Editing History of the Philippines

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{{Very long|date=June 2023|words=22,000}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{History of the Philippines}}

The '''history of the Philippines''' dates from the earliest [[Hominini|hominin]] activity in the archipelago at least by 709,000 years ago.<ref name=":0" /> ''[[Homo luzonensis]]'', a species of archaic humans, was present on the island of [[Luzon]]<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Mijares |first1=Armand Salvador |last2=Détroit |first2=Florent |last3=Piper |first3=Philip |last4=Grün |first4=Rainer |last5=Bellwood |first5=Peter |last6=Aubert |first6=Maxime |last7=Champion |first7=Guillaume |last8=Cuevas |first8=Nida |last9=De Leon |first9=Alexandra |last10=Dizon |first10=Eusebio |date=July 2010 |title=New evidence for a 67,000-year-old human presence at Callao Cave, Luzon, Philippines |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=123–132 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.04.008 |pmid=20569967|bibcode=2010JHumE..59..123M }}</ref><ref name=":2" /> at least by 134,000 years ago.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Grün |first1=Rainer |last2=Stringer |first2=Chris |date=2023-12-15 |title=Direct dating of human fossils and the ever-changing story of human evolution |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=322 |pages=108379 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108379 |issn=0277-3791|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023QSRv..32208379G }}</ref>

The earliest known anatomically modern human was from [[Tabon Caves]] in [[Palawan]] dating about 47,000 years.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Dizon |first2=Eusebio |last3=Falguères |first3=Christophe |last4=Hameau |first4=Sébastien |last5=Ronquillo |first5=Wilfredo |last6=Sémah |first6=François |title=Upper Pleistocene Homo sapiens from the Tabon cave (Palawan, The Philippines): description and dating of new discoveries |journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol |date=December 2004 |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=705–712 |doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2004.06.004 |bibcode=2004CRPal...3..705D |s2cid=140135409 }}</ref> [[Negrito]] groups were the first inhabitants to settle in the prehistoric Philippines.<ref name="Reid2007" /> These were followed by [[Austroasiatic language|Austroasiatics]], [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]], and [[South Asia]]ns.<ref name="Larena" /> By around 3000 BCE, seafaring Austronesians, who form the majority of the current population, migrated southward from Taiwan.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jbjx1|title=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives|publisher=ANU Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1-920942-85-4|editor-last=Bellwood|editor-first=Peter|series=Comparative Austronesian Series|pages=37–38|jstor=j.ctt2jbjx1|editor-last2=Fox|editor-first2=James J.|editor-last3=Tryon|editor-first3=Darrell|archive-date=March 8, 2021|access-date=February 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308143730/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jbjx1|url-status=live}}</ref> By 2000 BCE the archipelago was the crux of a trans-oceanic [[Philippine jade culture]].<ref name="uno" />

Scholars generally believe that these ethnic and social groups eventually developed into various settlements or polities with varying degrees of [[economic specialization]], [[social stratification]], and [[social organization|political organization]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pre-colonial Manila|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222090232/http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|archive-date=December 22, 2021|access-date=October 9, 2021|website=Malacañan Palace: Presidential Museum and Library|language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such a scale of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be considered early [[State (polity)|states]].<ref name="Jocano2001">{{Cite book |last=Jocano |first=F. Landa |title=Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage |publisher=Punlad Research House, Inc. |year=2001 |isbn=978-971-622-006-3 |location=Quezon City |author-link=F. Landa Jocano}}</ref> This includes the predecessors of modern-day population centers such as [[Rajahnate of Maynila|Manila]], [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]], [[Pangasinan (historical polity)|Pangasinan]], [[Rajahnate of Cebu|Cebu]], [[Madja-as|Panay]], [[Bo-ol|Bohol]], [[Rajahnate of Butuan|Butuan]], [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Cotabato]], [[Confederate States of Lanao|Lanao]], [[Sanmalan|Zamboanga]] and [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]]<ref name="Junker1998">{{cite journal |last1=Junker |first1=Laura Lee |title=Integrating History and Archaeology in the Study of Contact Period Philippine Chiefdoms |journal=International Journal of Historical Archaeology |date=1998 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=291–320 |doi=10.1023/A:1022611908759 |jstor=20852912 |s2cid=141415414 }}</ref> as well as some [[Polity|polities]], such as [[Ma-i]], whose possible location is either Mindoro or Laguna.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Go |first=Bon Juan |date=2005 |title=Ma'I in Chinese Records – Mindoro or Bai? An Examination of a Historical Puzzle |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42633737 |journal=Philippine Studies |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=119–138 |jstor=42633737 |archive-date=March 31, 2022 |access-date=March 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331170737/https://www.jstor.org/stable/42633737 |url-status=live }}</ref>

These polities were influenced by [[Islam]]ic, [[India]]n, and [[China proper|Chinese]] cultures. Islam arrived from [[Arabia]], while Indian [[Hindu]]-[[Buddhist]]<ref name="SoulBook1991">{{Cite book |last1=Demetrio |first1=Francisco R. |title=The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion |last2=Cordero-Fernando |first2=Gilda |last3=Nakpil-Zialcita |first3=Roberto B. |last4=Feleo |first4=Fernando |date=1991 |publisher=GCF Books, Quezon City |asin=B007FR4S8G |author-link2=Gilda Cordero-Fernando}}</ref> [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|religion]], [[Indosphere|language]], [[Culture of India|culture]], [[Indian literature#Indian literature in archaic Indian languages|literature]] and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] arrived from the Indian subcontinent .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thakur |first=Upendra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC&pg=PA4 |title=Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1986 |isbn=978-81-7017-207-9 |page=4}}</ref> Some polities were [[Sinicization|Sinified]] tributary states allied to [[China proper|China]]. These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bisht|first1=N. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Rp5cCMHFxQC|title=Encyclopaedia of the South-east Asian Ethnography: Communities and Tribes|last2=Bankoti|first2=T. S.|date=2004|publisher=Global Vision|isbn=978-81-87746-96-6|location=|pages=69|language=en}}</ref>

These kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The remainder of the settlements were independent [[barangay]]s allied with one of the larger states. These small states alternated from being part of or being influenced by larger Asian empires like the [[Ming dynasty]], [[Majapahit]] and [[Sultanate of Brunei|Brunei]] or rebelling and waging war against them.<ref name="Abinales&Amoroso20052" />

The first recorded visit by Europeans is [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s expedition, which landed in [[Homonhon]] Island, now part of Guiuan, Eastern Samar, on March 17, 1521. They lost a battle against the army of [[Lapulapu]], chief of [[Mactan]], where Magellan was killed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergreen |first=Laurence |url=https://archive.org/details/overedgeofworl00berg |title=Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe |date=October 14, 2003 |publisher=William Morrow |isbn=978-0-06-621173-2 |author-link=Laurence Bergreen}}</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=March 14, 2021|title=PH to Mark the First Circumnavigation Route|url=https://nqc.gov.ph/en/ph-to-mark-the-first-circumnavigation-route/|access-date=|website=2021 Quincentennial Commemorations in the Philippines|publisher=National Quincentennial Committee|language=en|archive-date=January 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128032005/https://nqc.gov.ph/en/ph-to-mark-the-first-circumnavigation-route/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Spanish Philippines]] began with the [[New Spain#Pacific expansion and the Philippine trade|Pacific expansion of New Spain]] and the arrival of [[Miguel López de Legazpi]]'s expedition on February 13, 1565, from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement in [[Cebu]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Borja|first=Marciano R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXpiujH2uOwC&pg=PA132|title=Basques In The Philippines|publisher=University of Nevada Press|year=2005|isbn=9780874175905|location=Reno|pages=17–29}}</ref>

Much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political structure known as the [[Philippines]]. Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity, the [[code of law]], and the [[University of Santo Tomas|oldest modern university in Asia]]. The Philippines was ruled under the Mexico-based [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]]. After this, the colony was directly governed by Spain, following Mexico's independence.

Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spain's defeat in the [[Spanish–American War]]. The Philippines then became a territory of the United States. U.S. forces suppressed a [[Philippine Revolution|revolution]] led by [[Emilio Aguinaldo]]. [[The United States]] established the [[Insular Government]] to rule the Philippines. In 1907, the elected [[Philippine Assembly]] was set up with popular elections. The U.S. promised independence in the [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Act]].<ref name="Zaide">{{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|p=281}}</ref> The [[Philippine Commonwealth]] was established in 1935, as a 10-year interim step prior to full independence. However, in 1942 during World War II, [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|Japan occupied the Philippines]]. The U.S. military overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila in 1946]] established the independent Philippine Republic.

==Timeline==
{{main|Timeline of Philippine history}}
{{wide image|File:Philippine history timeline.png|1000px}}

== Prehistory ==
{{Main|Prehistory of the Philippines}}
[[File:Tabon Cave 2014 01.JPG|thumb|Docking station and entrance to the [[Tabon Cave]] Complex Site in [[Palawan]], where one of the oldest human remains was located.]]

Stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains discovered in Rizal, Kalinga are evidences of early hominins in the country to as early as 709,000 years.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Ingicco |first1=T. |last2=van den Bergh |first2=G.D. |last3=Jago-on |first3=C. |last4=Bahain |first4=J.-J. |last5=Chacón |first5=M.G. |last6=Amano |first6=N. |last7=Forestier |first7=H. |last8=King |first8=C. |last9=Manalo |first9=K. |last10=Nomade |first10=S. |last11=Pereira |first11=A. |date=May 1, 2018 |title=Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |journal=Nature |volume=557 |issue=7704 |pages=233–237 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..233I |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0072-8 |pmid=29720661 |first12=M.C. |last12=Reyes |first13=A.-M. |last13=Sémah |first14=Q. |last14=Shao |first15=P. |last15=Voinchet |first16=C. |last16=Falguères |first17=P.C.H. |last17=Albers |first18=M. |last18=Lising |first19=G. |last19=Lyras |first20=D. |last20=Yurnaldi |first21=P. |last21=Rochette |first22=A. |last22=Bautista |first23=J. |last23=de Vos |s2cid=13742336 |access-date=May 20, 2020 |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301002927/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |url-status=dead }}</ref> Researchers found 57 stone tools near rhinoceros bones bearing cut marks and some bones smashed open, suggesting that the early humans were after the nutrient-rich marrow.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Very Long Way to Eat Rhino - Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/310-1809/trenches/6868-trenches-philippines-middle-pleistocene-rhinoceros-feast |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=www.archaeology.org}}</ref> A 2023 study dated the age of fossilized  remains of ''Homo luzonensis'' of Cagayan at about 134,000 years.<ref name=":13" />

This and the [[Angono Petroglyphs]] in [[Rizal (province)|Rizal]] suggest the presence of human settlement before the arrival of the [[Negrito]]s and [[Austronesian people|Austronesian speaking people]].<ref name="Jett2017">{{Cite book |last=Jett |first=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas |date=2017 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=9780817319397 |pages=168–171}}</ref><ref name="Detroit2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Corny |first2=Julien |last3=Dizon |first3=Eusebio Z. |last4=Mijares |first4=Armand S. |date=2013 |title="Small Size" in the Philippine Human Fossil Record: Is It Meaningful for a Better Understanding of the Evolutionary History of the Negritos? |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c3c5/8d22cf45c6231c302c3f3c9a58ac435e0a33.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323014000/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c3c5/8d22cf45c6231c302c3f3c9a58ac435e0a33.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 23, 2019 |journal=Human Biology |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=45–66 |doi=10.3378/027.085.0303 |pmid=24297220 |s2cid=24057857 |accessdate=May 20, 2020 }}</ref> The Callao Man remains and 12 bones of three hominin individuals found by subsequent excavations in Callao Cave were later identified to belong in a new species named ''[[Homo luzonensis]]''.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Mijares |first2=Armand Salvador |last3=Corny |first3=Julien |last4=Daver |first4=Guillaume |last5=Zanolli |first5=Clément |last6=Dizon |first6=Eusebio |last7=Robles |first7=Emil |last8=Grün |first8=Rainer |last9=Piper |first9=Philip J. |title=A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines |journal=Nature |date=April 2019 |volume=568 |issue=7751 |pages=181–186 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9 |pmid=30971845 |bibcode=2019Natur.568..181D |s2cid=106411053 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02296712/file/Detroit_%26_al_2019_Nature_postprint.pdf |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |access-date=May 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013114830/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02296712/file/Detroit_%26_al_2019_Nature_postprint.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> For [[Humans|modern humans]], the Tabon Man remains are the still oldest known at about 47,000 years.<ref name=":3" />

The [[Negrito]]s were early settlers,<ref name="Reid2007">{{cite book |last=Reid |first=Lawrence A. |author-link=Lawrence A. Reid |year=2007 |chapter=Historical linguistics and Philippine hunter-gatherers |editor1=L. Billings |editor2=N. Goudswaard |title=Piakandatu ami Dr. Howard P. McKaughan |location=Manila |publisher=Linguistic Society of the Philippines and SIL Philippines |pages=6–32 |quote=The Negrito groups are considered to be the earliest inhabitants of the Philippines... genetic evidence (the occurrence of unique alleles) suggests that the Negrito groups in Mindanao may have been separated from those in Luzon for twenty to thirty thousand years (p.10).}}</ref> but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|1984|p=138}}. "Not one roof beam, not one grain of rice, not one pygmy Negrito bone has been recovered. Any theory which describes such details is therefore pure hypothesis and should be honestly presented as such."</ref> They were followed by speakers of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]], a branch of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]]. The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at 3000–2200 BCE, settling the [[Batanes Islands]] and [[northern Luzon]].

