=8387238 |issn=1476-4687|pmid=34433944|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C|quote=The [[qpGraph]] analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c, Supplementary Figs. 7–11).|hdl-access=free|hdl=10072/407535|s2cid=237305537}}</ref>

Distinctive [[East Asian people|Basal-East Asian]] (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] at ~50,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East-Eurasian ancestry into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]] is estimated to ~25,000{{Nbsp}}BCE (possibly as early as 50,000{{Nbsp}}BCE). The pre-[[Neolithic]] South-Eurasian populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East-Eurasian populations, beginning about 25,000{{Nbsp}}BCE from [[Mainland Southeast Asia]]. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, predating the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian peoples]].<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>

[[File:Peopling of eurasia.jpg|thumb|left|Representation of the [[Southern Dispersal|coastal migration model]], with the indication of the later development of [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|mitochondrial haplogroups]]]]
Ocean drops of up to {{convert|120|m|ft|2|abbr=on}} below the present level during [[Pleistocene]] glacial periods revealed the vast lowlands known as [[Sundaland]], enabling hunter-gatherer populations to freely access insular Southeast Asia via extensive terrestrial corridors. Modern human presence in the [[Niah National Park|Niah cave]] on [[East Malaysia]] dates back to 40,000 years&nbsp;[[Before Present|BP]], although archaeological documentation of the early settlement period suggests only brief occupation phases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barker|first1=Graeme|last2=Barton|first2=Huw|last3=Bird|first3=Michael|last4=Daly|first4=Patrick|last5=Datan|first5=Ipoi|last6=Dykes|first6=Alan|last7=Farr|first7=Lucy|last8=Gilbertson|first8=David|last9=Harrisson|first9=Barbara|last10=Hunt|first10=Chris|last11=Higham|first11=Tom|last12=Kealhofer|first12=Lisa|last13=Krigbaum|first13=John|last14=Lewis|first14=Helen|last15=McLaren|first15=Sue|last16=Paz|first16=Victor|last17=Pike|first17=Alistair|last18=Piper|first18=Phil|last19=Pyatt|first19=Brian|last20=Rabett|first20=Ryan|last21=Reynolds|first21=Tim|last22=Rose|first22=Jim|last23=Rushworth|first23=Garry|last24=Stephens|first24=Mark|last25=Stringer|first25=Chris|last26=Thompson|first26=Jill|last27=Turney|first27=Chris|title=The 'human revolution' in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behavior of anatomically modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo)|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|date=March 2007|volume=52|issue=3|pages=243–261|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.011|pmid=17161859|bibcode=2007JHumE..52..243B }}</ref> However, author [[Charles Higham (archaeologist)|Charles Higham]] argues that despite glacial periods, modern humans were able to cross the sea barrier beyond [[Java]] and [[Timor]], who around 45,000 years ago left traces in the [[New Guinea Highlands|Ivane Valley]] in eastern [[New Guinea]] "at an altitude of {{convert|2000|m|ft|2|abbr=on}} exploiting [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] and [[pandanus]], hunting and making stone tools between 43,000 and 49,000 years ago."<ref name="Higham Prehistory">{{cite web|author=Charles Higham|title=Hunter-Gatherers in Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to the Present|url=http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2050&context=humbiol|access-date=2 January 2017|newspaper=Digitalcommons}}</ref>

The oldest habitation discovered in the [[Philippines]] is located at the [[Tabon Caves]] and dates back to approximately 50,000 years BP. Items found there such as burial jars, earthenware, jade ornaments and other jewellery, stone tools, animal bones and human fossils date back to 47,000 years&nbsp;BP. Unearthed human remains are approximately 24,000 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1860/ |title=The Tabon Cave Complex and all of Lipuun – UNESCO World Heritage Centre |newspaper=Whc.unesco.org |access-date= 22 February 2017}}</ref>

Signs of an early tradition are discernible in the [[Hoabinhian]], the name given to an industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flaked cobble artefacts that appear around 10,000&nbsp;BP in caves and rock shelters first described in [[Hòa Bình district|Hòa Bình]], [[Vietnam]], and later documented in [[Terengganu]], [[Malaysia]], [[Sumatra]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Yunnan]], southern [[China]]. Research emphasises considerable variations in quality and nature of the artefacts, influenced by region-specific environmental conditions and proximity and access to local resources. The Hoabinhian culture accounts for the first verified ritual burials in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marwick|first=B.|title=Multiple Optima in Hoabinhian flaked stone artifact palaeoeconomics and palaeoecology at two archaeological sites in Northwest Thailand |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|date=2013 |volume=32|issue=4|pages=553–564|doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2013.08.004|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ji|first1=Xueping|last2=Kuman|first2=Kathleen|last3=Clarke|first3=R.J.|last4=Forestier|first4=Hubert|last5=Li|first5=Yinghua|last6=Ma|first6=Juan|last7=Qiu|first7=Kaiwei|last8=Li|first8=Hao|last9=Wu|first9=Yun|title=The oldest Hoabinhian technocomplex in Asia (43.5 ka) at Xiaodong rockshelter, Yunnan Province, southwest China|journal=Quaternary International|date=1 December 2015|volume=400|pages=166–174|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.080|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287966708|access-date=2 January 2017|bibcode=2016QuInt.400..166J}}</ref>

===Neolithic migrations===
[[File:The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Indonesia and the geographic distribution of sites that have produced red-slipped and cord-marked pottery.png|thumb|Proposed routes of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] migrations into [[Indonesia]]<ref name="Simanjuntak2017">{{cite book|first1=Truman|last1=Simanjuntak|authorlink=Harry Truman Simanjuntak|editor1-first= Philip J.|editor1-last= Piper, Hirofumi Matsumura and David Bulbeck|editor2-first= Hirofumi |editor2-last=Matsumura |editor3-first= David |editor3-last=Bulbeck|title =New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory|chapter =The Western Route Migration: A Second Probable Neolithic Diffusion to Indonesia|publisher =ANU Press|series =terra australis|volume=45|year =2017|isbn =9781760460952|chapter-url =http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2320/html/ch11.xhtml?referer=&page=18}}</ref>]]

The [[Neolithic]] was characterized by several migrations into [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Mainland]] and [[Island Southeast Asia]] from southern [[China]] by [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], [[Austroasiatic]], [[Kra-Dai]] and [[Hmong-Mien]]-speakers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0b-6wpalR40C&pg=PA102|page=102|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume One, Part One |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66369-4 |last1=Tarling |first1=Nicholas |year=1999 }}</ref>
[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|thumb|right|The [[Austronesian Expansion]]<br>(3500&nbsp;BCE{{En dash}}1200&nbsp;CE)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Geoffrey K. |title=eLS |date=2013 |publisher=American Cancer Society |isbn=978-0-470-01590-2 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2 |language=en |chapter=Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians}}</ref>]]

The most widespread migration event was the [[Austronesian expansion]], which began around 5,500&nbsp;[[Before Present|BP]] (3,500&nbsp;BCE) from [[Taiwan]] and coastal southern [[China]]. Due to their early invention of ocean-going [[outrigger boat]]s and voyaging [[catamaran]]s, Austronesians rapidly colonized [[Island Southeast Asia]], before spreading further into [[Micronesia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Polynesia]], [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]]. They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, intermarrying with the indigenous [[Negrito]] and [[Papuan People|Papuan]] peoples to varying degrees, giving rise to modern [[Islander Southeast Asians]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Polynesians]], [[Melanesians]] and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/blust1992austronesian.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/blust1992austronesian.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=THE AUSTRONESIAN SETTLEMENT OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA |publisher=Sealang |access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lipson|first1=Mark|last2=Loh|first2=Po-Ru|last3=Patterson|first3=Nick|last4=Moorjani|first4=Priya|last5=Ko|first5=Ying-Chin|last6=Stoneking|first6=Mark|last7=Berger|first7=Bonnie|last8=Reich|first8=David|title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia|journal=Nature Communications|date=19 August 2014|volume=5|pages=4689|doi=10.1038/ncomms5689|pmid=25137359|pmc=4143916|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4689L}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.omnivoyage.org/Austronesian_SE_Asia.htm |title=Austronesian Southeast Asia: An outline of contemporary issues |publisher=Omnivoyage |access-date=2 January 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925123531/http://www.omnivoyage.org/Austronesian_SE_Asia.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Origins of Ethnolinguistic Identity in Southeast Asia  |publisher=Roger Blench |access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref>

The [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] migration wave involved the [[Mon people|Mon]] and [[Khmer people|Khmer]] peoples and migrated to the broad riverine floodplains of [[Burma]], [[Indochina]] and [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sidwell |first1=Paul |last2=Blench |first2=Roger |chapter-url=http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |chapter=The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis |editor-last=Enfield |editor-first=N.J. |title=Dynamics of Human Diversity |pages=317–345 |place=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |date=2011 |isbn=9780858836389 }}</ref>{{Failed verification|reason=This article actually proposes a dispersal from within Southeast Asia circa 3800 BP.|date=August 2022}}

===Early agricultural societies===
{{See also|Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia|Domestication of rice}}
[[File:Likely routes of early rice transfer, and possible language family homelands (archaeological sites in China and SE Asia shown).png|thumb|Possible [[Urheimat|language family homelands]] and likely routes of early rice transfer ({{Circa|3500{{en dash}}500{{nbsp}}BCE}}). The approximate coastlines during the early [[Holocene]] are shown in lighter blue.<ref name="Bellwood2011">{{cite journal |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Checkered Prehistory of Rice Movement Southwards as a Domesticated Cereal—from the Yangzi to the Equator |journal=Rice |date=9 December 2011 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=93–103 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9068-9 |s2cid=44675525 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/81529950.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/81529950.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Rice....4...93B }}</ref>]]

Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised as ''Agrarian kingdoms,''<ref>{{cite book|author=J. Stephen Lansing|title=Perfect Order: Recognizing Complexity in Bali|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6H-kCvCCwgC&pg=PA22|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15626-2|page=22}}</ref> developed an economy by around 500&nbsp;BCE based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "[[Thalassocracy|thalassian]]" zone<ref name=socev/> shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like the [[Pyu city-states]] in the [[Irrawaddy River]] valley, the [[Van Lang|Văn Lang kingdom]] in the [[Red River Delta]] and [[Funan (Southeast Asia)|Funan]] around the lower [[Mekong]].<ref name=funan/> Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE, endured until 258&nbsp;BCE under the [[Hồng Bàng dynasty]], as part of the [[Đông Sơn culture]] that sustained a dense and organised population that produced an elaborate [[Bronze Age]] industry.<ref name=angk>{{cite web |url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |title=Pre-Angkorian Settlement Trends in Cambodia's Mekong Delta and the Lower Mekong |publisher=Anthropology.hawaii.edu |access-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172512/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Stark/pdfs/annual_review_06.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Stark/pdfs/annual_review_06.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Early Mainland Southeast Asian Landscapes in the First Millennium |publisher=Anthropology.hawaii.edu |access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.<ref name=angk/><ref name=socev>{{cite book|author=F. Tichelman|title=The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGEyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-94-009-8896-5|page=41}}</ref>

Though [[millet]] and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000&nbsp;BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas. Many tribal communities of the aboriginal [[Australoid race|Australo-Melanesian]] settlers continued a lifestyle of mixed sustenance until the modern era.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hunt|first1=C.O.|last2=Rabett|first2=R.J.|title=Holocene landscape intervention and plant food production strategies in island and mainland Southeast Asia|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=November 2014|volume=51|pages=22–33|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.12.011|doi-access=free|bibcode=2014JArSc..51...22H }}</ref> Many areas in Southeast Asia participated in the [[Maritime Jade Road]], a diverse sea-based trade network which functioned for 3,000 years, mostly in Southeast Asia, between 2000&nbsp;BCE to 1000&nbsp;CE.<ref>Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan’s relations with the Philippines date back millenia, so it’s a mystery that it’s not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref>

===Bronze Age Southeast Asia===
[[File:Trong dong Dong Son.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dong Son drum|Đông Sơn drum]]]]

The earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at [[Ban Chiang]] in north-east Thailand and among the [[Phung Nguyen culture|Phùng Nguyên culture]] of northern Vietnam around 2000&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Higham|first1=Charles|last2=Higham|first2=Thomas|last3=Ciarla|first3=Roberto|last4=Douka|first4=Katerina|last5=Kijngam|first5=Amphan|last6=Rispoli|first6=Fiorella|title=The Origins of the Bronze Age of Southeast Asia|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|date=10 December 2011|volume=24|issue=4|pages=227–274|doi=10.1007/s10963-011-9054-6|s2cid=162300712|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257607857|access-date=11 February 2017|via=Researchgate.net}}</ref>

The [[Dong Son culture|Đông Sơn]] culture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of evermore refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, socketed arrows and spearheads and small ornamented items.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newhistorian.com/how-and-when-the-bronze-age-reached-south-east-asia/4961/ | title =How and When the Bronze Age Reached South East Asia | publisher = New Historian |date=1 October 2015 |author= Daryl Worthington |access-date= 9 March 2018 }}</ref> By about 500&nbsp;BCE, large and delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, weighing more than {{convert|70|kg|abbr=on}}, were produced in the laborious [[lost-wax casting]] process. This industry of highly sophisticated metal processing was developed independent of Chinese or Indian influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of organized, centralized and hierarchical communities and a large population.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Southeast-Asia |title=history of Southeast Asia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=11 February 2017}}</ref>

===Pottery culture===
[[File:Buni Culture Pottery 2.jpg|thumb|[[Buni culture|Buni]] clay pottery]]
Between 1000&nbsp;BCE and 100&nbsp;CE, the [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] flourished along the south-central coast of [[Vietnam]].<ref>[[John N. Miksic]], Geok Yian Goh, Sue O Connor – ''Rethinking Cultural Resource Management in Southeast Asia'' 2011 Page 251 "This site dates from the fifth to first century BCE and it is one of the earliest sites of the [[Sa Huỳnh]] culture in Thu Bồn Valley (Reinecke et al. 2002, 153–216); 2) Lai Nghi is a prehistoric cemetery richly equipped with iron tools and weapons, ..."</ref> Ceramic jar burial sites that included grave goods have been discovered at various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin-walled terracotta jars, ornamented and colorized cooking pots, glass items, [[nephrite|jade]] earrings and metal objects were deposited near the rivers and along the coast.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/7230641 |title=Excavations at Gò Cầm, Quảng Nam, 2000–3: Linyi and the Emergence of the Cham Kingdoms  |publisher=Academia.edu |author1=Ian Glover |author2=Nguyễn Kim Dung  |access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

The [[Buni culture]] is the name given to another early independent centre of refined [[pottery]] production that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited between 400&nbsp;BCE and 100&nbsp;CE in coastal north-western [[West Java|Java]].<ref name="Zahorka-2007">{{cite book| last = Zahorka| first = Herwig| publisher = Yayasan cipta Loka Caraka| title = The Sunda Kingdoms of West Java, From Tarumanagara to Pakuan Pajajaran with Royal Center of Bogor, Over 1000 Years of Propsperity and Glory| year = 2007}}</ref> The objects and artifacts  of the Buni tradition are known for their originality and remarkable quality of incised and geometric decors.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pierre-Yves Manguin|author2=A. Mani|author3=Geoff Wade|title=Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-cultural Exchange|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ni9AlOLTFZYC&pg=PA124|year=2011|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4345-10-1|page=124}}</ref> Its resemblance to the Sa Huỳnh culture and the fact that it represents the earliest ''Indian Rouletted Ware'' recorded in Southeast Asia are subjects of ongoing research.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9xVZbxWNo40C&pg=PA246 | author = Manguin, Pierre-Yves and Agustijanto Indrajaya | title = The Archaeology of Batujaya (West Java, Indonesia):an Interim Report, in Uncovering Southeast Asia's past|isbn=978-9971-69-351-0|page=246|publisher=NUS Press| date = January 2006 }}</ref>

== Early historical era ==
===Austronesian maritime trade network===
{{See also|Lingling-o|Marshall Islands stick chart|Polynesian navigation|Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere|Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network}}
[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|thumb|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and [[Maritime Silk Road|historic]] maritime trade network in the [[Indian Ocean]]<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1=Pierre-Yves |last1=Manguin|editor1-first=Gwyn |editor1-last=Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World |chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages=51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50}}</ref>]]
The first true maritime trade network in the [[Indian Ocean]] was the [[Austronesian maritime trade network]] initiated by the [[Austronesian peoples]] of [[Island Southeast Asia]].<ref name="Manguin2016"/> They established trade routes with [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]] as early as 1500&nbsp;BCE, exchanging [[material culture]] (like [[catamaran]]s, [[outrigger boat]]s, sewn-plank boats and [[paan]]) and [[cultigen]]s (like [[coconut]]s, [[sandalwood]], [[banana]]s and [[sugarcane]]). The trade network also connected the material cultures of India and China, as well as constituting the majority of the Indian Ocean component of the [[spice trade]]. [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Indonesians]] in particular were trading in spices (mainly [[cinnamon]] and [[Cassia bark|cassia]]) with [[East Africa]] using catamarans and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the [[Westerlies]] in the Indian Ocean. This trade network expanded to reach as far as [[Africa]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]], resulting in the Austronesian colonization of [[Madagascar]] by 500&nbsp;CE. It continued through historic times, later becoming the [[Maritime Silk Road]].<ref name="Manguin2016"/><ref name="Doran1974">{{cite journal |last1=Doran |first1=Edwin Jr. |title=Outrigger Ages |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |date=1974 |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=130–140 |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_83_1974/Volume_83%2C_No._2/Outrigger_ages%2C_by_Edwin_Doran_Jnr.%2C_p_130-140/p1 |access-date=25 February 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118071139/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_83_1974/Volume_83,_No._2/Outrigger_ages,_by_Edwin_Doran_Jnr.,_p_130-140/p1 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref><ref name="Doran1981">{{cite book |last1=Doran |first1=Edwin B. |title=Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins |date=1981 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=9780890961070}}</ref><ref name="BlenchFruits">{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=The Taipei Papers (Volume 2) |pages=31–50 |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496}}</ref> This trade network also included smaller trade routes within [[Island Southeast Asia]], including the [[lingling-o]] [[jade]] and [[trepanging]] networks.

In eastern [[Austronesia]], various traditional maritime trade networks also existed. Among them were the ancient [[Lapita Culture|Lapita trade network]] of [[Island Melanesia]];<ref name="friedlaender"/> the [[Hiri trade cycle]], [[Sepik Coast exchange]] and [[Kula ring]] of [[Papua New Guinea]];<ref name="friedlaender">{{cite book |last1=Friedlaender |first1=Jonathan S. |title=Genes, Language, & Culture History in the Southwest Pacific |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195300307 |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HH48DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28}}</ref> the ancient trading voyages in [[Micronesia]] between the [[Mariana Islands]] and the [[Caroline Islands]] (and possibly also [[New Guinea]] and the [[Philippines]]);<ref name="Cunningham">{{cite book |last1=Cunningham |first1=Lawrence J. |title=Ancient Chamorro Society |date=1992 |publisher=Bess Press |isbn=9781880188057 |pages=195 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9r0a2ww8KLcC&pg=PA195}}</ref> and the vast inter-island trade networks of [[Polynesia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borrell |first1=Brendan |title=Stone tool reveals lengthy Polynesian voyage |journal=Nature |date=27 September 2007 |doi=10.1038/news070924-9 |s2cid=161331467 |url=https://www.nature.com/news/2007/070924/full/070924-9.html|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Indianised kingdoms===
{{Further|Greater India}}
[[File:Hinduism_Expansion_in_Asia_2023.svg|thumb|Hinduism's expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.]]
By around 500&nbsp;BCE, Asia's expanding land and [[Indian Ocean trade|maritime trade]] led to socio-economic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of mainly [[Hinduism|Hindu]] beliefs into the regional cosmology of [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="Hal1985">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hal|title=Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ|year=1985|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0843-3|page=63}}</ref> [[Iron Age]] trade expansion also caused regional [[Geostrategy|geostrategic]] remodelling. Southeast Asia was now situated at the convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, a basis for economic and cultural growth. The concept of "[[Indianised kingdoms]]", a term coined by French scholar [[George Coedès|George Cœdès]], describes how Southeast Asian [[principality|principalities]] incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, [[epigraphy]], writing and architecture.<ref>National Library of Australia.  [http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html Asia's French Connection : George Coedes and the Coedes Collection] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021052224/http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html |date=21 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Amitav Acharya |title=Southeast Asia: Imagining the region |url=http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.amitavacharya.com/sites/default/files/Southeast%20Asia%20Imagining%20the%20Region.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=13 January 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Vietnam, shiva, da thap banh it (torre d'argento), stile di transiz. tra my son A1 e thap mam, Xi-Xii sec, 01.JPG|thumb|upright|right|[[Shiva]] statue, [[Champa]] (modern [[Vietnam]])]]