From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and [[Southeast Asia]], as well as voyaging further east to reach the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] by around 1500 BCE.<ref name=":6" /><ref name="Chambers2013">{{cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Geoff |title=eLS |chapter=Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians |publisher= John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|date=2013 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2|isbn=978-0470016176}}</ref><ref name="mijares2006">{{cite journal|last1=Mijares|first1=Armand Salvador B. |year=2006 |url=http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707050814/http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9|archive-date=July 7, 2014 |title=The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon: Perspectives From The Peñablanca Cave Sites|journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association|issue=26|pages=72–78}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated213">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration|date=2014|page=213}}</ref> They assimilated the earlier [[Australo-Melanesian]] Negritos, resulting in the modern [[Filipino ethnic groups]] that all display various ratios of [[genetic admixture]] between Austronesian and Negrito groups.<ref name="Lipson2014">{{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Loh |first2=Po-Ru |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Moorjani |first4=Priya |last5=Ko |first5=Ying-Chin |last6=Stoneking |first6=Mark |last7=Berger |first7=Bonnie |last8=Reich |first8=David |title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia |journal=Nature Communications |date=2014 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=4689 |doi=10.1038/ncomms5689 |pmid=25137359 |pmc=4143916 |bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4689L }}</ref>{{sfn|Scott|1984|p=52}} Before the expansion out of Taiwan, archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence had linked Austronesian speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to cultures such as the [[Hemudu culture|Hemudu]], its successor the [[Liangzhu culture|Liangzhu]]<ref name="autogenerated213" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goodenough|first1=Ward Hunt|title=Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5 |date=1996 |publisher=American Philosophical Society|pages=127–128}}</ref> and [[Dapenkeng culture|Dapenkeng]] in Neolithic China.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goodenough|first1=Ward Hunt|title=Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5 |date=1996 |publisher=American Philosophical Society|page=52}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum |url=http://bishopmuseum.org/media/2007/pr07036.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228173514/http://bishopmuseum.org/media/2007/pr07036.html |archive-date=February 28, 2014 |access-date=April 16, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sagart |first1=Laurent |chapter=The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model |pages=165–190 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gKF9iWqt0gC&pg=RA1-PT48 |editor1-last=Sanchez-Mazas |editor1-first=Alicia |editor2-last=Blench |editor2-first=Roger |editor3-last=Ross |editor3-first=Malcolm D. |editor4-last=Peiros |editor4-first=Ilia |editor5-last=Lin |editor5-first=Marie |title=Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics |date=July 25, 2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-14962-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Y chromosomes of prehistoric people along the Yangtze River| pmid=17657509 | doi=10.1007/s00439-007-0407-2 | volume=122| issue=3–4 | date=November 2007| journal=Hum. Genet.| pages=383–8 | last1 = Li | first1 = H | last2 = Huang | first2 = Y | last3 = Mustavich | first3 = LF | s2cid=2533393 |display-authors=etal| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ko |first1=Albert Min-Shan |last2=Chen |first2=Chung-Yu |last3=Fu |first3=Qiaomei |last4=Delfin |first4=Frederick |last5=Li |first5=Mingkun |last6=Chiu |first6=Hung-Lin |last7=Stoneking |first7=Mark |last8=Ko |first8=Ying-Chin |title=Early Austronesians: Into and Out Of Taiwan |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=March 2014 |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=426–436 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.02.003 |pmid=24607387 |pmc=3951936 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The most widely accepted theory of the population of the islands is the [[Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis|"Out-of-Taiwan" model]] that follows the Austronesian expansion during the [[Neolithic]] in a series of maritime migrations originating from [[Taiwan]] that spread to the islands of the [[Indo-Pacific]]; ultimately reaching as far as [[New Zealand]], [[Easter Island]], and [[Madagascar]].<ref name="Chambers2013" /><ref name="Bellwood2004" /> Austronesians themselves originated from the Neolithic rice-cultivating pre-Austronesian civilizations of the [[Lower Yangtze|Yangtze River delta]] in coastal southeastern China pre-dating the [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|conquest of those regions]] by the [[Han Chinese]].

This includes civilizations like the [[Liangzhu culture]], [[Hemudu culture]], and the [[Majiabang culture]].<ref name="Liu2012">{{Cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Li |title=The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age |last2=Chen |first2=Xingcan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780521644327 |series=Cambridge World Archaeology |page=204 |chapter=Emergence of social inequality – The middle Neolithic (5000–3000 BC) |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139015301.007 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oX6gs6TAZdEC&pg=PA204}}</ref> It connects speakers of the [[Austronesian languages]] in a common linguistic and genetic lineage, including the [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]], [[Islander Southeast Asians]], [[Chams]], Islander [[Melanesians]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Polynesians]], and the [[Malagasy people]]. Aside from language and genetics, they also share common cultural markers like [[multihull]] and [[outrigger boat]]s, [[tattooing]], [[rice cultivation]], [[wetland agriculture]], [[teeth blackening]], [[jade]] carving, [[Paan|betel nut chewing]], [[ancestor worship]], and the same [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia|domesticated plants and animals]] (including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams, bananas, sugarcane, and coconuts).<ref name="Chambers2013" /><ref name="Bellwood2004">{{cite book|last1 =Bellwood|first1 =Peter|editor1-last =Glover|editor1-first =Ian|editor2-last =Bellwood|editor2-first =Peter|title =Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History|chapter =The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia|publisher =RoutledgeCurzon|year =2004|pages =21–40|isbn =9780415297776|chapter-url =http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchaut12/Bellwood%202004.pdf|archive-date =March 12, 2023|access-date =May 20, 2020|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230312151529/https://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchaut12/Bellwood%202004.pdf|url-status =live}}</ref><ref name="BlenchFruits">{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=The Taipei Papers (Volume 2) |pages=31–50 |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |access-date=May 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161216/https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2021 genetic study examining representatives of 115 indigenous communities found evidence of at least five independent waves of early human migration. Negrito groups, divided between those in Luzon and those in Mindanao, may come from a single wave and diverged subsequently, or through two separate waves. This likely occurred sometime after 46,000 years ago. Another Negrito migration entered Mindanao sometime after 25,000 years ago. Two early East Asian waves were detected, one most strongly evidenced among the [[Manobo]] people who live in inland Mindanao, and the other in the [[Sama-Bajau]] and related people of the Sulu archipelago, Zamboanga Peninsula, and Palawan. The admixture found in the Sama people indicates a relationship with the [[Htin people|Htin]] and [[Mlabri people]] of mainland Southeast Asia, both peoples being speakers of an [[Austroasiatic language]] and reflects a similar genetic signal found in western Indonesia. These happened sometime after 15,000 years ago and 12,000 years ago respectively, around the time the [[last glacial period]] was coming to an end. Austronesians, either from Southern China or Taiwan, were found to have come in at least two distinct waves. The first, occurring perhaps between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, brought the ancestors of indigenous groups that today live around the [[Cordillera Central (Luzon)|Cordillera Central]] mountain range. Later migrations brought other Austronesian groups, along with agriculture, and the languages of these recent Austronesian migrants effectively replaced those existing populations. In all cases, new immigrants appear to have mixed to some degree with existing populations. The integration of Southeast Asia into Indian Ocean trading networks around 2,000 years ago also shows some impact, with South Asian genetic signals present within some Sama-Bajau communities. There is also some Papuan migration to Southeast Mindanao as Papuan genetic signatures were detected in the [[Sangil language|Sangil]] and [[Blaan people|Blaan]] ethnic groups.<ref name="Larena">{{cite journal |last1=Larena |first1=Maximilian |last2=Sanchez-Quinto |first2=Federico |last3=Sjödin |first3=Per |last4=McKenna |first4=James |last5=Ebeo |first5=Carlo |last6=Reyes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Casel |first7=Ophelia |last8=Huang |first8=Jin-Yuan |last9=Hagada |first9=Kim Pullupul |last10=Guilay |first10=Dennis |last11=Reyes |first11=Jennelyn |last12=Allian |first12=Fatima Pir |last13=Mori |first13=Virgilio |last14=Azarcon |first14=Lahaina Sue |last15=Manera |first15=Alma |last16=Terando |first16=Celito |last17=Jamero |first17=Lucio |last18=Sireg |first18=Gauden |last19=Manginsay-Tremedal |first19=Renefe |last20=Labos |first20=Maria Shiela |last21=Vilar |first21=Richard Dian |last22=Latiph |first22=Acram |last23=Saway |first23=Rodelio Linsahay |last24=Marte |first24=Erwin |last25=Magbanua |first25=Pablito |last26=Morales |first26=Amor |last27=Java |first27=Ismael |last28=Reveche |first28=Rudy |last29=Barrios |first29=Becky |last30=Burton |first30=Erlinda |last31=Salon |first31=Jesus Christopher |last32=Kels |first32=Ma. Junaliah Tuazon |last33=Albano |first33=Adrian |last34=Cruz-Angeles |first34=Rose Beatrix |last35=Molanida |first35=Edison |last36=Granehäll |first36=Lena |last37=Vicente |first37=Mário |last38=Edlund |first38=Hanna |last39=Loo |first39=Jun-Hun |last40=Trejaut |first40=Jean |last41=Ho |first41=Simon Y. W. |last42=Reid |first42=Lawrence |last43=Malmström |first43=Helena |last44=Schlebusch |first44=Carina |last45=Lambeck |first45=Kurt |last46=Endicott |first46=Phillip |last47=Jakobsson |first47=Mattias |title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=March 30, 2021 |volume=118 |issue=13 |pages=e2026132118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |pmid=33753512 |pmc=8020671 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref>

By 1000 BCE, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups, such as the [[Aeta peoples|Aetas]], [[Hanunó'o language|Hanunoo]], [[Ilongot people|Ilongots]] and the [[Mangyan]] who depended on [[Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gathering]] and were concentrated in forests; warrior societies, such as the [[Isneg]] and [[Kalinga people|Kalinga]] who practiced social ranking and [[Ritualization|ritualized]] warfare and roamed the plains; the petty [[plutocracy]] of the [[Ifugao people|Ifugao]] Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of [[Luzon]]; and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans-island maritime trade.<ref name="Legarda, Benito, Jr. 2001 40" /> It was also during the first millennium BCE that early metallurgy was said to have reached the archipelagos of maritime Southeast Asia via trade with India{{sfn|Munoz|2006|p=45}}<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Glover|editor1-first=Ian|editor2-last=Bellwood|editor2-first=Peter|title=Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC&pg=PA36 |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-29777-6|pages=36, 157}}</ref>

Around 300–700 CE, the seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in ''[[balangay]]s'' began to trade with the [[Indianized kingdoms]] in the [[Malay Archipelago]] and the nearby [[East Asian]] principalities, adopting influences from both [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]].<ref>''The Philippines and India'' – Dhirendra Nath Roy, Manila 1929 and ''India and The World'' – By Buddha Prakash p. 119–120.</ref>

===Maritime Jade Road===
The [[Maritime Jade Road]] was initially established by the animist indigenous peoples between the Philippines and Taiwan, and later expanded to cover Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other countries.<ref>Hsiao-Chun Hung, et al. (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. PNAS.</ref> Artifacts made from white and green [[Jade|nephrite]] have been discovered at a number of archeological excavations in the Philippines since the 1930s. The artifacts have been both tools like [[adze]]s<ref name=UCLA1981>Father Gabriel Casal & Regalado Trota Jose, Jr., Eric S. Casino, George R. Ellis, Wilhelm G. Solheim II, ''The People and Art of the Philippines'', printed by the Museum of Cultural History, UCLA (1981)</ref> and [[chisel]]s, and ornaments such as lingling-o earrings, bracelets and beads.<ref name="uno">Bellwood, Peter, Hsiao-Chun Hung, and Yoshiyuki Iizuka. "Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction." Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde (2011): 31–41.</ref> Tens of thousands were found in a single site in [[Batangas]].{{sfn|Scott|1984|p=17}}<ref name="Pathos of Origin">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=Pathos of Origin |date=2011 |pages=31–41}}</ref> The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hsiao-Chun|first1=Hung|title=Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia|date=2007}}</ref> Throughout history, the Maritime Jade Road has been known as one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world, existing for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.<ref>Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). [https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324023227/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 |date=March 24, 2022 }}. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref> The operations of the Maritime Jade Road coincided with an era of near absolute peace which lasted for 1,500 years, from 500 BCE to 1000 CE.<ref>Mallari, P. G. S. (2014). War and peace in precolonial Philippines. The Manila Times.</ref> During this peaceful pre-colonial period, not a single burial site studied by scholars yielded any osteological proof for violent death. No instances of mass burials were recorded as well, signifying the peaceful situation of the islands. Burials with violent proof were only found from burials beginning in the 15th century, likely due to the newer cultures of expansionism imported from India and China. When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, they recorded some warlike groups, whose cultures have already been influenced by the imported Indian and Chinese expansionist cultures of the 15th century.<ref>Junker, L. L. (1999). Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. University of Hawaii Press.</ref>

===The Sa Huỳnh culture===
{{see also|Kalanay Cave}}
[[File:Asia 200bc.jpg|thumb|Asia in 200 BCE, showing the [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] in [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] and the Philippines in transition.]]
The [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] centered on present-day Vietnam, showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huỳnh beads were made from glass, [[carnelian]], [[agate]], [[olivine]], [[zircon]], gold and [[garnet]]; most of these materials were not local to the region, and were most likely imported. [[Han dynasty]]-style [[bronze mirror]]s were also found in Sa Huỳnh sites.