The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in [[Sumatra]] and [[Java]], followed by mainland polities such as [[Funan]] and [[Champa]]. Selective adoption of Indian sociocultural elements stimulated the emergence of centralised states and development of highly organised societies. Local leaders began to adopt Hindu worship into state religion, using the Hindu concept of [[Devaraja|devarāja]] to reinforce [[divine rule]] (as opposed to the Chinese concept of [[Mandate of Heaven]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=Craig A. Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume I: To 1500: A Global History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299|year=2014|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-78308-6|page=299}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |title=The Mon-Dvaravati Tradition of Early North-Central Thailand |date=August 2007 |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mond/hd_mond.htm|access-date=2009-12-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal  |title=Urban Morphology of Commercial Port Cities and Shophouses in Southeast Asia |journal=Procedia Engineering |volume=142 |pages=190–197 |doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2016.02.031 |year=2016 |last1=Han |first1=Wang |last2=Beisi |first2=Jia |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilizations of the region is still fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. One such debate is over the extent to which Indian merchants, [[Brahmin]]s, nobles or Southeast Asian mariner-merchants played central roles in bringing Indian conceptions to Southeast Asia. Additionally, the depth of the influence of Indian traditions is still contested. Whereas early 20th-century scholars emphasized the thorough Indianization of Southeast Asia, more recent authors have argued that Indian influence was much more limited, affecting only a small section of the elite.<ref name="oxford press">{{cite web| url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0112.xml | title= Hinduism in Southeast Asia | publisher= oxford press |date=28 May 2013 | access-date=20 December 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://prezi.com/ju-vg-e8z1zk/hinduism-and-buddhism-in-southeast-asia/ |title=Hinduism and Buddhism in Southeast Asia by Monica Sar on Prezi |newspaper=prezi.com |access-date= 20 February 2017}}</ref>

Maritime trade from China to India passed Champa and Funan at the [[Mekong Delta]], proceeded along the coast to the [[Isthmus of Kra]], portaged across the narrow and [[transhipped]] for distribution in India. This trading link boosted the development of Funan, its successor [[Chenla]] and the Malayan states of [[Langkasuka]] on the eastern coast and [[Early history of Kedah|Kedah]] on the western.

Numerous coastal communities in [[maritime Southeast Asia]] adopted Hindu and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] cultural and religious elements from India and developed complex polities ruled by native dynasties. Early Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia include the 4th-century [[Kutai]] that rose in [[East Kalimantan]], [[Tarumanagara]] in [[West Java]] and [[Kalingga]] in [[Central Java]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oeaw.ac.at/isa/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |title=THEORIES OF INDIANIZATION Exemplified by Selected Case Studies from Indonesia (Insular Southeast Asia) |publisher=Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften |author=Helmut Lukas |access-date=14 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215113853/http://www.oeaw.ac.at/isa/files/working_papers/suedostasien/soa001.pdf |archive-date=15 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Early relations with China===
[[File:Silk route copy.jpg|thumb|Major trading routes in the pre-colonial [[Eastern Hemisphere]]]]
The earliest attested trading contacts in Southeast Asia were with the Chinese [[Shang dynasty]] ({{Circa|1600–1046{{nbsp}}BCE}}), when [[cowry]] [[Shell money|shells]] served as currency. During the [[Zhou dynasty]] (1050{{En dash}}771&nbsp;BCE), various natural products, such as [[ivory]], [[rhinoceros]] horn, [[tortoise]] shells, pearls and birds' feathers found their way to [[Luoyang]], the Zhou capital. Although current knowledge about port localities and shipping lanes is very limited, it is assumed that most of this exchange took place on land routes, and only a small percentage was shipped "on coastal vessels crewed by [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] and [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] traders".<ref name="shi" />

Military conquests during the [[Han dynasty]] (202&nbsp;BCE{{En dash}}220&nbsp;CE) brought a number of foreign peoples within the Chinese empire when the [[Imperial Chinese tributary system]] began to evolve under Han rule. This tributary system was based on the Chinese worldview that had developed under the Shang dynasty, in which China was deemed the center and apogee of culture and civilization, the "Middle kingdom" ([[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]: 中国, Zhōngguó), surrounded by several layers of increasingly [[Barbarian|barbarous]] peoples.<ref name="middle kingdom">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUn07EepBZ8C&pg=PA408|title= The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts and History of the Chinese Empire and Its Inhabitants |author= Samuel Wells Williams |page=408|publisher= Routledge |year= 2006 |isbn=978-0710311672}}</ref> Contact with Southeast Asia steadily increased by the end of the Han period.<ref name="shi" />

Between the 2nd-century BCE and 15th-century CE, the [[Maritime Silk Road]] flourished, connecting [[China]], [[Southeast Asia]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[Somalia]] and all the way to [[Egypt]] and [[Europe]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Maritime Silk Road| work = SEAArch| url = https://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/maritime-silk-route/| access-date = 25 February 2020| archive-date = 5 January 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140105043328/http://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/maritime-silk-route/| url-status = dead}}</ref> Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the Maritime Silk Road was primarily established and operated by [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] sailors in Southeast Asia and by [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Arab people|Arab]] traders in the [[Arabian Sea]].<ref name="Guan"/>

The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[spice trade]] networks of [[Islander Southeast Asians]] with [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Southern India]] (established 1000{{En dash}}600&nbsp;BCE), as well as the [[jade]] industry trade in ''[[lingling-o]]'' artifacts from the [[Philippines]] in the [[South China Sea]] ({{Circa|500{{nbsp}}BCE}}).<ref name="Bellina">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina|editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999"/> For most of its history, Austronesian [[thalassocracies]] controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the [[polities]] around the [[Strait]] of [[Malacca Strait|Malacca]] and [[Bangka Strait|Bangka]], the [[Malay Peninsula]] and the [[Mekong Delta]] (although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to the [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianization]] of these regions).<ref name="Guan">{{cite journal |last1=Guan |first1=Kwa Chong |title=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea |journal=NSC Working Paper |date=2016 |issue=23 |pages=1–30 |url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] traders also sailed them.<ref name="Guan"/> The route was influential in the early spread of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] to the East.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sen |first1=Tansen |title=Maritime Southeast Asia Between South Asia and China to the Sixteenth Century |journal=TRaNS: Trans-Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia |date=3 February 2014 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=31–59 |doi=10.1017/trn.2013.15|s2cid=140665305 }}</ref>

China later built its own fleets starting from the [[Song dynasty]] in the 10th century, participating directly in the trade route up until the end of the [[Colonial Era]] and the collapse of the [[Qing dynasty]].<ref name="Guan"/>

===Spread of Buddhism===
{{Main|Buddhism in Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Buddhist Expansion.svg|thumb|The spread of Buddhism throughout Asia]]
[[File:Borobudur-Temple-Park Indonesia Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg|thumb|[[Borobudur]] [[stupa]], central [[Java]] (9th century)]]
Local rulers benefited from the introduction of [[Hinduism]] during the early common era, using it to greatly enhance the legitimacy of their reign as [[Devaraja|devarāja]]. Historians increasingly argue that the process of Hindu religious diffusion in the region must be attributed to the initiative of the local chieftains.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}} [[Buddha Dhamma|Buddhist teachings]], which almost simultaneously arrived in Southeast Asia, developed during the subsequent centuries, gaining more appeal among the general population. In the 3rd century BCE, the Buddhist Indian Emperor [[Ashoka]] initiated missionary efforts to send trained monks and missionaries abroad to proselytise Buddhism, including its [[Tipitaka|sizeable body of literature]], oral traditions, [[Buddhist iconography|iconography]] and [[Buddhist art|art]]. To missionaries used Buddhist teachings to offer guidance in central existential questions, placing an emphasis on individual effort and conduct.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/The%20Buddhist%20World%20of%20Southeast%20Asia_Swearer.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316090358/http://ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/The%20Buddhist%20World%20of%20Southeast%20Asia_Swearer.pdf |archive-date=2015-03-16 |url-status=dead |title=The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia |publisher=Suny Press |author=Donald K. Swearer |access-date= 20 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kitiarsa|first=Pattana|date=2009-03-01|title=Beyond the Weberian Trails: An Essay on the Anthropology of Southeast Asian Buddhism|journal=Religion Compass|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=200–224|doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00135.x|issn=1749-8171}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/expansion_of_buddhism_into_southeast_asia_0.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/expansion_of_buddhism_into_southeast_asia_0.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM INTO SOUTHEAST ASIA |publisher=Unesco |access-date= 2 January 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Shwezigon.jpg|thumb|[[Shwezigon Pagoda|Shwezigon golden pagoda]] in [[Bagan]], [[Myanmar]] (12th century)]]
Between the 5th and the 13th century CE, Buddhism flourished in Southeast Asia. By the 8th century, the Buddhist [[Srivijaya]] kingdom based in [[Sumatra]] emerged as a major trading power in central [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. Around the same period, the [[Shailendra dynasty]] of [[Java]] extensively promoted [[Buddhist art]] that found its strongest expression in the vast [[Borobudur]] temple.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzvRAgAAQBAJ|title=Mysteries of Borobudur Discover Indonesia|last=Miksic|first=John|date=2013-02-22|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=9781462906994|language=en}}</ref> Following the establishment of the [[Khmer Empire]] in [[Cambodia]], the first Buddhist kings of Mainland Southeast Asia emerged during the 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA261+|year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1|page=261}}</ref> [[Mahayana Buddhist|Mahayana Buddhism]] took hold first in Southeast Asia, as the original [[Theravada Buddhism]] had fallen out of favor India centuries before reaching the region. However, a pure form of Theravada Buddhist teachings had been preserved in [[Sri Lanka]] since the 3rd century. Pilgrims and wandering monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism in the [[Pagan Empire]] of [[Burma]], the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] in northern [[Thailand]] and [[Laos]], the Lower [[Mekong Basin]] during [[Dark ages of Cambodia|Cambodia's dark ages]] and further into [[Vietnam]] and Maritime Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/southeast.htm|title=The Buddhist World: Buddhism in Southeast Asia: Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia.|website=buddhanet.net|access-date=2018-01-14}}</ref>