Conversely, Sa Huỳnh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in [[Central Thailand]], Taiwan (Orchid Island), and in the Philippines, in the [[Palawan]], [[Tabon Caves]]. One of the great examples is the [[Kalanay Cave]] in [[Masbate]]; the artefacts on the site in one of the "Sa Huỳnh-Kalanay" pottery complex sites were dated 400BCE–1500 CE. The [[Maitum anthropomorphic pottery]] in the [[Sarangani Province]] of southern [[Mindanao]] is c. 200 CE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Solheim|first1=William|title=Prehistoric Archaeology in Eastern Mainland Southeast Asia and the Philippines|date=1969|volume=3|pages=97–108|journal=Asian Perspectives|hdl=10125/19126}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1-link=John N. Miksic|last1=Miksic |first1=John N. |title=Earthenware in Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the Singapore Symposium on Premodern Southeast Asian Earthenwares. |location=Singapore |publisher=Singapore University Press, National University of Singapore|date=2003}}</ref>

Ambiguity of what is Sa Huỳnh culture puts into question its extent of influence in Southeast Asia. Sa Huỳnh culture is characterized by use of cylindrical or egg-shaped burial jars associated with hat-shaped lids. Using its mortuary practice as a new definition, Sa Huỳnh culture should be geographically restricted across Central Vietnam between Hue City in the north and Nha Trang City in the south. Recent archeological research reveals that the potteries in Kalanay Cave are quite different from those of the Sa Huỳnh but strikingly similar to those in Hoa Diem site, Central Vietnam and Samui Island, Thailand. New estimate dates the artifacts in Kalanay cave to come much later than Sa Huỳnh culture at 200–300 CE. Bio-anthropological analysis of human fossils found also confirmed the colonization of Vietnam by Austronesian people from insular Southeast Asia in, e.g., the Hoa Diem site.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dhani Irwanto|title=Sundaland: Tracing The Cradle of Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3qODwAAQBAJ|year=2019|publisher=Indonesia Hydro Media|isbn=978-602-724-493-1|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-3qODwAAQBAJ&dq=%22hoa+diem%22+austronesian&pg=PA41 41]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Yamagata|first1=Mariko|last2=Matsumura|first2=Hirofumi|chapter=Austronesian Migration to Central Vietnam: Crossing over the Iron Age Southeast Asian Sea|date=2017|title=New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory|volume=45|pages=333–356|editor-last=Matsumura|editor-first=Hirofumi|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-76046-094-5|jstor=j.ctt1pwtd26.26|editor2-last=Piper|editor2-first=Philip J.|editor3-last=Bulbeck|editor3-first=David}}</ref>

<br /><timeline>
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  bar:Vietnam color:era
  from: -771 till: -221 shift:(0,5) text:[[Sa Huỳnh culture]]
  from: -221 till: 500 shift:(0,4) text:[[Óc Eo culture]]
  bar:Vietnam color:filler
  from: -221 till: 500 shift:(0,-7) text:[[Imperial Vietnam]]
 
  bar: Philippines color:era
   from: -771 till: -221 shift:(0,5) text:[[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huyun culture]]
  bar:Philippines color:filler
  from: -108 till: -18 shift:(0,5) text:[[History of the Philippines|Ancient Barangay's]]
  from: -18 till: 500 text:[[History of the Philippines (900-1521)|Archaic epoch]]
 
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  from: -500 till: -108 text:[[Prehistory of Indonesia]]
  bar:Indonesia color:filler
  from: -108 till: -18 shift:(0,4) text:[[Buni culture]]
  from: -18 till: 500 text:[[Tarumanagara|Early Kingdoms]]
</timeline>
:::''Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details''
:::{{color box|#ffd880}} Prehistoric (or [[Protohistory|Proto-historic]]) Iron Age {{color box|#cccccc}} Historic Iron Age

== Precolonial period (AD 900 to 1565) – Independent polities ==
{{anchor | Indianised | Indianised era}}
{{Main|History of the Philippines (900–1565)}}
{{#section:History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia|pushpin map}}
Also known to a lesser extent as the Pre-Philippines period, is a pre-unification period characterized by many independent states known as polities each with its own history, cultures, chieftains, and governments distinct from each other. According to sources from Southern Liang, people from the kingdom of [[Langkasuka]] in present-day [[Thailand]] were wearing cotton clothes made in Luzon, Philippines as early as 516–520 CE.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA179 Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800 By John N. Miksic] Chapter 4 Page 179.</ref>
The British Historian Robert Nicholl citing Arab chronicler Al Ya'akubi, had written that on the early years of the 800s, the kingdoms of Muja (then Pagan [[Brunei]]) and Mayd ([[Ma-i]]) waged war against the Chinese Empire.<ref name="Nicholl" >{{harvnb|Nicholl|1983|p=38}}</ref> Medieval Indian scholars also referred to the Philippines as "Panyupayana" (The lands surrounded by water).<ref name="Panyupayana">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-7317-5_6 |chapter=Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines |title=Cultural and Civilisational Links between India and Southeast Asia |year=2018 |last1=Santarita |first1=Joefe B. |pages=93–105 |isbn=978-981-10-7316-8 }}</ref>

By the 1300s, a number of the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers, and became the focal point of societal changes.<ref name="Jocano2001" /> The [[Barangay state|Barangic Phase]] of history can be noted for its highly mobile nature, with barangays transforming from being settlements and turning into fleets and vice versa, with the wood constantly re-purposed according to the situation.<ref name="Scott1994" /> Politics during this era was personality-driven and organization was based on shifting alliances and contested loyalties set in a backdrop of constant inter-polity interactions, both through war and peace.<ref name=":7" />

Legendary accounts often mention the interaction of early Philippine polities with the [[Srivijaya]] empire, but there is not much archaeological evidence to definitively support such a relationship.<ref name="Jocano2001" /> Considerable evidence exists, on the other hand, for extensive trade with the Majapahit empire.<ref name="JocanoJr2012">{{Cite book |chapter=A Question of Origins |last1=Jocano |first1=Felipe Jr. |date=August 7, 2012 |title=Arnis: Reflections on the History and Development of Filipino Martial Arts |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-1-4629-0742-7 |editor-last=Wiley |editor-first=Mark |language=en}}</ref>

The exact scope and mechanisms of Indian cultural influences on early Philippine polities are still the subject of some debate among Southeast Asian historiographers,<ref name="Jocano2001" /><ref name="Osborne2004">{{cite book |last1=Osborne |first1=Milton |author-link=Milton Osborne |title=Southeast Asia: An Introductory History |publisher=Allen & Unwin |date=2004 |location=Australia |edition=Ninth |isbn=978-1-74114-448-2}}</ref> but the current scholarly consensus is that there was probably little or no direct trade between India and the Philippines,<ref name="Jocano2001" /><ref name="Osborne2004" /> and Indian cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and religious practices,<ref name="JocanoJr2012" /> filtered in during the 10th through the early 14th centuries, through early Philippine polities' relations with the Hindu [[Majapahit]] empire.<ref name="Jocano2001" /> The Philippine archipelago is thus one of the countries, (others include Afghanistan and Southern Vietnam) just at the outer edge of what is considered the "[[Greater India]]n cultural zone".<ref name="Osborne2004" />

The early polities of the Philippine archipelago were typically characterized by a three-tier social structure. Although different cultures had different terms to describe them, this three-tier structure invariably consisted of an apex nobility class, a class of "freemen", and a class of dependent debtor-bondsmen called "[[alipin]]" or "oripun."<ref name="Jocano2001" /><ref name=":7" /> Among the members of the nobility class were leaders who held the political office of "[[Datu]]," which was responsible for leading autonomous social groups called "[[Barangay state|barangay]]" or "dulohan".<ref name="Jocano2001" /> Whenever these barangays banded together, either to form a larger settlement<ref name="Jocano2001" /> or a geographically looser alliance group,<ref name=":7" /> the more senior or respected among them would be recognized as a "paramount datu", variedly called a Lakan, Sultan, Rajah, or simply a more senior Datu.<ref name="Scott1994" /><ref name="Jocano2001" /><ref name="Legarda, Benito, Jr. 2001 40">{{Cite journal|author = Legarda, Benito Jr. |journal = Kinaadman (Wisdom) A Journal of the Southern Philippines |title = Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines |volume = 23 |year = 2001 |page = 40 }}</ref> Eventually, by the 14th to 16th century, inter-kingdom warfare escalated<ref>{{cite thesis |last1= Reyeg |first1= Fernardo |last2= Marsh |first2= Ned |date= December 2011 |title= The Filipino Way of War: Irregular Warfare Through The Centuries |type= Post Graduate |chapter= 2 |publisher= Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California |page= 21 |chapter-url= https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a556504.pdf |access-date= February 15, 2021 |hdl= 10945/10681 |hdl-access= free |archive-date= April 15, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210415183151/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a556504.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref> and population densities across the archipelago was low.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.21313/hawaii/9780824832728.001.0001 |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |year=2009 |last1=Newson |first1=Linda A. |isbn=978-0-8248-3272-8 |quote=Given the significance of the size and distribution of the population to the spread of diseases and their ability to become endemic, it is worth commenting briefly on the physical and human geography of the Philippines. The hot and humid tropical climate would have generally favored the propagation of many diseases, especially water-borne infections, though there might be regional or seasonal variations in climate that might affect the incidence of some diseases. In general, however, the fact that the Philippines comprise some seven thousand islands, some of which are uninhabited even today, would have discouraged the spread of infections, as would the low population density.}}</ref>

===Initial recorded history===
During the period of the south Indian [[Pallava dynasty]] and the north Indian [[Gupta Empire]], Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia and the Philippines that led to the establishment of [[Indianized kingdom]]s.<ref>Philippine Journal of Linguistics – 23 – p. 67</ref><ref>The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History by Richard Bulliet, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson p.186</ref>

The date inscribed in the oldest Philippine document found so far, the [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], is 900 CE. From the details of the document, written in [[Kawi script]], the bearer of a debt, Namwaran, along with his children Lady Angkatan and Bukah, are cleared of a debt by the ruler of [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]]. It is the earliest document that shows the use of mathematics in precolonial Philippine societies. A standard system of weights and measures is demonstrated by the use of precise measurement for gold, and familiarity with rudimentary astronomy is shown by fixing the precise day within the month in relation to the phases of the moon.<ref name="manapat">{{cite web| url = http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/3360/public/3360-4866-1-PB.pdf| title = Mathematical Ideas in Early Philippine Society| access-date = December 27, 2019| archive-date = August 19, 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190819022906/http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/3360/public/3360-4866-1-PB.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref> From the various [[Sanskrit]] terms and titles seen in the document, the culture and society of Manila Bay was that of a [[Hindu]]–[[Old Malay]] amalgamation, similar to the cultures of [[Java]], [[Peninsular Malaysia]] and [[Sumatra]] at the time.

There are no other significant documents from this period of precolonial Philippine society and culture until the [[Doctrina Christiana]] of the late 16th century, written at the start of the Spanish period in both native [[Baybayin]] script and Spanish. Other artifacts with Kawi script and baybayin were found, such as an Ivory seal from [[Butuan]] dated to the early 10th–14th centuries<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gallop|first1=Annabel|date=2016|title=The Early Use of Seals in the Malay World|journal=Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient|volume=102|pages=125–164|doi=10.3406/befeo.2016.6233|jstor=26435124}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Butuan Ivory Seal|url=https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/nationalmuseumbeta/Collections/Archaeo/Seal.html|date=February 10, 2015|website=National Museum of the Philippines|access-date=May 21, 2020|archive-date=November 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119091932/http://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/nationalmuseumbeta/Collections/Archaeo/Seal.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[Calatagan]] pot with baybayin inscription, dated to not later than early 16th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guillermo|first1=Ramon|last2=Paluga|first2=Myfel Joseph|date=2011|title=Barang king banga: A Visayan language reading of the Calatagan pot inscription (CPI)|doi=10.1017/S0022463410000561|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=42|issue=1|pages=121–159|s2cid=162984793|via=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

[[File:Naturales 4.png|thumb|upright|A [[Boxer Codex]] image illustrating the 1590s early Spanish colonial period Tagalog ''[[Maginoo]]'' (noble class).]]
In the years leading up to 1000, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying political [[Sovereign state|state]] encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous ''[[Barangay state|barangay]]s'' (settlements ranging in size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing [[thalassocracy|thalassocracies]] ruled by [[datu]]s, wangs, [[rajah]]s, [[sultan]]s or [[lakan]]s.<ref>Philippine History by Maria Christine N. Halili. "Chapter 3: Precolonial Philippines" (Published by Rex Bookstore; Manila, Sampaloc St. Year 2004)</ref> or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". A number of states existed alongside the highland societies of the [[Ifugao]] and [[Mangyan]].<ref>[http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/directory/sumita/5A-161/volume05.html Volume 5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010145223/http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/directory/sumita/5A-161/volume05.html |date=October 10, 2017 }} of A study of the Eastern and Western Oceans ({{langx|ja|[http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/directory/sumita/5A-161/ 東西洋考]}}) mentions that Luzon first sent tribute to Yongle Emperor in 1406.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://akeanon.com/index.php?Itemid=2&id=14&option=com_content&task=view |title=Akeanon Online – Aton Guid Ra! – Aklan History Part 3 – Confederation of Madyaas |publisher=Akeanon.com |date=March 27, 2008 |access-date=January 2, 2010 |archive-date=January 26, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126091128/http://akeanon.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These included:
*[[Maynila (historical polity)|Kingdom of Maynila]]
*[[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]]
*[[Namayan]]
*[[Cainta (historical polity)|Cainta]]
*[[Kumintang (historical polity)|Kumintang]]
*the Kingdom of Taytay in [[Palawan]] (mentioned by [[Antonio Pigafetta]] to be where they resupplied when the remaining ships escaped [[Cebu]] after Magellan was slain)
*the Chieftaincy of [[Coron Island]] ruled by fierce warriors called [[Tagbanwa people|Tagbanua]] as reported by Spanish missionaries mentioned by Nilo S. Ocampo,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYQeAAAAMAAJ|title=Katutubo, Muslim, Kristyano|publisher=Salazar at Mendoza-Urban|year=1985}}</ref> 
*[[Pangasinan (historical polity)|Pangasinan]]
*[[Caboloan]]
*[[Ma-i]] and its vassal-states of [[Sandao]] and [[Pulilu]]
*[[Madja-as]]
*
*[[Bo-ol]]
*the Hindu kingdoms of [[Sanmalan]], [[Rajahnate of Butuan|Butuan]], and [[Rajahnate of Cebu|Cebu]] 
*the sultanates of [[Sultanate of Buayan|Buayan]], [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao]], [[Confederate States of Lanao|Lanao]], and [[Sulu Sultanate|Sulu]]

Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires of [[Srivijaya]], [[Majapahit]] and [[Bruneian Empire|Brunei]].{{sfn|Munoz|2006|p=171}}<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2700.htm Background Note: Brunei Darussalam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183451/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2700.htm |date=June 4, 2019 }}, U.S. State Department.</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213135409/http://www.mangyan.org/tribal/index.html|publisher=Mangyan Heritage Center|url=http://www.mangyan.org/tribal/index.html|archive-date=February 13, 2008|title=Introduction|access-date=November 15, 2010}}</ref>

===The polity of Tondo===
{{Main|Tondo (historical polity)|History of Manila}}
[[File:LCI.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|left|The [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], {{c.|900|lk=no}} CE. The oldest known historical record found in the Philippines, which indirectly refers to the polity of Tondo]]
Tondo was a major trade hub on Luzon island in the northern part of the Pasig River delta. The earliest historical record of local polities and kingdoms, the [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], indirectly refers to the Tagalog polity of [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]] ({{circa|before 900}}–1589) and two to three other settlements believed to be located somewhere near Tondo, as well as a settlement near Mt. Diwata in Mindanao, and the temple complex of Medang in Java.<ref name="Postma1992">{{cite journal |last1=Postma |first1=Antoon |title=The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary |journal=Philippine Studies |date=1992 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=183–203 |jstor=42633308 }}</ref> Although the precise political relationships between these polities is unclear in the text of the inscription, the artifact is usually accepted as evidence of intra- and inter-regional political linkages as early as 900.<ref name="Postma1992"/><ref name="Scott1994" /><ref name=":7" /> By the arrival of the earliest European ethnographers during the 1500s, Tondo was led by the paramount ruler called a "[[Lakandula|Lakan]]".<ref name="Scott1994" /><ref name=":7" /> It had grown into a major trading hub, sharing a monopoly with the [[Rajahnate of Maynila]] over the trade of Ming dynasty<ref name=Ring>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA565 |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |author=Ring, Trudy |author2=Robert M. Salkin |author3=Sharon La Boda |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1996 |pages=565–569 |isbn=978-1-884964-04-6 |access-date=January 7, 2010}}</ref> products throughout the archipelago.<ref name="Scott1994" /> This trade was significant enough that the [[Yongle Emperor]] appointed a Chinese governor named Ko Ch'a-lao to oversee it.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ho Khai Leong|title=Connecting and Distancing: Southeast Asia and China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EwnzBiM0LmAC&pg=PA33|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-856-6|page=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbwogbQ3l8UC&q=Yung+lo+governor+luzon&pg=PT84|title=In Our Image|access-date=August 24, 2015|isbn=978-0-307-77543-6|last1=Karnow|first1=Stanley|year=2010|publisher=Random House Publishing }}</ref>

Since at least the year 900, this thalassocracy centered in [[Manila Bay]] flourished via an active trade with Chinese, Japanese, Malays, and various other peoples in Asia. Tondo thrived as the capital and the seat of power of this ancient kingdom, which was led by kings under the title "Lakan" that belongs to the caste of the [[Maharlika]], who were the feudal warrior class in ancient Tagalog society. At its height, they ruled a large part of what is now known as [[Luzon]] from [[Ilocos Region|Ilocos]] to [[Bicol Region|Bicol]] from possibly before 900 CE to 1571, becoming the largest [[History of the Philippines (900–1521)|precolonial state]]. The Spaniards called them ''Hidalgos''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|1985|p=104}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Report: The Philippines 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yt3IZ3JATlsC&pg=PA11|page=11|year=2012|publisher=Oxford Business Group|isbn=978-1-907065-56-9}}</ref>

The people of Tondo had developed a culture that is predominantly Hindu and Buddhist, they were also good agriculturists, and lived through farming and [[aquaculture]]. During its existence, it grew to become one of the most prominent and wealthy kingdom states in precolonial Philippines due to heavy trade and connections with several neighboring nations such as China and Japan.

Due to its very good relations with Japan, the Japanese called Tondo as ''Luzon'', even a famous Japanese merchant, [[Luzon Sukezaemon]], went as far as to change his surname from ''Naya'' to Luzon.<ref>Miyamoto, Kazuo. Vikings of the Far East. New York: Vantage Press, 1975. pp88–89.</ref> [[Japan]]'s interaction with Philippine states have precedence in the 700s when Austronesian peoples like the [[Hayato people|Hayato]] and [[Kumaso]] settled in Japan and culturally mediated with the locals and their Austronesian kin to the south, served at the Imperial court and sometimes waged battles in Japan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kakubayashi |first1=Fumio |year=1998 |title=隼人 : オーストロネシア系の古代日本部族' |id={{NAID|110000577490}} |trans-title=Hayato: An Austronesian speaking tribe in southern Japan |language=Japanese |journal=The Bulletin of the Institute for Japanese Culture, Kyoto Sangyo University |volume=3 |pages=15–31 }}</ref> Japan also imported [[Mishima ware]] manufactured in Luzon.<ref name="cole">{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=Fay-Cooper |title=Chinese Pottery in the Philippines |journal=Field Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Series |date=1912 |volume=12 |issue=1 |url=https://www.forgottenbooks.com/en/download/Chinese_Pottery_in_the_Philippines_1000107472.pdf |archive-date=September 3, 2021 |access-date=December 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903115635/https://www.forgottenbooks.com/en/download/Chinese_Pottery_in_the_Philippines_1000107472.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 900 CE, the lord-minister Jayadewa <!--It's Lord-Minister! ''Senpati'' is Sanskrit for Admiral/Lord Minister therefore Jayadewa is a not Chieftain or a Datu just check the article Laguna Copperplate Inscription.--> presented a document of debt forgiveness to Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah, the children of Namwaran. This is described in the Philippines' oldest known document, the [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]].<ref name="Woods2006">{{cite book|last1=Woods|first1=Damon L.|title=The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z&pg=PT44|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-675-6|page=44}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The Chinese also mention a polity called "Luzon." This is believed to be a reference to Maynila since [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and Spanish accounts from the 1520s explicitly state that "Luçon" and "Maynila" were "one and the same",<ref name="Scott1994" /> although some historians argue that since none of these observers actually visited Maynila, "Luçon" may simply have referred to all the Tagalog and Kapampangan polities that rose up on the shores of Manila Bay.<ref name="Alfonso2016">{{cite book | title=The Nameless Hero: Revisiting the Sources on the First Filipino Leader to Die for Freedom | publisher=Holy Angel University Press | author=Alfonso, Ian Christopher B. | year=2016 | location=Angeles | isbn=978-971-0546-52-7}}</ref>

===Cainta===
{{Main|Cainta (historical polity)}}

Cainta was a fortified upriver polity in present-day [[Rizal province]] that occupied both shores of an arm of the [[Pasig River]]. The river bisected it in the middle, a moat surrounded its log walls and stone [[Bastion|bulwarks]] armed with native cannons ([[Lantaka]]s) and the city itself was encased by Bamboo thickets.<ref name="B&R3Anonymous1572">{{Cite book|chapter=Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon|title=The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company|year=1903|editor-last=Blair|editor-first=Emma Helen|editor-link=Emma Helen Blair|volume=3|location=Ohio, Cleveland|pages=145|editor-last2=Robertson|editor-first2=James Alexander|editor-link2=James Alexander Robertson}}</ref>

===Namayan===
{{Main|Namayan}}
[[File:Map of Namayan.png|thumb|Map of Namayan (pink) under Lakantagkan according to the accounts of Felix Huerta. Calatondongan, Dibag, Pinacauasan and Yamagtogon are missing. Meycatmon's location is unclear.]]
Namayan, also a Pasig river polity, arose as a confederation of local [[barangays]].<ref name="Huerta">{{cite book  | last = Huerta  | first = Felix de  | author-link = Felix Huerta  | title = Estado Geografico, Topografico, Estadistico, Historico-Religioso de la Santa y Apostolica Provincia de San Gregorio Magno  | publisher = Imprenta de M. Sanchez y Compañia  | year = 1865  | location = Binondo }}</ref> Local tradition says that it achieved its peak in the 11th–14th centuries.<ref name="Fox19772">Fox, Robert B. and Avelino M. Legaspi. 1977. ''Excavations at Santa Ana. ''Manila: National Museum of the Philippines</ref> Archeological findings in Santa Ana have produced the oldest evidence of continuous habitation among the Pasig-river polities, pre-dating artifacts found within the historical sites of [[Rajahnate of Maynila|Maynila]] and [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]].<ref name="Fox19772"/>

=== Kumintang ===
{{Main|Kumintang (historical polity)}}
Kumintang was a large polity around the [[Calumpang River]] in modern-day [[Batangas City|Batangas]]. According to local tradition, it was ruled by a legendary figure named Gat Pulintan, who refused to be Christianized and settled to the hills to take refuge and continue resistance against Spanish occupation. It became a Spanish town in 1581 and unofficially renamed as Batangan.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=Limhoco.net, Batangas History |url=https://limjoco.net/batangas-history.html |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=limjoco.net}}</ref><ref name=":42">[https://nlpdl.nlp.gov.ph/HD01/p8/m4/md1/3.pdf Document] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241227073758/https://nlpdl.nlp.gov.ph/HD01/p8/m4/md1/3.pdf |date=December 27, 2024 }} from the National Library of the Philippines</ref>

=== Pangasinan ===
{{Main|Pangasinan (historical polity)}}

Places in Pangasinan like [[Lingayen Gulf]] were mentioned as early as 1225, when Lingayen as known was Li-ying-tung had been listed in Chao Ju-kua's ''Chu Fan Chih'' (An account of the various barbarians) as one of the trading places along with Mai (Mindoro or Manila).<ref>Towards an Early History of Pangasinan: Preliminary Notes and Observations By: Erwin S. Fernandez. Page 181</ref> In northern Luzon, Pangasinan) ({{circa|1406–1576}}) sent emissaries to China in 1406–1411 as a tributary-state,<ref name="autogenerated8">{{cite web|url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-21-1983/scott.pdf|title=Filipinos in China in 1500|last1=Scott|first1=William Henry|website=China Studies Program|page=8|publisher=De la Salle University|year=1989
|access-date=April 17, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724123829/http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-21-1983/scott.pdf|archive-date=July 24, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> and it also traded with Japan.<ref name="scott1989bp8">{{cite web|url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-21-1983/scott.pdf|title=Filipinos in China in 1500|last=Scott|first=William Henry|work=China Studies Program|page=8|publisher=De la Salle University|year=1989|ref={{harvid|Scott|1989b|p=8}}|access-date=September 25, 2015|archive-date=July 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724123829/http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-21-1983/scott.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Chinese records of this kingdom, named Feng-chia-hsi-lan (Pangasinan), began when the first tributary King (Wang in Chinese), Kamayin, sent an envoy offering gifts to the Chinese Emperor.<ref name="scott1989bp8" /> The state occupies the current province of [[Pangasinan]]. It flourished around the same period, the [[Srivijaya]] and [[Majapahit]] empires arose in Indonesia which had extended their influence to much of the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Pangasinan enjoyed full independence until the Spanish conquest.