== Medieval period ==
[[File:Telaga Batu inscription.JPG|thumb|left|[[Telaga Batu inscription]] a [[Srivijaya]]n inscription used in ceremonial allegiance ritual (7th century)]]
In [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], the [[Srivijaya|Srivijaya kingdom]] on [[Sumatra]] developed into the dominant power by the 5th century CE. Its capital [[Palembang]] became a major seaport and functioned as an ''[[entrepôt]]'' on the [[Spice Route]] between India and China. Srivijaya was also a notable center of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhist learning and influence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www7.plala.or.jp/seareview/newpage6Sri2011Chaiya.html |title= Śrīvijaya towards Chaiya ー The History of Srivijaya | publisher= NTT Plala Inc |access-date=10 March 2018}}</ref> Around the 6th century CE, [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] merchants began sailing to Srivijaya, where goods were transported directly in Sumatran ports. The winds of the [[Monsoon#Northeast monsoon|Northeast Monsoon]] during October to December prevented sailing ships from proceeding directly from the [[Indian Ocean]] to the [[South China Sea]], as did the [[Monsoon#Southwest monsoon|Southwest Monsoon]] during July to September, forcing trade routes to pass through Srivijaya. However, the kingdom's wealth and influence began to fade when advancements in nautical technology in the 10th century enabled Chinese and Indian merchants to ship cargo directly between their countries. These advancements also aided the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] dynasty of [[Tamilakam]], [[Southern India]], in carrying out a series of destructive attacks on Srivijaya, effectively ending Palembang's ''entrepôt'' position in the Indo-Chinese trade route. As the influence of the Srivijaya kingdom faded by about the 13th century, Sumatra came to be ruled by a kaleidoscope of Buddhist kingdoms for the next two centuries, including the [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]], [[Pannai]], and [[Dharmasraya]] kingdoms.
[[File:Bajang Ratu Gate Trowulan.jpg|thumb|upright|The Bajang Ratu [[paduraksa]] gate in [[Trowulan]], the capital of [[Majapahit]] (14th century)]]
To the southeast of Sumatra, [[West Java]] was ruled by the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Sunda Kingdom]] ({{Circa|669–1579}}) after the fall of the [[Tarumanagara]], while [[Central Java|Central]] and [[East Java]] were dominated by a myriad of competing agrarian kingdoms including the [[Mataram Kingdom]] (716–1016), [[Kediri Kingdom|Kadiri]] (1042–1222), [[Singhasari]] (1222–1292), and [[Majapahit]] (1293–{{Circa|1500}}). In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, the Śailendra dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom built a number of massive monuments in Central Java, including the [[Sewu]] and [[Borobudur]] Buddhist temples. According to the ''[[Nagarakretagama|Deśavarṇana]]'', an [[Old Javanese]] poem completed in 1365, vassal states of the [[Majapahit|Majapahit Empire]] spread throughout much of today's Indonesia, making it possibly the largest empire ever to exist in Southeast Asia, though the true character of its control over these territories is unclear.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Robson |first1=Stuart |title=Deśawarṇana (Nāgarakṛtāgama) by Mpu Prapañca |date=1995 |publisher=KITLV Press |location=Leiden}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sastrawan |first1=Wayan Jarrah |title=Was Majapahit Really an Empire |url=https://www.newmandala.org/was-majapahit-really-an-empire/ |website=New Mandala |date=9 January 2020 |access-date=10 January 2024}}</ref> The empire declined in the early 16th century after the rise of [[Islamic state]]s in coastal Java, the [[Malay Peninsula]], and Sumatra.
[[File:Inskripsyon sa Binatbat na Tanso ng Laguna.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], [[Philippines]] (c. 900 CE)]]
In the [[Philippines]], the [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]] dating from 900 CE is the earliest known calendar-dated document from the islands.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clavé |first1=Elsa |last2=Griffiths |first2=Arlo |title=The Laguna Copperplate Inscription: Tenth-Century Luzon, Java, and the Malay World |journal=Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints |date=2022 |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=167–242 |doi=10.13185/PS2022.70202 |doi-broken-date=2 November 2024 |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-03779017}}</ref> It relates a debt granted from a ''[[maginoo]]'' (royalty) who lived in the [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]] city-state of [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]] which is now part of [[History of Manila|Manila]] area. The document mentions several contemporary states in the area, including [[Mataram Kingdom]] in [[Java]].
[[File:Siem Reap Reflections (CAMBODIA-REFLECTION-ANGKOR WAT) VI (1070423631).jpg|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]], [[Khmer Empire]] (12th century)]]
The [[Khmer Empire]] covered much of [[mainland Southeast Asia]] from the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time a [[Khmer architecture|sophisticated architecture]] was developed, exemplified in the structures of the capital city [[Angkor]]. Situated in modern-day [[Vietnam]], the kingdoms of [[Đại Việt]] and [[Champa]] were rivals to the Khmer Empire in the region. The [[Mon people|Mon]] kingdom of [[Dvaravati]] was another major regional presence, first appearing in records around the 6th century CE. By the 10th century, however, Dvaravati had come under the influence of the Khmer. Nearby, [[Thai people|Thai]] tribes conquered the [[Chao Phraya River]] valley of modern-day central Thailand around the 12th century and established the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] in the 13th century and the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]] in the 14th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=2049480 |title=Siamese Attacks On Angkor Before 1430|journal=The Far Eastern Quarterly|volume=8|issue=1|pages=3–33|last1=Briggs|first1=Lawrence Palmer|year=1948|doi=10.2307/2049480|s2cid=165680758 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/citiesaut11/readings/Fletcher-water%20management%20in%20angkor%20Antiquity%202008.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/citiesaut11/readings/Fletcher-water%20management%20in%20angkor%20Antiquity%202008.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live   |title= A Short History of South East Asia Chapter 3. The Repercussions of the Mongol Conquest of China ...The result was a mass movement of Thai peoples southwards... | publisher= Stanford University |access-date=11 March 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Kanbawzathadi Palace - Bago, Myanmar 20130219-01.jpg|left|thumb|[[Kanbawzathadi Palace]], [[First Toungoo Empire]] (16th century)]]
By the mid-16th century, the [[Burma|Burmese]] [[First Toungoo Empire]] was one of the largest, strongest and richest empires in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Victor B. |url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=jc3_AwAAQBAJ&hl=en_GB&pg=GBS.PA16 |title=Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580-1760 |date=2014-07-14 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5585-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Lieberman 2003 |pages=151–152}}</ref> At its peak, it was the dominant power in mainland Southeast Asia, exercising "suzerainty from [[Manipur]] to the [[Cambodia]]n [[March (territory)|marches]] and from the borders of [[Kingdom of Mrauk U|Arakan]] to [[Yunnan]]".<ref name="vbl-151-152">Lieberman 2003: 151–152</ref> The empire included [[Mon kingdoms|Mon]] and [[Shan states]] and annexed territories in the [[Lan Na|Kingdom of Lan Na]], [[Lan Xang|Kingdom of Laos]], and the [[Ayutthaya kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=THAI-BURMESE WARFARE DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY AND THE GROWTH OF THE FIRST TOUNGOO EMPIRE |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/2001/JSS_093_0c_PamareeSurakiat_ThaiBurmeseWarfareDuring16thCentu.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/2001/JSS_093_0c_PamareeSurakiat_ThaiBurmeseWarfareDuring16thCentu.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |page=78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Min-gyi-nyo, the Shan Invasions of Ava (1524-27), and the Beginnings of Expansionary Warfare in Toungoo Burma: 1486-1539 |url=https://www.soas.ac.uk/sbbr/editions/file64387.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.soas.ac.uk/sbbr/editions/file64387.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |pages=379–382}}</ref> Early European accounts describe the lower part of the Toungoo Empire as having possessed 3{{En dash}}4 excellent ports that facilitated considerable trade in a variety of goods.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1_nfpMkDRdOj_0S5oylpl27HUT4QgtZ9n/view?usp=drivesdk |title=Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c.1580-1760 |pages=27}}</ref> The empire supplied the port of [[Malacca]] with rice and other foodstuffs, along with luxury goods such as [[Ruby|rubies]], [[sapphire]]s, [[deer musk|musk]], [[Shellac|lac]], [[Benzoin (resin)|benzoin]], and gold to trade. In return, the lower part of the empire imported Chinese manufactures and Indonesian spices through its ports. Additionally, merchants from West Asia and India exchanged large quantities of [[Textile industry in India|Indian textiles]] for Burmese luxury products and eastern goods. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century further strengthened the empire's position, both commercially and militarily.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1_nfpMkDRdOj_0S5oylpl27HUT4QgtZ9n/view?usp=drivesdk |title=Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580-1760 |pages=27–28}}</ref>

===Spread of Islam===
{{main|Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia|Islam in Southeast Asia}}
[[File:Meuseujid Raya Baiturrahman .jpg|thumb|right|[[Baiturrahman Grand Mosque]] in [[Aceh]]. This northern tip region of [[Sumatra]] was the earliest place where Islam was established in Southeast Asia since the [[Samudera Pasai Sultanate|Pasai Sultanate]] in the 13th century.]]