In the sixteenth century Pangasinan was called the "Port of Japan" by the Spanish. The locals wore native apparel typical of other maritime Southeast Asian ethnic groups in addition to Japanese and Chinese silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and Japanese cotton garments. They also blackened their teeth and were disgusted by the white teeth of foreigners, which were likened to that of animals. Also, used porcelain jars typical of Japanese and Chinese households. Japanese-style gunpowder weapons were also encountered in naval battles in the area.<ref name="Scott1994">{{Cite book|last=Scott|first=William Henry|title=Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-971-550-135-4|location=Quezon City|author-link=William Henry Scott (historian)}}</ref> In exchange for these goods, traders from all over Asia would come to trade primarily for gold and slaves, but also for deerskins, civet and other local products. Other than a notably more extensive trade network with Japan and China, they were culturally similar to other Luzon groups to the south.

=== Ma-i ===
{{Main|Ma-i}}
[[Image:Manila Mint Museum, PI Piloncitos.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A collection of gold [[Piloncitos]] stamped with the Baybayin character for "Ma" possibly representing the nation of Ma-i.]]

Arab chronicler Al Ya'akubi, had written that in the 800s, the kingdoms of Muja (Then Pagan/Hindu Brunei) and Mayd (Ma-i) militarily competed with the Chinese Empire.<ref name="Nicholl" /> Volume 186 of the [[History of Song (Yuan dynasty)|official history of the Song dynasty]] describes the polity of [[Ma-i]] ({{circa|before 971 – after 1339}}). Song dynasty traders visited Ma-i annually, and their accounts described Ma-i's geography, trade products, and the trade behaviors of its rulers.<ref name="KansaiICIS">{{cite journal |last1=Zhenping |first1=Wang |title=Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines |journal=Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies |year=2008 |volume=1 |pages=249–260 |hdl=10112/3180 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Chinese merchants noted that Ma-i's citizens were honest and trustworthy.{{sfn|Scott|1984|p=67}} Because the descriptions of Mai's location in these accounts are unclear, there is dispute about Mai's location, with some scholars believing it was located in [[Bay, Laguna]],<ref name=":11" /> and others believing it was on the island of [[Mindoro]].{{sfn|Scott|1984|p={{page needed|date=August 2018}}}} The Buddhist polity traded with [[Ryukyu]] and Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seapots.com/home/index.php/production-centers-pottery-groups/philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716025132/http://www.seapots.com/home/index.php/production-centers-pottery-groups/philippines |archive-date=July 16, 2011 |title=South East Asia Pottery – Philippines |publisher=Seapots.com |access-date=October 27, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Chao Jukua]], a customs inspector in [[Fujian Province, Republic of China|Fukien]] province, China wrote the ''[[Zhu fan zhi|Zhufan Zhi]]'' ("Description of the Barbarous Peoples").<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F02E5D91139E633A2575AC2A9649D946396D6CF Old Chinese Book Tells of the World 800 Years Ago] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210949/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F02E5D91139E633A2575AC2A9649D946396D6CF |date=March 3, 2016 }}; Chau-Ju-Kua's Chronicles of the Twelfth Century, Now First Translated, Give a "Description of Barbarous Peoples" Picked Up by This Noted Inspector of Foreign Trade and Descendant of Emperors.</ref> William Henry Scott said, that unlike other Philippine kingdoms or polities which needed backing from the Chinese Imperial Court to attract commerce, the Polity of Ma-i was powerful enough to have no need to send tributes to the Chinese throne.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/FilipinosInChinaBefore1500 FILIPINOS IN CHINA BEFORE 1500] By William Henry Scott Page 2</ref>

=== The nation of Sandao ===
{{Main|Sandao}}

Sandao "三嶋" in Chinese characters, which was also known as Sanyu (三嶼), was a Prehispanic Filipino nation recorded in Chinese annals as a nation occupying the islands of Jiamayan 加麻延 (present-day [[Calamianes|Calamian]]), Balaoyou 巴姥酉 (present-day [[Palawan Island|Palawan]]),<ref>Yang Bowen, Zhufan zhi jiaoshi (Beijing, 1996), p. 145</ref> and Pulihuan 蒲裏喚 (near present-day [[Manila]]).<ref>Hugh R. Clark, Community, trade, and networks, Southern Fujian province from the third to the thirteenth century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 127‒132.</ref> In the Chinese Gazetteer the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225), it was described as a vassal-state of the more powerful nation of [[Ma-i]] centered in nearby [[Mindoro]].<ref name="storymaps.arcgis.com">[https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/39bce63e4e0642d3abce6c24db470760 A Chinese Gazetteer of Foreign Lands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201192535/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/39bce63e4e0642d3abce6c24db470760 |date=February 1, 2023 }} A new translation of Part 1 of the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225) By Shao-yun Yang (Department of History, Denison University)
October 2, 2022</ref>

=== The nation of Pulilu===
{{Main|Pulilu}}

Pulilu was a Prehispanic polity centered at [[Polillo, Quezon]]<ref>Mulder, "The Philippine Islands in the Chinese World Map of 1674," page 222.</ref> and was mentioned in the Chinese Gazeteer Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225). It is described as politically connected to the nation of [[Sandao]] "三嶋" at the [[Calamianes]] which itself was a vassal-state to the larger country of [[Ma-i]] "麻逸" centered in Mindoro. Its people were recorded to be warlike, and prone to pillaging and conflict. In this area, the sea is full of coral reefs, which have wavy surfaces that resemble decaying tree trunks or razor blades. Ships going by the reefs must be ready to make sharp maneuvers to avoid them because they are sharper than swords and halberds. Red coral and blue langgan coral are also produced here; however, they are quite difficult to find. It is also similar to the nation of [[Sandao]] in local customs and trade products. The chief export of this small polity are rare corals.

=== Visayan belligerence against Imperial China ===

Writing in the 13th century, the Chinese historian [[Zhao Rukuo|Chao Ju-Kua]] mentioned raids conducted by the ''Pi-sho-ye'' on the port cities of southern China between A.D. 1174–1190, which he believed came by way of the southern portion of the island of [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isorena |first1=Efren B. |title=The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |date=2004 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=73–95 |jstor=29792550 |quote=Chau Ju-Kua, writing in the thirteenth century, probably was the first to mention that certain ferocious raiders of China's Fukien coast probably came by way of the southern portion of the island of Formosa, He referred to them as the Pi-sho-ye. }}</ref> Subsequent historians identified these raiders as Visayans from the [[Visayas]] islands while the historian Efren B. Isorena, through analysis of historical accounts and wind currents in the Pacific side of East and Southeast Asia, concluded that said raiders were most likely the people of Ibabao (the precolonial name for the eastern coast and a portion of the northern coast of Samar).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isorena |first1=Efren B. |title=The Visayan Raiders of the China Coast, 1174–1190 Ad |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |date=2004 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=73–95 |jstor=29792550 }}</ref>

=== Madja-as ===
{{Main|Madja-as}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = Visayans 3.png
| width1            = 150
| caption1          = Images from the [[Boxer Codex]] illustrating an 1590's early Spanish colonial period ''kadatuan'' or [[tumao]] (noble class) [[Visayan]] couple.
| image2            = Visayans 4.png
| width2            = 150
| caption2          = A [[Royal family|royal]] couple of the Visayans.
}}
One theory espoused by some historians is that ten exiled [[datu]]s of the collapsing empire of [[Srivijaya]]<!--It's only Srivijaya, not Majapahit or anything else--><ref>Jovito S. Abellana, "Bisaya Patronymesis Sri Visjaya" (Ms., Cebuano Studies Center, ca. 1960)</ref> led by Datu Puti migrated to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah Makatunaw of the island of [[Borneo]]. Upon reaching the island of [[Panay]] and purchasing the island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of polities and named it [[Madja-as]] and they settled the surrounding islands of the [[Visayas]]. This is according to Pedro Monetclaro's book [[Maragtas]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Sonia M. Zaide|title=The Philippines: a unique nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YMsNgAACAAJ|year=1999|publisher=All-Nations Pub.|isbn=978-971-642-071-5|pages=39 and note 19 on p. 416, which cites Dr. Juan C. Orendain, ''Ten Datus of Madiaas'' (Manila: Mabuhay Publ. 1963), Dr. Manuel L. Carreon, ''Maragtas: The Datus from Borneo'', Sarawak Museum Journal Vol. VIII (1957) pp. 51–99; and an 1858 manuscript by Fr. Tomas Santaren}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Abeto |first1=Isidro Escare |title=Philippine history: reassessed / Isidro Escare Abeto. |date=1989 |publisher=Metro Manila :: Integrated Publishing House Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library |page=54 |language=en |chapter=Chapter X – Confederation of Madyaas |quote=Already conceived while he was in Binanua-an, and as the titular head of all the datus left behind by Datu Puti, Datu Sumakwel thought of some kind of system as to how he could exercise his powers given him by Datu Puti over all the other datus under his authority.|oclc=701327689 }}</ref><ref>''Maragtas'' by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro</ref> However, the actual personage of Rajah Makatunaw was mentioned in earlier Chinese texts about Brunei dating him to 1082, when he was the descendant of Seri Maharaja and he was accompanied by Sang Aji (the ancestor of Sultan Muhammad Shah). There is thus a disparity of dates between the Maragtas Book (based on oral legends) and the Chinese texts.<ref name="PreislamicBruneiKings">{{Cite web |url=https://bruneiresources.blogspot.com/2009/02/pre-islamic-kings-of-brunei.html |title=The Pre-Islamic Kings of Brunei By Rozan Yunos taken from the Magazine "Pusaka" published on year 2009. |access-date=December 9, 2023 |archive-date=December 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207180753/https://bruneiresources.blogspot.com/2009/02/pre-islamic-kings-of-brunei.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Historian Robert Nicholl also positively identify the pre-Islamic Bruneian Buddhist kingdom of Vijayapura, itself a Bornean tributary of the Srivijaya Empire in Palembang, and in earlier times was a rump state in Sarawak of the fallen [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan Civilization]] formerly at what is now Cambodia,<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174317?seq=4 Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times By Robert Nicholl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720181722/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174317?seq=4 |date=July 20, 2021 }} p. 35 citing Ferrand. Relations, page 564-65. Tibbets, Arabic Texts, pg 47.</ref>{{rp|36}} this was the ancestral homeland of the Visayans of the 10 Datus of Panay.<ref>{{harvnb|Nicholl|1983|p=37}} (Sub-citation taken from Ferrand, Relations p. 333)</ref> Furthermore, he identified the Rajah Makatunao mentioned in the Maragtas book with Rajah Tugau of the Melano nation centered in [[History of Sarawak|Sarawak]]. Augustinian Friar Rev. Fr. Santaren recorded that Datu Macatunao or Rajah Makatunao who was the "sultan of the Moros," and a relative of Datu Puti who seized the properties and riches of the ten datus was eventually killed by the warriors named Labaodungon and Paybare, using native Filipino and Bornean recruits. This, after learning of this injustice from their father-in-law Paiburong, sailed to Odtojan in Borneo where Makatunaw ruled. The warriors sacked the city, killed Makatunaw and his family, retrieved the stolen properties of the 10 datus, enslaved the remaining population of Odtojan, and sailed back to Panay. Labaw Donggon and his wife, Ojaytanayon, later settled in a place called Moroboro. Afterwards, the datus in Panay, other Visayan islands, and southern Luzon were said to have founded various towns.<ref name="Talaguit">{{cite journal |last1=Talaguit |first1=Christian |title=Mga Maragtas ng Panay: Comparative Analysis of Documents about the Bornean Settlement Tradition |journal=De la Salle University, History Department |date=January 2020 |url=https://www.academia.edu/44240332 }}{{unreliable source?|date=September 2021}}</ref>

=== Cebu (historical polity) ===
{{Main|Cebu (historical polity)}}
[[File:Shiva_Bronze_Image_Mactan.png|thumb|left|A picture of a Bronze Image of the Hindu God [[Shiva]] (lost during World War 2), found at Mactan-Cebu. It shows how the culture of the area was Hindu and [[Greater India|Indianized]].]]
The Kingdom of Cebu was a precolonial state. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as Rajamuda Lumaya, who was a half Malay half Tamil (South Indian) from Sumatra.<ref name="Santarita">Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.</ref> The Chinese recorded the name of the Rajahanate of Cebu as 'Sokbu' (束務) in [[Hokkien]] or 'Suwu' in Mandarin.<ref name="CarmelaAng">[https://www.pacs.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/03-Carmelea-final.pdf SONG, MING, AND OTHER CHINESE SOURCES ON PHILIPPINES-CHINA RELATIONS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308195840/https://www.pacs.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/03-Carmelea-final.pdf |date=March 8, 2023 }} By Carmelea Ang See. Page 74.</ref> A kingdom of the same name as Suwu was mentioned to have existed as early as the year 1225, according to the Chinese Annals the Zhufan Zhi (諸蕃志)<ref name="Shao-yun">{{Cite web |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/39bce63e4e0642d3abce6c24db470760 |title="A Chinese Gazetteer of Foreign Lands" A new translation of Part 1 of the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225) By Shao-yun Yang (Department of History, Denison University) |access-date=December 30, 2022 |archive-date=February 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201192535/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/39bce63e4e0642d3abce6c24db470760 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the later 17th Century Chinese traders to the Philippines referred to Cebu using the same term, it is thus presumed to be the same location.<ref name="CarmelaAng" /> The Indianized royalty of Cebu ruled the native Cebuano people from the [[Sanskrit]]-labeled capital, [[Singhapala]]<ref name= "Astrid">[https://www.jstor.org/stable/29792596?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3Ae66b04574962dd2277c44e2367352434&seq=28#page_scan_tab_contents THE GENEALOGY OF HARI' TUPAS: AN ETHNOHISTORY OF CHIEFLY POWER AND HIERARCHY IN SUGBU AS A PROTOSTATE Astrid Sala-Boza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405014411/https://www.jstor.org/stable/29792596?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior:e66b04574962dd2277c44e2367352434&seq=28#page_scan_tab_contents |date=April 5, 2023 }} Page 280.</ref> which is Sanskrit<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lee|first=Joshua|url=https://mothership.sg/2016/12/5-other-places-in-asia-which-are-also-called-singapura/|title=5 other places in Asia which are also called Singapura|website=mothership.sg|access-date=January 14, 2022|archive-date=April 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406022412/https://mothership.sg/2016/12/5-other-places-in-asia-which-are-also-called-singapura/|url-status=live}}</ref> for "Lion City", the same root words as with the modern city-state of [[Singapore]]. This rajahnate warred against the 'magalos' (slave traders) of [[Maguindanao]] and had an alliance with the [[Rajahnate of Butuan]] and Indianized [[Kutai]] in South Borneo, before it was weakened by the insurrection of Datu [[Lapulapu]].<ref name="Panyupayana" /> The kingdom enjoyed the diplomatic recognition of Thailand as observed by Ferdinand Magellan's expedition which noted an embassy borne by a ship from Siam ([[Thailand]]) that had landed at the Rajahnate and had tributes meant for Rajah Humabon.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://magellanproject.org/author/jim/ |title=Notes from Mactan By Jim Foster |access-date=January 24, 2023 |archive-date=July 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707154512/https://magellanproject.org/author/jim/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/42884/42884-h/42884-h.htm#pb138 "PRIMO VIAGGIO INTORNO AL MONDO"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123112908/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/42884/42884-h/42884-h.htm#pb138 |date=January 23, 2023 }} By Antonio Pigafetta. MS. composed ca. 1525, of events of 1519–1522 (Page 138)</ref>

=== Butuan ===
{{Main|Butuan (historical polity)}}
[[File:Butuan Ivory Seal.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Butuan Ivory Seal]], displayed at the [[National Museum of the Philippines]]. The [[Kawi script]] lettering says "But-wan" and the smaller lettering (similar to [[Baybayin]]) says "Bu-wa" (diacritics for the "Wan/Ban" in Kawi and "Bu/Ba" in the smaller letters have worn off).]]
The official history of the Song dynasty next refers to the [[Rajahnate of Butuan]] ({{circa|before 1001–1756}}) in northeastern Mindanao which is the first polity from the Philippine archipelago recorded as having sent a tribute mission to the Chinese empire—on March 17, 1001, CE. Butuan later attained prominence under the rule of Rajah Sri Bata Shaja.{{sfn|Cruz|Adiong|2020}} In the year 1011, [[Rajah]] Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the [[Greater India|Indianized]] [[Rajahnate of Butuan]], a maritime-state famous for its goldwork<ref>''Kinaadman''. 2001. Volume 23. Xavier University Press. Page 34.</ref> sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan-shieh to the Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with other states.{{sfn|Scott|1984|p=59}} The request being approved, it opened up direct commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Chinese Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade previously enjoyed by their rivals, [[Kingdom of Tondo|Tondo]] and the [[Champa]] civilization.{{sfn|Cruz|Adiong|2020|p=24}} Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by the [[Butuan Silver Paleograph]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bibingka.com/dahon/mystery/silver.htm|author=Santos, Hector|title=The Butuan Silver Strip. A Philippine Leaf|access-date=July 16, 2011|date=1999|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724094840/http://www.bibingka.com/dahon/mystery/silver.htm|archive-date=July 24, 2011}}</ref> Researcher Eric Casino, believes the name of the first Rajah mentioned in Chinese records, Rajah Kiling, is not Visayan in origin but rather, Indian, because Kiling refers to the people of India.<ref>Eric Casino. "The Barangays of Butuan: Lumad Mindanaoans in China and the Sulu Zone". Asia Mindanaw: Dialogue of Peace and Development (2014): 2.</ref> The [[Sejarah Melayu]] (Malay Annals) of the nearby country of Malaysia, refers to the similarly worded [[Keling]] as immigrant people from [[India]].<ref name="sabrizain">{{cite web|url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/keling.htm|title=A historical perspective on the word 'Keling'|access-date=April 24, 2017|archive-date=April 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421150143/http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/keling.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Sanmalan===
{{Main|Sanmalan}}
[[File:Nagarakertagama.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The ''[[Nagarakretagama]]'', chronicled the rise of the Java-centered [[Majapahit Empire]] and its conquest of the kingdom of Solot ([[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]]), which then rebelled and sacked the Majapahit province of Pon-i ([[History of Brunei#Hindu Majapahit invasion of Borneo|Brunei]]).]]
At the same time as the rise of Butuan was the emergence of Sanmalan. Sanmalan was a precolonial Philippine kingdom on what is now [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf|title=Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines|last=Wang|first=Zhenping|journal=Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies|date=March 31, 2008|via=Kansai University Institutional Reposaitory|archive-date=February 13, 2023|access-date=January 4, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213131445/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Known in Chinese records as "Sanmalan" 三麻蘭. The Chinese chronicled during 982, a tribute from its Rajah or King, Chulan, represented at the imperial court by ambassador Ali Bakti.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/FilipinosInChinaBefore1500 FILIPINOS IN CHINA BEFORE 1500] By William Henry Scott (Page 4)</ref> In the 1200s, the Chinese chronicle Zhufan zhi (諸蕃志) recorded its change from a trade emporium to slaving state as Zamboanga began waging war and raiding its neighboring kingdoms in [[Borneo]], [[History of the Philippines (900–1565)|Philippines]], [[Sulawesi]], and [[Ternate]]; for slaves to sell in [[Java]].<ref name="storymaps.arcgis.com"/>

=== Influence of the Madjapahit onto the Philippines ===

During the 1300s, the Chinese annals, ''Nanhai zhi'', reported that Brunei invaded or administered [[Sarawak]] and [[Sabah]] as well as the Philippine kingdoms of [[Rajahnate of Butuan|Butuan]], [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]] and [[Ma-i]] (Mindoro) which would regain their independence at a later date.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ptak |first1=Roderich |title=From Quanzhou to the Sulu Zone and beyond: Questions Related to the Early Fourteenth Century |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |date=1998 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=269–294 |doi=10.1017/S002246340000744X |jstor=20072046 |s2cid=162707729 }}</ref> Afterwards, the Javanese-centered Hindu empire of [[Majapahit]], in turn invaded Brunei and had briefly ruled the [[Sulu Archipelago]] as recorded in the epic poem [[Nagarakretagama]], which stated that they controlled Solot ([[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]]).{{sfn|Rausa-Gomez|1967|loc=Lourdes Rausa-Gomez cited Sir Stamford Raffles, himself citing the 'Traditional History of Java' wherein he said that Manila and Sulu in the Philippines were part of Majapahapit, however she doubted the veracity of Stamford Raffles assertion due to the lack of archaeological evidence between Majapahit and the Philippines in her 1967 article. However, that article has been renderred outdated due to the discovery of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription in 1989 which proved links between Java and Manila, which makes her dismissal of the Raffles assertion null and the Raffles assertion feasible}}

Eventually, Sulu reestablished independence, and in vengeance, [[Military history of the Philippines|assaulted the Majapahit province of Poni]] ([[Brunei]]) before a fleet from the capital drove them out.<ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=History for Brunei Darussalam: Sharing our Past|publisher=Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education|year=2009|isbn=978-99917-2-372-3|location=|pages=}}</ref>{{sfn|Rausa-Gomez|1967|p=92}}
{{Blockquote |According to Javanese records a Javanese force expelled Sulu
marauders from Brunei during the reign of Angka Wijaya who was the last king to reign over Majapahit. The inhabitants of the Soeloe Islands (in the present Philippines) made an attack against Brunei (in order to obtain camphor), in keeping with their (piratical) nature, but they were driven off by the Javanese soldiers.|Stamford Raffles}}

Sulu reaction against Majapahit Imperialism didn't stop with the sacking of Poni (Brunei) as Sulu also invaded North and [[East Kalimantan]] in Borneo, which were former Majapahit territories.<ref>[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial History of the Philippines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213131445/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228735802.pdf |date=February 13, 2023 }} By Wang Zhenping Page 258.</ref> The subsequent start of the Islamic era ushered the slow death of [[Majapahit]] as its provinces eventually seceded and became independent sultanates. With the upsurge of Islam, the remnants of Hindu Majapahit eventually fled to the island of [[Bali]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Andy Barski, Albert Beaucort  |author2=Bruce Carpenter, Barski|title=Bali and Lombok|year=2007|publisher=Dorling Kindersley, London|isbn=978-0-7566-2878-9|page=46}}</ref>

In Luzon, citing Kapampangan oral legends, [[Nick Joaquin]] wrote about a princess of [[Namayan]] named [[Empress Sasaban|Sasaban]] who married the Emperor of Majapahit, locally known as Soledan and is allegedly the Maharajah Anka Widyaya.<ref name="Odal2000">{{cite book |author=Odal-Devora |first=Grace |chapter=The River Dwellers |title=Pasig: The River of Life |publisher=Unilever Philippines |year=2000 |editor-last=Alejandro |editor-first=Reynaldo Gamboa |pages=43–66 |editor-last2=Yuson |editor-first2=Alfred A. |editor-link2=Alfred Yuson}}</ref>

=== The Sultanate of Sulu ===
[[File:Late 19th Century Flag of Sulu.svg|right|thumb|The banner of the Sultanate of Sulu]]
{{Main|Sultanate of Sulu|}}
In 1380, [[Makhdum Karim|Karim ul' Makdum]] and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an [[Arab]] trader born in [[Johor, Malaysia|Johore]], [[Malaysia]]; arrived in [[Sulu Island|Sulu]] from [[Malacca]] and established the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] by converting its previous ruler, the Hindu king, [[Rajah Baguinda]], to Islam and then marrying his daughter. This sultanate eventually gained great wealth due to its diving for fine [[pearl]]s.<ref>100 Events That Shaped The Philippines (Adarna Book Services Inc. 1999 Published by National Centennial Commission) Page 72 "The Founding of the Sulu Sultanate"</ref> Before Islamization, the then Rajahnate of Sulu was established by Visayan speaking Hindu migrants from the Rajahnate of Butuan to the Sulu Archipelago as Tausug, the language of the Sulu state is classified as a Southern Visayan language.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Sundita |first1 = Christopher Allen |title = In Bahasa Sug: An Introduction to Tausug |publisher = Lobel & Tria Partnership, Co. |year = 2002 |isbn=971-92226-6-2}}</ref> During the 10th-13th centuries the [[Champa|Champa civilization]], located in [[History of Vietnam#Golden Age of Cham Civilization and wars with Angkor Empire (7th century–1203)|Central Vietnam]] and the port-kingdom of [[Sulu]] traded with each other which resulted in Cham merchants settling in Sulu where they were known as Orang Dampuan . The Orang Dampuan were slaughtered by envious native Sulu Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang Dampuan.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Filipino Moving Onward 5' 2007 Ed. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SIq_FvJUr40C&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=RA3-PA18-IA1 |publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc. |isbn=978-971-23-4154-0 |pages=3–}}</ref> The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory slaughter by the Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored and the Orang Dampuans became the ancestors of the local [[Yakan people]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Philippine History Module-based Learning I' 2002 Ed. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITLRpPrrcykC&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=PA39 |publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc. |isbn=978-971-23-3449-8 |pages=39–}}</ref> The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa.<ref>{{cite book |title=Philippine History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=PA46|year=2004|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc. |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |pages=46–}}</ref> As told before, Sulu was also briefly ruled under the Hindu Majapahit empire as narrated in the [[Nagarakretagama]] but afterwards, Sulu rebelled and sacked Brunei which was a nearby loyal province of Majapahit as Sulu extended its conquest to the former Majapahit territory of East and North Kalimantan. However, with the onset of Islam by the 15th century, they associated themselves with their new Arab-descended sultans whose origins was in Malacca and their fellow co-religionist Moros (ethnic groups of the Philippine who had accepted Islam) than their still Hindu, Visayan-speaking cousins. This culminated with royal intermarriages between the families of the then newly Islamized Maynila, as well the Sultanates of Brunei, Sulu and Malacca.<ref name=cia>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brunei/ |title=Brunei |publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]] |year=2011 |access-date=January 13, 2011 |archive-date=July 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706104959/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brunei/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== The Sultanate of Maguindanao ===
{{Main|Sultanate of Maguindanao}}