By the 8th century CE, less than 200 years after the [[History of Islam|establishment of Islam]] in [[Arabia]], the first Islamic traders and merchants who adhered to [[Mohammad]]'s prophecies began to appear in [[maritime Southeast Asia]]. However, [[Islam]] did not play a notable role anywhere in [[mainland Southeast Asia]] until the 13th century.<ref name="ArchitectureofEarlyMosques">{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264874666 |title=The Architecture of the Early Mosques and Shrines of Java: Influences of the Arab Merchants in the 15th and 16th Centuries? |date=April 2008 |last=Wahby |first=Ahmed E I |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/islam-islam-southeast-asia |title=Islam: Islam in Southeast Asia – Dictionary definition of Islam: Islam in Southeast Asia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=30 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://history-world.org/islam7.htm |title=Islam, The Spread of Islam To Southeast Asia |publisher=History-world.org |access-date=30 January 2017 |archive-date=8 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108010414/http://history-world.org/islam7.htm}}</ref> Instead, widespread and gradual replacement of [[Hinduism]] by [[Theravada Buddhism|Theravāda Buddhism]] reflected a shift to a more personal, introverted spirituality acquired through individual ritual activities and effort.

In addressing the issue of how Islam was introduced into Southeast Asia, historians have elaborated various routes from Arabia to [[India]] and then from India to [[Southeast Asia]]. Of these, two seem to take prominence: either Arabian traders and scholars who did not live or settle in India spread Islam directly to maritime Southeast Asia, or Arab traders that had been settling in coastal India and [[Sri Lanka]] for generations did. Muslim traders from India ([[Gujarat]]) and converts of [[South Asia]]n descent are variously considered to play a major role.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/28762910 |title=A History of Islam in the Malay-Indonesian World: between Acculturation and Rigor |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://asiasociety.org/education/introduction-southeast-asia |title=Introduction to Southeast Asia – The Arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia |publisher=Asia Society |access-date=13 January 2018}}</ref>

A number of sources propose the [[South China Sea]] as another route of Islamic introduction to Southeast Asia. Arguments for this hypothesis include the following:
* Extensive trade between Arabia and China before the 10th century is well documented and has been corroborated by archaeological evidence (see, for example, [[Belitung shipwreck]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/06/tang-shipwreck/worrall-text/1 |title=Made in China – National Geographic Magazine |access-date=4 February 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901043146/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/06/tang-shipwreck/worrall-text/1 |archive-date=1 September 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asia.si.edu/press/2011/prShipwreckedBackgrounder.asp |title=Press Room |publisher=Asia.si.edu |access-date=4 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606093628/http://www.asia.si.edu/press/2011/prShipwreckedBackgrounder.asp |archive-date=6 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* During the [[Mongol conquest of China|Mongol conquest]] and the subsequent rule of the [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368), hundreds of thousands of Muslims entered China. In [[Yunnan]], Islam was propagated and commonly embraced.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/Wade114.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/Wade114.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=An Earlier Age of Commerce in Southeast Asia : 900–1300 C.E. |publisher=Helsinki.fi |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref>
* [[Kufic]] grave stones in [[Champa]], modern-day [[Vietnam]], are indices of an early and permanent Islamic community in mainland Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://antiquities.bibalex.org/Collection/detail.aspx?a=184&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518190203/http://antiquities.bibalex.org/Collection/detail.aspx?lang=en&a=184 |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 May 2013 |title=Gravestone – Collections – Antiquities Museum |publisher=Antiquities.bibalex.org |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://squarekufic.com/2014/10/18/signatures-on-gravestones-two-xii-century-iranian-tombstones/ |title=Signatures on gravestones: two XII century Iranian tombstones |publisher=squarekufic |date=  18 October 2014|access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tan Ta Sen|title=Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA147|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-837-5|page=147}}</ref> 
* The founder of the [[Demak Sultanate]] in [[Java]] was of Sino-Javanese origin.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/15646072 |title=Cheng Ho and the History of Chinese Muslims in Java |newspaper=Academia.edu |access-date=4 February 2017|last1=Qurtuby |first1=Sumanto Al }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tan Ta Sen|title=Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&pg=PA239|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-837-5|page=239}}</ref>
* [[Hui people|Hui]] mariner [[Zheng He]] proposed ancient Chinese architecture as the stylistic basis for the oldest Javanese [[mosque]]s during his 15th-century visit to [[Demak, Demak|Demak]], [[Banten]], and the [[Red Mosque of Panjunan]] in [[Cirebon]], [[West Java]].<ref name="ArchitectureofEarlyMosques" />

In 2013, the [[European Union]] published the ''European Commission Forum'', which maintains an inclusive attitude on the matter:<ref>{{cite web |title=International research update 62 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/pdf/newsletter/international-research-update_62_december-2015.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/pdf/newsletter/international-research-update_62_december-2015.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |access-date=4 February 2017 |publisher=Ec.europa.eu}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Islam spread in Southeast Asia via Muslims of diverse ethnic and cultural origins, from Middle Easterners, Arabs and Persians, to Indians and even Chinese, all of whom followed the great commercial routes of the epoch.}}[[File:Masjid Menara Kudus.jpg|thumb|[[Minaret]] of the [[Menara Kudus Mosque]], a Javanese [[Majapahit]]-style red brick tower, with [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]]-style building in the background, exemplifying the adoption and syncretism of local elements within Islam practiced in the region.]]
Unlike in other Islamic regions, Islam developed in Southeast Asia in a distinctly [[Syncretism|syncretic]] manner that allowed the continuation and inclusion of elements and ritual practices of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and ancient Pan-East Asian [[animism]]. Most principalities developed highly distinctive cultures as a result of centuries of active participation in cultural exchange situated at the cross-roads of the [[Maritime Silk Road]] coming from across the [[Indian Ocean]] in the West and the [[South China Sea]] in the East. Cultural and institutional adoption was a creative and selective process, in which foreign elements were incorporated into a local synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2839951 |title=Ghazwul fikri or Arabisation? Indonesian Muslim responses to globalisation |journal=In: Ken Miichi and Omar Farouk (Eds), Southeast Asian Muslims in the Era of Globalization, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, Pp. 61-85 |publisher=Academia.edu |access-date=4 February 2017|last1=Bruinessen |first1=Martin van |date=January 2014 }}</ref> Unlike some other "[[Islamised]]" regions like [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]], [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Iberia]], the [[Arab–Byzantine wars|Middle East]] and later northern [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent|India]], Islamic faith in Southeast Asia was not enforced in the wake of [[Early Muslim conquests|territorial conquests]], but because of trade routes. In this way, the Islamisation of Southeast Asia is more akin to that of [[Islam in Central Asia|Turkic Central Asia]], [[sub-Saharan Africa]], [[South India|southern India]] and [[Islam in China|northwest China]].

There are various records of lay Muslim missionaries, scholars and mystics, particularly [[Sufism|Sufis]], who were active in peacefully proselytizing in Southeast Asia. [[Java]], for example, received Islam by nine men, referred to as the "[[Wali Sanga]]" or "Nine Saints," although the historical identity of such people is almost impossible to determine. The foundation of the first Islamic kingdom in [[Sumatra]], the [[Samudera Pasai Sultanate]], took place during the 13th century.

The conversion of the remnants of the Buddhist [[Srivijaya|Srivijaya empire]] that once controlled trade in much of Southeast Asia, in particular the [[Strait of Malacca]], marked a religious turning point with the conversion of the strait into an Islamic water. With the fall of Srivijaya, the way was open for effective and widespread proselytization and the establishment of Muslim trading centers. Many modern Malays view the [[Sultanate of Malacca]], which existed from the 15th to the early 16th century, as the first political entity of contemporary [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{cite report |url=http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/RP11-78 |title=Southeast Asia: A political and economic introduction – Commons Library briefing – UK Parliament |last1=Thompson |first1=Gavin |last2=Lunn |first2=Jon |date=14 December 2011 |publisher=Researchbriefings.parliament.uk |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref>

The idea of equality before God for the ''[[Ummah]]'' (the people of God) and a personal religious effort through regular prayer in Islam could have been more appealing than a perceived [[fatalism]] in Hinduism at the time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elder |first1=Joseph W. |date=July 1966 |title=Fatalism in India: A Comparison between Hindus and Muslims |journal=Anthropological Quarterly |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=227–243 |doi=10.2307/3316807 |jstor=3316807}}</ref> However, Islam also taught obedience and submission, which could have helped guarantee that the social structure of a converted people or political entity saw less fundamental changes.<ref name="shi" />

[[File:Malays from the Malacca Sultanate Codice Casanatense.jpg|thumb|Portuguese illustration of [[Ethnic Malay|Malays]] of [[Malacca]], 1540. [[Malacca sultanate]] played a [[Malayization|significant role]] in spreading [[Islam in Southeast Asia|Islamic faith in the region]]]]
Islam and its notion of exclusivity and finality is seemingly incompatible with other religions, including the Chinese concept of [[Mandate of Heaven|heavenly harmony]] and the [[Son of Heaven]] as its enforcer. The integration of the traditional East Asian tributary system with China at the centre Muslim Malays and Indonesians exacted a pragmatic approach of cultural Islam in diplomatic relations with China.<ref name=shi>{{cite web |url=http://docs8.minhateca.com.br/856445015,BR,0,0,A-Short-History-of-China-and-Southeast-Asia.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://docs8.minhateca.com.br/856445015,BR,0,0,A-Short-History-of-China-and-Southeast-Asia.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=A Short History of China and Southeast Asia.pdf – A Short History of Asia |publisher=Docs8.minhateca.com |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref>

===Chinese treasure voyages===
{{main|Ming treasure voyages}}
[[File:2016 Malakka, Stadhuys (09).jpg|thumb|upright|A statue of Ming Admiral [[Zheng He]] in [[Malacca]].]]
By the end of the 14th century, [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]] had conquered [[Yunnan]] in the South, yet it had lost control of the [[Silk Road]] after the fall of the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]]. The ruling [[Yongle Emperor]] resolved to focus on the Indian Ocean sea routes, seeking to consolidate the ancient [[Imperial Chinese Tributary System|Imperial Tributary System]], establish greater diplomatic and military presence, and widen the Chinese sphere of influence. He ordered the construction of a huge [[Treasure voyages|trade and representation fleet]] that, between 1405 and 1433, undertook several voyages into Southeast Asia, India, the [[Persian Gulf]], and as far as East Africa. Under the leadership of [[Zheng He]], hundreds of naval vessels of then unparalleled size, grandeur, and technological advancement and manned by sizeable military contingents, ambassadors, merchants, artists and scholars repeatedly visited major Southeast Asian principalities. The individual fleets engaged in a number of clashes with pirates and occasionally supported various royal contenders. However, pro-expansionist voices at the court in [[Beijing]] lost influence after the 1450s, and the voyages were discontinued. The protraction of the ritualistic ceremonies and scanty travels of emissaries in the Tributary System alone was not sufficient to develop firm and lasting Chinese commercial and political influence in the region, especially during the impending onset of highly competitive global trade. During the [[Chenghua Emperor|Chenghua]] period of the Ming Dynasty, [[Liu Daxia]], who later became the Shangshu of the Ministry of War, hid or burned the archives of [[Ming treasure voyages]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm |title=The Ming Voyages |publisher=Columbia University |access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/big-history-project/expansion-interconnection/exploration-interconnection/a/zheng-he |title= Zheng He – Chinese Admiral in the Indian Ocean |publisher=Khan Academy |access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref>

== Early modern era ==

===European colonisation===
{{main|European colonisation of Southeast Asia}}
[[File:European colonisation of Southeast Asia.png|thumb|right|European colonisation of Southeast Asia in the 1800s.{{when|date=March 2022}}<br />Legend:<br />{{Legend2|#0094ff|[[France]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#ff6a00|[[Netherlands]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#00ff21|[[Portugal]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#ffd800|[[Spain]]}}<br />{{Legend2|#ff006e|[[United Kingdom]]}}]]
The earliest [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]] to have visited Southeast Asia were [[Marco Polo]] during the 13th century in the service of Kublai Khan and [[Niccolò de' Conti]] during the early 15th century. Regular and momentous voyages only began in the 16th century after the arrival of the Portuguese, who actively sought direct and competitive trade. They were usually accompanied by missionaries, who hoped to promote [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://public-library.uk/ebooks/60/81.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://public-library.uk/ebooks/60/81.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title= The Travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian – Book III|publisher=Public Library UK |author=Thomas Wright |access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Niccolo-dei-Conti |title= Niccolò dei Conti|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref>

[[Portugal]] was the first European power to establish a bridgehead on the lucrative [[maritime Southeast Asia]] [[#Maritime trade|trade route]], with the conquest of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]] in 1511. The [[Netherlands]] and [[Spain]] followed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]] via the Mexico-governed [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]], which the Philippines was territory of. In 1619, acting through the [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies#Dutch East India Company (17th – 18th century)|Dutch East India Company]], the Dutch took the city of [[Sunda Kelapa]], renamed it Batavia (now [[Jakarta]]) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts of [[Java (island)|Java]] and the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch took [[Malacca]] from the Portuguese.<ref group="note">''For fifty or sixty years, the Portuguese enjoyed the exclusive trade to China and Japan. In 1717, and again in 1732, the Chinese government offered to make [[Macao]] the emporium for all foreign trade, and to receive all duties on imports; but, by a strange infatuation, the Portuguese government refused, and its decline is dated from that period.'' (Roberts, 2007 PDF image 173 p. 166)</ref> Economic opportunities attracted [[Overseas Chinese]] to the region in great numbers. In 1775, the [[Lanfang Republic]], possibly the first [[republic]] in the region, was established in [[West Kalimantan]], [[Indonesia]], as a [[tributary state]] of the [[Qing Empire]]; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.<ref group="note">Other experiments in republicanism in adjacent regions were the Japanese [[Republic of Ezo]] (1869) and the [[Republic of Taiwan (1895)]].</ref>
[[File:Retrato de Afonso de Albuquerque (após 1545) - Autor desconhecido.png|thumb|upright|left|Portrait of [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], the first European to [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|conquer a part of Southeast Asia of Malacca]].]]

The British, in the guise of the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]] led by [[Josiah Child#Career with the East India Company|Josiah Child]], had little interest or impact in the region, and were effectively expelled following the [[Anglo-Siamese War]]. [[British Empire#Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)|Britain]] later turned their attention to the [[Bay of Bengal]] following the [[Peace of Paris (1783)#Peace with France and Spain|Peace with France and Spain (1783)]]. During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good <!-- British -->harbours became evident. [[Penang Island#History|Penang Island]] had been brought to the attention of the [[Company rule in India|Government of India]] by [[Francis Light]]. In 1786, the settlement of [[George Town, Penang|George Town]] was founded at the northeastern tip of [[Penang Island]] by Captain [[Francis Light]], under the administration of [[Sir John Macpherson, 1st Baronet|Sir John Macpherson]]; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the [[Malay Peninsula]].<ref name="Crawfurd2">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrATTr4zRO0C&pg=PA22|title=Journal of an Embassy from the Governor–general of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China|last=Crawfurd|first=John|date=August 2006|publisher=H. Colburn and R. Bentley|edition=2nd|volume=1|location=London|at=image 52, p. 34|chapter=Chapter I – Description of the Settlement.|oclc=03452414|author-link=John Crawfurd|orig-year=First published 1830|access-date=10 February 2014|isbn=9788120612372}}</ref><ref group="note">Company agent John_Crawfurd used the census taken in 1824 for a [[statistical analysis]] of the relative economic prowess of the peoples there, giving special attention to the Chinese: ''The Chinese amount to 8595, and are landowners, field-labourers, mechanics of almost every description, shopkeepers, and general merchants. They are all from the two provinces of Canton and Fo-kien, and three-fourths of them from the latter. About five-sixths of the whole number are unmarried men, in the prime of life : so that, in fact, the Chinese population, in point of effective labour, may be estimated as equivalent to an ordinary population of above 37,000, and, as will afterwards be shown, to a numerical Malay population of more than 80,000!'' (Crawfurd image 48. p.30)</ref>

The British also temporarily possessed [[French and British interregnum in the Dutch East Indies|Dutch territories]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]; and [[British occupation of Manila|Spanish areas]] in the [[Seven Years' War]]. In 1819, [[Stamford Raffles]] established [[Singapore]] as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824|Anglo-Dutch treaty]] demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. [[British rule in Burma]] began with the [[first Anglo-Burmese War]] (1824–1826).

Early [[United States]] entry into what was then called the [[East Indies]] (usually in reference to the [[Malay Archipelago]]) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for [[black pepper|pepper]] set sail from [[Salem, Massachusetts#Trade with the Pacific and Africa|Salem, Massachusetts]] on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent.<ref name=Trow1905>{{cite book |last=Trow |first=Charles Edward |title=The old shipmasters of Salem |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924028839152/cu31924028839152_djvu.txt |date=1905 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |location=New York and London |oclc=4669778 |pages=xx–xxiii|chapter=Introduction |quote=When Captain Jonathan Carnes set sail. ...}}</ref> In 1831, the merchantman [[Friendship of Salem#Friendship (1830s)|''Friendship'']] of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra.

[[File:1916 Dutch East Indies - Art.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dutch Empire|Dutch imperial imagery]] representing the [[Dutch East Indies]] (1916). The text reads "Our most precious jewel."]]
The [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]] obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army]] on the [[Dutch expedition on the west coast of Sumatra|punitive expedition of 1831]]. President [[Andrew Jackson]] also ordered America's [[first Sumatran expedition|first Sumatran punitive expedition]] of 1832, which was followed by a [[second Sumatran expedition|punitive expedition]] in 1838. The ''Friendship'' incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatch [[Edmund Roberts (diplomat)|diplomatist Edmund Roberts]],<ref name="Roberts">{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=Edmund (Digitised 12 October 2007)|author-link=Edmund Roberts (diplomat)|title=Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: In the U.S. Sloop-of-War Peacock During the Years 1832–34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ|orig-year=1837|publisher=Harper & Brothers|oclc=12212199|chapter=Introduction|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5|quote=Having some years since become acquainted with the commerce of Asia and Eastern Africa, the information produced on my mind a conviction that considerable benefit would result from effecting treaties with some of the native powers bordering on the Indian ocean.|year=1837|isbn=9780608404066}}</ref> who in 1833 secured the [[Siamese-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce|Roberts Treaty with Siam]]. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty, [[Townsend Harris#Harris Treaty of 1856 with Siam|Townsend Harris]] stated the position of the United States:<blockquote>The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies.  The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/treasures/frame_exhibit_gallery1b_main.htm |title=1b. Harris Treaty of 1856|date=14 March 2013|orig-year=speech delivered 1856 |format=exhibition |work=Royal Gifts from Thailand |publisher=[[National Museum of Natural History]]|access-date=9 February 2014 <!--|quote=[http://www.mnh.si.edu/treasures/frameset_credits.htm Credits]-->}}</ref></blockquote>

From the end of the 1850s onwards, while the attention of the United States shifted to maintaining their union, the pace of European colonisation shifted to a significantly higher gear. This phenomenon, denoted [[New Imperialism]], saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. 
[[File:Bird's Eye View of Iudiad City (Ayutthaya) c1665.jpg|thumb|left|The map of Thai city [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] made by [[Johannes Vingboons]] a Dutch cartographer in 1665. During the European colonialism period in Southeast Asia, only Thailand was spared from the Western rule.]]