The [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]] rose to prominence at the end of the 15th century or the beginning of the 16th century, [[Sharif Kabungsuwan|Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan]] of [[Johor]], [[Malaysia]]: introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and he subsequently married Paramisuli, an [[Iranun people|Iranun]] princess from Mindanao, and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030126203422/http://www.mnlf.net/History/The%20Maguindanao%20Sultanate.htm "The Maguindanao Sultanate"], Moro National Liberation Front web site. "The Political and Religious History of the Bangsamoro People, condensed from the book ''Muslims in the Philippines'' by Dr. C. A. Majul." (archived from [http://www.mnlf.net/History/The%20Maguindanao%20Sultanate.htm the original] on January 26, 2003) Retrieved January 9, 2008.</ref>

It ruled most parts of coastal Mindanao and continued to exist prior to the Spanish colonialization until the 19th century. The Sultanate also traded and maintained good relations with the Chinese, Dutch, and the British.<ref name="National Historical Commission">{{cite web|last1=Palafox|first1=Queenie|title=The Sultan of the River|url=http://www.nhcp.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=574|publisher=National Historical Commission|access-date=March 16, 2013|archive-date=June 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617072810/http://www.nhcp.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=574|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Hayase2007">{{cite book|author=Shinzō Hayase|title=Mindanao Ethnohistory Beyond Nations: Maguindanao, Sangir, and Bagobo Societies in East Maritime Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HEGBAAAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-971-550-511-6|page=117}}</ref>

=== Confederate States of Lanao ===
[[File:Folklore of the popular heritage of the State of the Philippines 16.jpg|thumb|left|A performance of the Maranao royal dance, the "[[Singkil]]".]]
{{Main|Confederate States of Lanao}}
The Sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, Philippines were founded in the 16th century through the influence of Shariff Kabungsuan, who was enthroned as first Sultan of Maguindanao in 1515. Islam was introduced to the area by Muslim missionaries and traders from the Middle East, Indian and Malay regions who propagated Islam to Sulu and Maguindanao.
Unlike in Sulu and Maguindanao, the Sultanate system in Lanao was uniquely decentralized. The area was divided into Four Principalities of Lanao or the Pat a Pangampong a Ranao which are composed of a number of royal houses (Sapolo ago Nem a Panoroganan or The Sixteen (16) Royal Houses) with specific territorial jurisdictions within mainland Mindanao. This decentralized structure of royal power in Lanao was adopted by the founders, and maintained up to the present day, in recognition of the shared power and prestige of the ruling clans in the area, emphasizing the values of unity of the nation (kaiisaisa o bangsa), patronage (kaseselai) and fraternity (kapapagaria). By the 16th century, Islam had spread to other parts of the Visayas and Luzon.

=== The Bruneian Empire and the expansion of Islam ===
[[File:Bruneian_Empire.png|right|thumb|Territorial extent of the Bruneian Empire]]
{{Main|Bruneian Empire}}
Upon the secession of Poni (Brunei) from the Majapahit Empire, they imported the Arab Emir from Mecca, [[Sharif Ali]], and became an independent Sultanate. During the reign of his descendant, Sultan [[Bolkiah]], in 1485 to 1521, he married Laila Menchanai, the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra to expand Brunei's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao. Eventually, [[Rajah Salalila]] of Maynila married the daughter of Sultan Bolkiah and Puteri Laila Menchanai of Sulu, placing Maynila under the influence of Brunei.{{sfn|Scott|1984}} The new dynasty under the Islamized Rajah Salalila was established to challenge the House of Lakandula in Tondo.<ref name="Santiago">Santiago, Luciano P.R., The Houses of Lakandula, Matanda, and Soliman [1571–1898]: Genealogy and Group Identity, Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 18 [1990]</ref><ref>Henson, Mariano A. 1965. The Province of Pampanga and Its Towns: A.D. 1300–1965. 4th ed. revised. Angeles City: By the author.</ref>

Furthermore, Islam was further strengthened by the arrival to the Philippines of traders and [[proselytizer]]s from Malaysia and Indonesia. The invasion of Brunei spread Chinese royalty such as [[Ong Sum Ping]]'s kin and companions plus Arab dynasties such as the clan of Sultan [[Sharif Ali]] and allies to the Philippines.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=22}} Brunei was so powerful that it already subjugated their Hindu Bornean neighbor, Kutai, to the south, though Kutai survived through a desperate alliance with Hindu Butuan and Cebu which were already struggling against encroaching Islamic powers like Maguindanao. Brunei had also gained influence over the northern third and the southern third of the Philippines.{{sfn|Saunders|2002|p=60}}{{sfn|Herbert|Milner|1989|p=99}}{{sfn|Lea|Milward|2001|p=16}}{{sfn|Hicks|2007|p=34}}{{sfn|Church|2012|p=16}}{{sfn|Eur|2002|p=203}}{{sfn|Abdul Majid|2007|p=2}}{{sfn|Welman|2013|p=8}} Sultan Bolkiah is associated with the legend of Nakhoda Ragam the singing captain, a myth about a handsome, virile, strong, musically gifted and angelic voiced prince who is known for his martial exploits. There is contextual evidence that Sultan Bolkiah may indeed be Nakhoda Ragam, since he is of half Visayan-Filipino descent since later Spanish accounts record that Filipinos, especially Visayans, were obsessed with singing and the [[Madja-as|warrior castes were particularly known for their great singing abilities]].<ref>Cf. William Henry Scott (1903). "Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society". (January 1, 1994) pp. 109–110.</ref>

=== The Lucoes ===
{{Main|Lucoes}}
<!--ibidem in this section-->
[[File:Royal Palace of Ayutthaya.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Ruins of the Royal Palace of Ayutthaya, in the [[Ayutthaya Historical Park]]. Ayutthaya (Thailand) was the setting of the [[Burmese–Siamese War (1547–1549)|Burmese-Siamese Wars]] where Lucoes from [[Luzon]], Philippines were used as soldiers by both sides.]]
Concurrent with the spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago was the rise of the [[Lucoes]], or ''Luzones'', who were the people of [[Luzon]]. They rose to prominence by establishing overseas communities all across [[Southeast Asia]] as well as maintaining relations with [[South Asia|South]] and [[East Asia|East]] Asia, participating in trading ventures, navigation expeditions and military campaigns in [[Taungoo dynasty|Burma]],<ref name="MediterraneanConnection">{{cite journal|url=http://ojs.philippinestudies.net/index.php/ps/article/view/1122|title=The Mediterranean Connection|first=William Henry|last=Scott|journal=Philippine Studies|volume=37|issue=2|year=1989|pages=131–144|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|doi=10.13185/2244-1638.1337 |issn=2244-1638|ref={{harvid|Scott|1989a}}|archive-date=May 19, 2022|access-date=June 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519185343/http://ojs.philippinestudies.net/index.php/ps/article/view/1122|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} (p.{{page needed|date=June 2023}})</ref> Lucoes warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547. At the same time, Lusung warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same Burmese Army.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Scott|1989|p=195|ref={{harvid|Scott|1989a}}}}.</ref> They were also in [[Japan]], [[Brunei]], [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malacca]], [[East Timor]] and [[Sri Lanka]]<ref>The former sultan of Malacca decided to retake his city from the Portuguese with a fleet of ships from Lusung in 1525 CE. SOURCE: Barros, Joao de, Decada terciera de Asia de Ioano de Barros dos feitos que os Portugueses fezarao no descubrimiento dos mares e terras de Oriente [1628], Lisbon, 1777, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194.</ref><ref name=":4" /> where they were employed as traders and mercenaries.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last1=Pires|first1=Tomé|title=A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco Rodrigues: Leitura e notas de Armando Cortesão|last2=Rodrigues|first2=Francisco|last3=Cortesão|first3=Armando|publisher=Universidade de Coimbra|year=1978|location=Coimbra}}</ref><ref name="Scott1994" /><ref name="Reid">{{cite book |last1 = Reid |first1 = Anthony |author-link = Anthony Reid (academic) |editor = Peter Bellwood |editor2 = James J. Fox |editor3 = Darrell Tryon |editor3-link = Darrell Tryon |title = The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives |year = 1995 |publisher = Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University |location = Canberra |chapter = Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity |doi = 10.22459/A.09.2006 |isbn = 9780731521326 |url = https://openresearchlibrary.org/ext/api/media/f3c41f5e-0a6e-4c6b-a292-1bbc81ed9492/assets/external_content.pdf |chapter-url = http://epress.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch16.html |doi-access = free }}</ref> One prominent Luções was [[Regimo de Raja]], who was a spice magnate and a [[Temenggung]] ([[Jawi script|Jawi]]: تمڠݢوڠ)<ref name="turnbull">{{cite book|last1=Turnbull|first1=C. M.|author-link = C. M. Turnbull| title=A History of Singapore: 1819–1975|year=1977|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Kuala Lumpur|isbn=978-0-19-580354-9}}</ref> (Governor and Chief General) in Portuguese Malacca. He was also the head of an international armada which traded and protected commerce between the [[Indian Ocean]], the [[Strait of Malacca]], the [[South China Sea]],<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Antony |editor1-first=Robert J. |doi=10.5790/hongkong/9789888028115.001.0001 |title=Elusive Pirates, Pervasive Smugglers |year=2010 |isbn=978-988-8028-11-5 }}{{page needed|date=September 2021}}</ref> and the [[History of the Philippines (900–1521)|medieval maritime principalities of the Philippines]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Junker|first=Laura Lee|url=https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/raiding-trading-and-feasting-the-political-economy-of-philippine-chiefdoms/|title=Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1999|isbn=9780824820350|location=Honolulu|pages=|archive-date=April 13, 2021|access-date=February 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413190707/https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/raiding-trading-and-feasting-the-political-economy-of-philippine-chiefdoms/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Pinto noted that there were a number of Luzones in the Islamic fleets that went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century. The Sultan of Aceh together with the Ottoman commander Heredim Mafamede whose uncle was the Viceroy of Egypt, assigned [[Luzones]] to defend Aceh, and gave one of them, Sapetu Diraja, the task of holding Aru (northeast Sumatra) in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after the Portuguese conquest in 1511.<ref name="Pinto">{{Cite book
 | last1 = Pinto
 | first1 = Fernao Mendes
 | author-link = Fernao Mendes Pinto
 | title = The Travels of Mendes Pinto
 |language= en
 |translator=Rebecca Catz
 |year=1989
 | place = Chicago 
 | publisher = University of Chicago Press
 | orig-year = 1578
}}</ref> Pigafetta notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521.<ref name=":4" />

However, the Luzones did not only fight on the side of the Muslims. Pinto says they were also apparently among the natives of the Philippines who fought the Muslims in 1538.<ref name="Pinto"/>

The Luzones were also pioneer seafarers, and it is recorded that the Portuguese were not only witnesses but also direct beneficiaries of Lusung's involvement. Many Luzones chose Malacca as their base of operations because of its strategic importance. When the Portuguese finally took Malacca in 1512, the resident Luzones held important government posts in the former sultanate. They were also large-scale exporters and ship owners that regularly sent junks to China, Brunei, Sumatra, Siam and Sunda. One Lusung official by the name of Surya Diraja annually sent 175 tons of pepper to China and had to pay the Portuguese 9000 cruzados in gold to retain his plantation. His ships became part of the first Portuguese fleet that paid an official visit to the Chinese empire in 1517.<ref>{{harvnb|Scott|1989|p=194|ref={{harvid|Scott|1989a}}}}.</ref>

On [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], Luzones aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547. At the same time, Luzones fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Lucoes military and trade activity reached as far as [[Sri Lanka]] in the [[Indian Subcontinent]] where Lungshanoid pottery made in Luzon were discovered in burials.<ref>"Quest of the Dragon and Bird Clan; The Golden Age (Volume III)" -Lungshanoid (Glossary)- By Paul Kekai Manansala</ref>

The Portuguese were soon relying on Luzones bureaucrats for the administration of Malacca and on Luzones warriors, ships and pilots for their military and commercial ventures in East Asia.