Only [[History of Thailand|Thailand]] was spared the experience of foreign rule, though Thailand, too, was greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. The [[Monthon]] reforms of the late 19th Century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called [[Mueang]], such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself.<ref name="JSS_062_1e_Murdoch">{{cite journal  | last = Murdoch  | first =  John B.  |year= 1974 |title=  The 1901–1902 Holy Man's Rebellion  |journal= [[Journal of the Siam Society]]  |volume= JSS Vol.62.1e   |issue= digital  |page= 38 |publisher= Siam Heritage Trust  |url= http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMansRebellion.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date= 2 April 2013 |quote= .... Prior to the late nineteenth century reforms of King Chulalongkorn, the territory of the Siamese Kingdom was divided into three administrative categories. First were the inner provinces which were in four classes depending on their distance from Bangkok or the importance of their local ruling houses. Second were the outer provinces, which were situated between the inner provinces and further distant tributary states. Finally there were the tributary states which were on the periphery....}}</ref> Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.<ref name="JSS_059.2g">{{cite journal|last=de Mendonha e Cunha |first=Helder|year=1971|title=The 1820 Land Concession to the Portuguese |journal=[[Journal of the Siam Society]]|volume=JSS Vol. 059.2g|issue=digital|publisher=Siam Society|url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2g_Cunha_1820LandConcessionToPortuguese.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2g_Cunha_1820LandConcessionToPortuguese.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=6 February 2014|quote=It was in [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayudhya]] that Portugal had its first official contact with the Kingdom of Siam, in 1511.}}</ref><ref name="JSS_053_1e ">{{cite journal|first=Peter B. |last=Oblas |year=1965 |title=A Very Small Part of World Affairs |journal=[[Journal of the Siam Society]] |volume=JSS Vol.53.1e |issue=digital |publisher=Siam Society |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2e_Oblas_VerySmallPartOfWorldAffairsSiamAndParisPeaceConference.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_059_2e_Oblas_VerySmallPartOfWorldAffairsSiamAndParisPeaceConference.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=7 September 2013|quote=Negotiations 1909–1917. On the 8th of August 1909, Siam's Adviser in Foreign Affairs presented a proposal to the American Minister in Bangkok. The Adviser, [[Jens Westengard]], desired a revision of the existing extraterritorial arrangement of jurisdictional authority. ...}}</ref>

[[File:Singapore River Stamford Raffles Statue.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Statue of [[Stamford Raffles]] in [[Singapore]]. The port city was the center of British rule in Southeast Asia, and has grown to become one of the world's major trading hubs.]]
By 1913, the British had occupied [[Burma]], [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and the northern [[Borneo]] territories, the [[France|French]] controlled [[Indochina]], the Dutch ruled the [[Netherlands East Indies]] while [[Portugal]] managed to hold on to [[Portuguese Timor]]. In the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]], the 1872 [[Cavite Mutiny]] was a precursor to the [[Philippine Revolution]] (1896–1898). When the [[Spanish–American War]] began in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared Philippine independence]] and established the [[First Philippine Republic]] the following year. In the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris of 1898]] that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to the [[Philippine–American War]], in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with the [[Republic of Zamboanga]], the [[Republic of Negros]] and the [[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|Republic of Katagalugan]], all of which were also defeated.

Colonial rule had had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period. The introduction Christianity bought by the colonist also have profound effect in the societal change.

Increased labour demand resulted in mass immigration, especially from [[British India]] and [[China]], which brought about massive demographic change. The institutions for a modern [[nation state]] like a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and to a smaller extent, modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledgling [[nationalism|nationalist]] movements in the colonial territories. In the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demanded [[self-determination]].

== 20th-century Southeast Asia ==

=== Japanese invasion and occupations ===
{{Further |Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan|South-East Asian theatre of World War II|Pacific War}}
[[File:Japanese light tanks moving toward Manila.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese imperial army entering [[Manila]], January 1942.]]
In September 1940, following the [[Fall of France]] and pursuant to the Pacific war goals of [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]], the [[Japanese Imperial Army]] invaded [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina|Vichy French Indochina]], which ended in the abortive [[Japanese coup de main in French Indochina]] of 9 March 1945. On 5 January 1941, Thailand launched the [[Franco-Thai War]], ended on 9 May 1941 by a Japanese-imposed treaty signed in Tokyo.<ref>[http://www.ww2f.com/topic/12620-vichy-versus-asia-the-franco-siamese-war-of-1941/ Vichy versus Asia: The Franco-Siamese War of 1941]</ref> On 7/8 December, Japan's entry into [[World War II]] began with the [[Thailand in World War II|invasion of Thailand]], the only invaded country to maintain nominal independence, due to her political and military alliance with the Japanese—on 10 May 1942, her northwestern [[Phayap Army|Payap Army]] invaded Burma during the [[Burma Campaign]]. From 1941 until war's end, Japanese [[Japanese occupation of Cambodia|occupied Cambodia]], [[Japanese occupation of Malaya|Malaya]] and the Philippines, which ended in independence movements. [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines#The occupation|Japanese occupation of the Philippines]] led to the forming of the [[Second Philippine Republic]], formally dissolved in Tokyo on 17 August 1945. Also on 17 August, a [[proclamation of Indonesian Independence]] was read at the conclusion of [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies]] since March 1942.

===Post-war decolonisation===
[[File:Bruce Crandall's UH-1D.jpg|thumb|right|Combat operations at Ia Drang Valley, during [[Vietnam War]], November 1965.]]

With the rejuvenated nationalist movements in wait, the Europeans returned to a very different Southeast Asia after [[World War II]]. [[Indonesia]] [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|declared independence]] on 17 August 1945 and subsequently [[Indonesian National Revolution|fought a bitter war]] against the returning Dutch; the Philippines was granted independence by the United States in 1946; Burma secured their independence from Britain in 1948, and the [[France|French]] were driven from [[French Indochina|Indochina]] in 1954 after a bitterly fought war (the [[Indochina War]]) against communist Vietnamese nationalists. The [[United Nations]] provided a forum for nationalism, post-independent self-definition, nation-building and the acquisition of territorial integrity for many newly independent nations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://projectsoutheastasia.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/SEAS2012_OpeningPanel-Papers.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://projectsoutheastasia.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/SEAS2012_OpeningPanel-Papers.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Some reflections on Southeast Asia and its position in academia  |publisher=Project Southeast Asia |author=Tom G. Hoogervorst |access-date= 14 January 2018}}</ref>

During the [[Cold War]], countering the threat of [[communism]] was a major theme in the [[decolonisation]] process. After suppressing the communist insurrection during the [[Malayan Emergency]] from 1948 to 1960, Britain granted independence to [[Federation of Malaya|Malaya]] and later, [[Singapore]], [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]] in 1957 and 1963 respectively within the framework of the [[Malaysia|Federation of Malaysia]]. In one of the most bloody single incidents of violence in Cold War Southeast Asia, General Suharto [[Overthrow of Sukarno|seized power in Indonesia]] in 1965 and initiated [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966|a massacre]] of approximately 500,000 alleged members of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI).

After French defeat in Điện Biên Phủ, France granted complete independence to the anti-communist [[State of Vietnam]] on 4 June 1954 before the communists took over the North in July.{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=93}} [[North Vietnam]]ese attempts to conquer [[South Vietnam]] resulted in the [[Vietnam War]]. The conflict spread to [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]] and heavy intervention from the [[United States]]. By the war's end in 1975, all these countries were controlled by communist parties. After the communist victory, two wars between communist states—the [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War]] of 1975–89 and the [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] of 1979—were fought in the region. The victory of the [[Khmer Rouge]] in Cambodia resulted in the [[Cambodian genocide]].<ref>Frey, Rebecca Joyce (2009). ''Genocide and International Justice''.</ref><ref>Olson, James S.; Roberts, Randy (2008). ''Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam 1945–1995'' (5th ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing</ref>

In 1975, Portuguese rule ended in East Timor. However, independence was short-lived as Indonesia [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|annexed the territory]] soon after. However, after more than [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|20 years of fighting Indonesia]], East Timor won its independence and was recognised by the UN in 2002. Finally, Britain ended its protectorate of the Sultanate of [[Brunei]] in 1984, marking the end of European rule in Southeast Asia.

==Contemporary Southeast Asia==
[[File:Map_of_Southeast_Asia.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Contemporary political map of Southeast Asia]]
[[File:ASEAN Nations Flags in Jakarta 3.jpg|thumb|right|[[ASEAN]] members' flags in [[Jakarta]].]]
Modern Southeast Asia has been characterised by high economic growth by most countries and closer regional integration. [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]] and [[Thailand]] have traditionally experienced high growth and are commonly recognised as the more developed countries of the region. As of late, [[Vietnam]] too had been experiencing an economic boom. However, [[Myanmar]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and the newly independent [[East Timor]] are still lagging economically.

On 8 August 1967, the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) was founded by Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. Since Cambodian admission into the union in 1999, East Timor is the only Southeast Asian country that is not part of ASEAN, although plans are under way for eventual membership. The association aims to enhance co-operation among Southeast Asian community. [[ASEAN Free Trade Area]] has been established to encourage greater trade among ASEAN members. ASEAN has also been a front runner in greater integration of Asia-Pacific region through [[East Asia Summit]]s.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia]]
* [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia]]
* [[Islam in Southeast Asia]]
* [[Greater India]]
* [[Two Layer hypothesis]]
* [[Spratly Islands]]
* [[History of Brunei]]
* [[History of Cambodia]]
* [[History of East Timor]]
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[History of Laos]]
* [[History of Malaysia]]
* [[History of Myanmar]]
* [[History of the Philippines]]
* [[History of Singapore]]
* [[History of Thailand]]
* [[History of Vietnam]]
* [[History of Asia]]
* [[Post - 1500 Southeast Asia Archaeology]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|author-link=Robin Dennell|last=Dennell|first=Robin|year=2010|chapter='Out of Africa I': Current Problems and Future Prospects|title=Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series|editor-first=John G.|editor-last=Fleagle|display-editors=etal|location=Dordrecht|pages=247–74|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-9036-2}}
* {{cite journal|author-link=Mike Morwood|last=Morwood|first=M. J.|year=2003|title=Revised age for Mojokerto 1, an early ''Homo erectus'' cranium from East Java, Indonesia|url=https://www.library.uq.edu.au/ojs/index.php/aa/article/view/526/1690|journal=Australian Archaeology|pages=1–4|volume=57|access-date=10 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310154453/https://www.library.uq.edu.au/ojs/index.php/aa/article/view/526/1690|archive-date=10 March 2014|url-status=dead|doi=10.1080/03122417.2003.11681757|s2cid=55510294|url-access=subscription}}.
* {{cite journal|last=Swisher|first=C. C.| year=1994|title=Age of the earliest known hominin in Java, Indonesia|journal=Science|pages=1118–21|volume=263|issue=5150|doi=10.1126/science.8108729|pmid=8108729|bibcode=1994Sci...263.1118S}}
* Sinha, P.C., ed. ''Encyclopaedia of South East and Far East Asia'' (Anmol, 2006).
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Robert F. | author-link = Robert F. Turner |title=Vietnamese Communism: Its Origins and Development |publisher=[[Hoover Institution|Hoover Institution Publications]] |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-8179-1431-8 |location=Stanford}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Reid, Anthony. ''A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads'' (Blackwell History of the World, 2015)
* {{cite book|author=Charles Alfred Fisher|title=South-east Asia: a social, economic, and political geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLhAAAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=Methuen|isbn=9789070080600}}
* {{cite book|author=D.G.E. Hall|title=A History of South-East Asia 4th ed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_U21B4ExmpAC|year=1981}} [https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3869/page/n5 online version of 1955 edition, 810pp]
* {{cite book|last=Cœdès|first= George|author-link= George Cœdès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). ''Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.''
* {{cite book|author=Daigorō Chihara|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-10512-6}}
* {{cite book|author=Peter Church|title=A Short History of South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8S5PXyWMEeAC|date=3 February 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-35044-7}}
* {{cite book|author=George Cœdès|title=The Indianized States of South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iDyJBFTdiwoC|year=1968|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* Embree, Ainslie T., ed. ''Encyclopedia of Asian history'' (1988) 
**[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0003unse/page/n5/mode/2up vol. 1 online]; [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0002unse/page/n5/mode/2up vol 2 online]; [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0003unse_l9c1/page/n5/mode/2up vol 3 online]; [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr vol 4 online]
* {{cite book|last=von Glahn|first=Richard|date=27 December 1996|title=Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000-1700|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-91745-3}}
* {{cite book|author=Bernard Philippe Groslier|title=The art of Indochina: including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia|url=https://archive.org/details/artofindochinain00gros|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Crown Publishers}}
* {{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall|title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC|date=28 December 2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7}}
* {{cite book|author-link1=Peter Holt (historian)|last1=Holt|first1=Peter Malcolm|author-link2=Bernard Lewis|last2=Lewis|first2=Bernard|title=The Cambridge History of Islam|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1977|isbn=978-0-521-29137-8|title-link=The Cambridge History of Islam}}
* {{cite book|author=Virginia Matheson Hooker|title=A Short History of Malaysia: Linking East and West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6F7xthSLFNEC|year=2003|publisher=Allen & Unwin|isbn=978-1-86448-955-2}}
* {{cite book|author=Michael C. Howard|title=Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC|date=23 February 2012|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-9033-2}}
* {{cite book|author=Victor T. King|title=The Sociology of Southeast Asia: Transformations in a Developing Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54s1JHO69OMC|year=2008|publisher=NIAS Press|isbn=978-87-91114-60-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Paul Michel Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=National Book Network|isbn=978-981-4155-67-0}}
* {{cite book|author=D. R. SarDesai|title=Southeast Asia, Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4Ci1E4ydgoC&q=Rajendra+Chola+zulkarnain|year=2003|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-4143-9}}
* Heidhues, Mary Somer. "'Southeast Asia: A Concise History" {{ISBN|0-500-28303-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Majumdar, R.C. | title=India and South-East Asia | publisher=I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6 | year=1979 | isbn=978-81-7018-046-3| author-link=R.C. Majumdar }}
* {{cite book|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1|editor-first=Keat Gin|editor-last=Ooi|edition=illustrated|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC|isbn=978-1576077702|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Oriental trade ceramics in South-East Asia, ninth to sixteenth centuries: with a catalogue of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai wares in Australian collections|first=John|last=Guy|editor-first=John|editor-last=Guy|edition=illustrated, revised|year=1986|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195825930|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GxrrAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|author1=David G. Marr|author2=Anthony Crothers Milner|title=Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lon7gmj040MC|year=1986|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-9971-988-39-5}}
* Osborne, Milton. ''Southeast Asia. An introductory history''. {{ISBN|1-86508-390-9}}
* {{cite book|author=Jan M. Pluvier|title=Historical Atlas of South-East Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzRtAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=E.J. Brill|isbn=978-90-04-10238-5}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Anthony Reid (academic)|last=Reid|first=Anthony|date=9 May 1990|title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: The Lands Below the Winds|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-04750-9}}
* {{cite book|author=Anthony Reid|title=Charting the Shape of Early Modern Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNMGBAAAQBAJ|date=1 August 2000|publisher=Silkworm Books|isbn=978-1-63041-481-8}}
* Scott, James C., The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia (Yale Agrarian Studies Series), 464 pages, Yale University Press (30 September 2009), {{ISBN|0300152280}}, {{ISBN|978-0300152289}}
* Tarling, Nicholas (ed). ''The Cambridge history of Southeast Asia'' Vol I-IV. {{ISBN|0-521-66369-5}}
* R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia
* [[R. C. Majumdar]], ''India and South-East Asia'', I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, {{ISBN|81-7018-046-5}}.
* {{cite book | author=Paul Michel Munoz | title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula | publisher=Editions Didier Millet | year=2006 | isbn=978-981-4155-67-0}}
* {{cite book|title=Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Expansion and crisis, Volume 2|first=Anthony|last=Reid|volume=2 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680|edition=illustrated|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vxgHExnla4MC|isbn=978-0300054125|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast China and the Chinese|editor1-first=Anthony|editor1-last=Reid|editor2-first=Kristine|editor2-last=Alilunas-Rodgers|others=Contributor Kristine Alilunas-Rodgers|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=1996|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFIGVqZ9ZKsC|isbn=978-0824824464|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|author=Edward H. Schafer|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Z7cZ77SqEQC|year=1963|publisher=University of California Press|id=GGKEY:XZ70D3XUH9A}}
* {{cite book|title=Southeast Asian Archaeology: Wilhelm G. Solheim II Festschrift|editor1-first=Victor|editor1-last=Paz|editor2-first=Wilhelm G.|editor2-last=Solheim, II|edition=illustrated|year=2004|publisher=University of the Philippines Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fj1mAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-9715424516|access-date=24 April 2014}}
* Yule, Paul. ''The Bronze Age Metalwork of India''. Prähistorische Bronzefunde XX,8, Munich, 1985, {{ISBN|3 406 30440 0}}.
* {{cite journal|last1=Demeter|first1=F.|last2=Shackelford|first2=L. L.|last3=Bacon|first3=A.-M.|last4=Duringer|first4=P.|last5=Westaway|first5=K.|last6=Sayavongkhamdy|first6=T.|last7=Braga|first7=J.|last8=Sichanthongtip|first8=P.|last9=Khamdalavong|first9=P.|last10=Ponche|first10=J.-L.|last11=Wang|first11=H.|last12=Lundstrom|first12=C.|last13=Patole-Edoumba|first13=E.|last14=Karpoff|first14=A.-M.|title=Anatomically modern human in Southeast Asia (Laos) by 46 ka|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=20 August 2012|volume=109|issue=36|pages=14375–14380|doi=10.1073/pnas.1208104109|pmid=22908291|pmc=3437904|bibcode=2012PNAS..10914375D|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Marwick|first1=Ben|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=Marwick+B+2008.+Stone+artefacts+and+recent+research+in+the+archaeology+of+mainland+Southeast+Asian+hunter-gatherers.+Before+Farming+2008%2F4.&btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C48&as_sdtp=.|title=Stone artefacts and recent research in the archaeology of mainland Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers|journal=Before Farming|date=January 2008|volume=2008|issue=4|pages=1–19|doi=10.3828/bfarm.2008.4.1|citeseerx=10.1.1.368.9926}}
* {{cite book|title=The South East Asian Review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRFXAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Institute of South East Asian Studies.}}
* {{cite book|title=Southeast Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781741792331|url-access=registration|date=15 September 2010|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74220-377-5}}
* {{cite book|title=Tri thức Đông Nam Á|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZZPAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA208|year=2008|publisher=Nhà xuá̂t bản Chính trị quó̂c gia|pages=208–}}
* {{cite book|title=Thailandia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23_Qzobeu4wC|year=2005|publisher=Touring Editore|isbn=978-88-365-3327-5}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.researchgate.net/file.PostFileLoader.html?id...assetKey... A Short History of China and Southeast Asia.pdf]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050413155545/http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2004/11/18/ancient-southeast-asia/ Ancient Southeast Asia Throbbing Blood Tube]
* [[:v:Topic:Southeast Asian history|Wikiversity – Department of Southeast Asian History]]
* [http://toyoshi.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp/maruha/kanseki 雲南・東南アジアに関する漢籍史料 ]
* [http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/9789004329669 Citizenship and Democratization in Southeast Asia]
* [http://www.asianbarometer.org/publications/fcec32f13ab256a0262837fe2466c134.pdf Democracy and Citizen Politics in East Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221065515/http://www.asianbarometer.org/publications/fcec32f13ab256a0262837fe2466c134.pdf |date=21 February 2022 }}
{{Southeast Asian topics}}{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Southeast Asia}}
[[Category:History of Southeast Asia| ]]