It was through the Luzones who regularly sent ships to China that the Portuguese discovered the ports of Canton in 1514. And it was on Luzones ships that the Portuguese were able to send their first diplomatic mission to China 1517. The Portuguese had the Luzones to thank for when they finally established their base at Macao in the mid-1500s.<ref name=":8" />

The Luzones were also instrumental in guiding Portuguese ships to discover Japan. The Western world first heard of Japan through the Portuguese. But it was through the Luzones that the Portuguese had their first encounter with the Japanese. The Portuguese king commissioned his subjects to get good pilots that could guide them beyond the seas of China and Malacca. In 1540, the Portuguese king's factor in Brunei, Brás Baião, recommended to his king the employment of Lusung pilots because of their reputation as "discoverers."<ref>Bayao, Bras, Letter to the king dated Goa November 1, 1540, Archivo Nacional de Torre de Tombo: Corpo Cronologico, parte 1, maco 68, doc. 63, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194.</ref> Thus it was through Luzones navigators that Portuguese ships found their way to Japan in 1543. The Luzones so impressed the Portuguese soldier, Joao de Barros, he considered the Luzones who were militarily and commercially active across the region, "the most warlike and valiant of these parts."<ref>The Mediterranean Connection by William Henry Scott Page 138 (Published By: Ateneo de Manila University) Taken from "Translated in Teixera, The Portuguese Missions, p. 166."</ref> Filipinos from the island of Luzon (Lucoes) were not the only Filipinos abroad, historian William Henry Scott, quoting the Portuguese manuscript Summa Orientalis, noted that [[Mottama]] in [[Burma]] (Myanmar) had a large presence of merchants from the island of Mindanao.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott |first=William Henry |date=1989 |title=The Mediterranean Connection |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1122/6410 |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=131–144 |doi=10.13185/2244-1638.1337 |archive-date=August 4, 2020 |access-date=January 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804150104/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1122/6410 |url-status=live }} Quoting from; Cortes 30, Suma, pp. 376–77, and 362.</ref>

=== Rise and fall of Bo-ol ===
{{Main|Bo-ol}}

Around 1563, at the closing stages of the precolonial era, the [[Dapitan Kingdom|Bo-ol]] achieved prominence and it was known to a later Spanish missionary, Alcina, as the "Venice of the Visayas", because it was a wealthy, wooden and floating city-state in the Visayas. However, this kingdom was eventually attacked and destroyed by soldiers from the [[Sultanate of Ternate]], a state made up of Muslim [[Moluccans]]. The survivors of the destruction, led by their datu, Pagbuaya, migrated to northern Mindanao and established a new settlement in the region known as Dapitan. [[File:Lantakas.jpg|thumb|right|A collection of Philippine ''[[lantaka]]'', a type of swivel-gun used in inter-kingdom wars.]]They then waged war against the Sultanate of Lanao and settled in the lands conquered from them. Eventually, in vengeance against the Muslims and Portuguese allied to the Ternateans, they aided the Spanish in the conquest of Muslim Manila and in the Spanish expeditions to capture Portuguese Ternate.

=== Inter-kingdom rivalries ===

During this period there was also a simmering territorial conflict between the polity of Tondo and Maynila, to which the ruler of Maynila, [[Rajah Matanda]], sought military assistance against Tondo from his relatives at the Sultanate of Brunei.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo|last1=Pigafetta|first1=Antonio|year=1524}}</ref> The Hindu Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu also endured slave raids from, and waged wars against the Sultanate of Maguindanao.<ref name="marivir">Marivir Montebon, Retracing Our Roots – A Journey into Cebu's Pre-Colonial Past, p.15</ref> Simultaneous with these slave-raids, was the rebellion of Datu [[Lapulapu]] of [[Mactan]] against [[Rajah Humabon]] of Cebu.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Celestino C. Macachor|year=2011|title=Searching for Kali in the Indigenous Chronicles of Jovito Abellana|journal=Rapid Journal|volume=10|issue=2|url=http://cebueskrima.s5.com/custom3.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703210211/http://cebueskrima.s5.com/custom3.html|archive-date=July 3, 2012|accessdate=March 1, 2018}}</ref> The population was sparse due to warfare and also due to the common [[Typhoon#Frequency|frequency of typhoons]] and the Philippines' location on the [[Pacific ring of fire]].<ref name="jstor.org">[https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9?seq=1 Storms of history Water, hazard and society in the Philippines 1565–1930] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605134404/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9?seq=1 |date=June 5, 2022 }} By Greg Bankoff</ref> The multiple states competing over the limited territory and people of the islands simplified Spanish [[colonialization]] by allowing its [[conquistador]]s to effectively employ a strategy of [[divide and rule|divide and conquer]] for rapid conquest.

== Spanish settlement and rule (1565–1898) ==
{{Main|History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Captaincy General of the Philippines|Spanish East Indies}}

=== Early Spanish expeditions and conquests ===
{{Main|Ruy López de Villalobos|Spanish–Moro conflict}}

A Spanish expedition around the world led by Portuguese explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] sighted [[Samar Island]] but anchored off [[Suluan|Suluan Island]] on March 16, 1521. They landed the next day on [[Homonhon]] Island, now part of [[Guiuan, Eastern Samar]]. Magellan claimed the islands he saw for Spain and named them Islas de San Lázaro. He established friendly relations with some of the local leaders especially with [[Rajah Humabon]] and converted some of them to [[Catholic Church in the Philippines|Roman Catholicism]]. In the Philippines, they explored many islands including the island of [[Mactan]]. However, Magellan was killed during the [[Battle of Mactan]] against the local datu, [[Lapulapu]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Pigafetta|first=Antonio|url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/3082|title=Journal of Magellan's Voyage|year=c. 1525|language=fr|archive-date=July 28, 2020|access-date=June 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728192104/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/3082/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pigafetta|first=Antonio|url=https://www.archive.org/details/firstvoyageround00piga/page/n5/mode/2up|title=The first voyage round the world by Magellan|publisher=The Hakluyt Society|year=1874|location=London|translator-last=Lord Stanley of Alderley}}</ref><ref name="lac47">{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|1990|p=47}}</ref>

Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were dispatched to the islands. [[Ruy López de Villalobos]] led an expedition that visited Leyte and Samar in 1543 and named them ''Las Islas Filipinas'' in honor of Philip of Asturias, the [[Prince of Asturias]] at the time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|1985|p=51}}.</ref> Philip became [[Philip II of Spain]] on January 16, 1556, when his father, Charles I of Spain (who also reigned as [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]), abdicated the Spanish throne. The name was then extended to the entire archipelago later on in the Spanish era.
[[File:Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas Dedicada al Rey Nuestro Señor por el Mariscal d. Campo D. Fernando Valdes Tamon Cavallº del Orden de Santiago de Govor. Y Capn.jpg|left|thumb|1734 Spanish Chart of the Philippine Islands]]
European colonialization began in earnest when Spanish explorer [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first European settlements in Cebu. Beginning with just five ships and five hundred men accompanied by Augustinian monks, and further strengthened in 1567 by two hundred soldiers, he was able to repel the Portuguese and create the foundations for the unification and colonialization of the Archipelago.<ref>{{cite book | last=Wing | first=J.T. | title=Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500-1750 | publisher=Brill | series=Brill's Series in the History of the Environment | year=2015 | isbn=978-90-04-26137-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ | page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109] |quote=At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation.
}}</ref> In 1571, the Spanish, their Latin-American recruits and their Filipino (Visayan) allies, commanded by able conquistadors such as Mexico-born [[Juan de Salcedo]] (who was in love with Tondo's princess, [[Princess Kandarapa|Kandarapa]], a romance his Spanish grandfather Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, disapproved of) attacked [[Kingdom of Maynila|Maynila]], a vassal-state of the Brunei Sultanate and liberated plus incorporated the [[kingdom of Tondo]] as well as establishing [[Manila]] as the capital of the [[Spanish East Indies]].{{sfn|Kurlansky|1999|p=64}}{{sfn|Joaquin|1988}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Borja|first=Marciano R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXpiujH2uOwC&pg=PA132|title=Basques in the Philippines|publisher=University of Nevada Press|year=2005|isbn=9780874175905|location=Reno|pages=30–39}}</ref> During the early part of the Spanish colonialization of the Philippines, the Spanish Augustinian friar Gaspar de San Agustín, O.S.A., describes Iloilo and Panay as one of the most populated islands in the archipelago and the most fertile of all the islands of the Philippines. He also talks about Iloilo, particularly the ancient settlement of Halaur, as site of a progressive trading post and a court of illustrious nobilities.<ref>The friar says: Es la isla de Panay muy parecida a la de Sicilia, así por su forma triangular come por su fertilidad y abundancia de bastimentos... Es la isla más poblada, después de Manila y Mindanao, y una de las mayores, por bojear más de cien leguas. En fertilidad y abundancia es en todas la primera... El otro corre al oeste con el nombre de Alaguer [Halaur], desembocando en el mar a dos leguas de distancia de Dumangas...Es el pueblo muy hermoso, ameno y muy lleno de palmares de cocos. Antiguamente era el emporio y corte de la más lucida [[nobility|nobleza]] de toda aquella isla...Mamuel Merino, O.S.A., ed., ''Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas (1565–1615)'', Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1975, pp. 374–376.</ref>

Legazpi built a fort in Maynila and made overtures of friendship to [[Lakan Dula]], Lakan of Tondo, who accepted. However, Maynila's former ruler, the Muslim rajah, [[Rajah Sulayman]], who was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, refused to submit to Legazpi, but failed to get the support of Lakan Dula or of the Pampangan and Pangasinan settlements to the north. When [[Tarik Sulayman]] and a force of Kapampangan and Tagalog Muslim warriors attacked the Spaniards in the [[Battle of Bangkusay Channel|battle of Bangkusay]], he was finally defeated and killed, the Spanish also destroyed the walled Kapampangan city-state of [[Cainta (historical polity)|Cainta]].

[[File:Spanish Conquest of the Philippines.jpg|thumb|upright|A late 17th-century manuscript by Gaspar de San Agustin from the [[Archive of the Indies]], depicting López de Legazpi's conquest of the Philippines]]
In 1578, the [[Castilian War]] erupted between the Christian Spaniards and Muslim Bruneians over control of the Philippine archipelago. On one side, the newly Christianized non-Muslim Visayans of Panay and [[Cebu (historical polity)|Cebu]], as well as [[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]] (which were from northern Mindanao), as well as the remnants of Bo-ol ([[Dapitan Kingdom|Dapitan]]) had previously waged war against the [[Sultanate of Sulu]], [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]] and [[Maynila (historical polity)|Kingdom of Maynila]], then joined the Spanish in the war against the [[Bruneian Empire]] and its allies, the Bruneian puppet-state of Maynila, Sulu which had dynastic links with Brunei as well as Maguindanao which was an ally of Sulu. The Spanish and its Visayan allies assaulted Brunei and seized its capital, [[Kota Batu, Brunei-Muara|Kota Batu]]. This was achieved as a result in part of the assistance rendered to them by two [[Pengiran#Brunei|noblemen]], Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had traveled to Manila to offer Brunei as a [[vassal kingdom|tributary]] of Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal.{{sfn|Alip|1964|p=201,317}} The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would indeed become the sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new [[Bendahara]]. In March 1578, the Spanish fleet, led by De Sande himself, acting as [[Captain general|Capitán General]], started their journey towards Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spaniards and Mexicans, 1,500 [[Filipinos|Filipino]] natives and 300 Borneans.{{sfn|Annual report of the Secretary of War|1903|p=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101050737699&view=1up&seq=393 379]}} The campaign was one of many, which also included action in [[Mindanao]] and [[Sulu Archipelago|Sulu]].{{sfn|McAmis|2002|p=33}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactID=P40000000008&query=Francisco%20de%20Sande |title=Letter from Francisco de Sande to Felipe II, 1578 |access-date=October 17, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014220759/http://www.filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactID=P40000000008&query=Francisco%20de%20Sande |archive-date=October 14, 2014}}</ref>

The Spanish succeeded in invading the capital on April 16, 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to [[Jerudong]]. In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. The Spanish suffered heavy losses due to a [[cholera]] or [[dysentery]] outbreak.{{sfn|Frankham|2008|p=278}}{{sfn|Atiyah|2002|p=71}} They were so weakened by the illness that they decided to abandon Brunei to return to Manila on June 26, 1578, after just 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof.{{sfn|Saunders|2002|pp=54–60}}

Pengiran Seri Lela died in August–September 1578, probably from the same illness that had afflicted his Spanish allies, although there was suspicion, he could have been poisoned by the ruling sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, the Bruneian princess, left with the Spanish and went on to marry a Christian [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]], named Agustín de Legazpi of Tondo and had children in the Philippines.{{sfn|Saunders|2002|p=57}}
[[File:Tipos del País 2 by Justiniano Asuncion.jpg|left|thumb|421x421px|Filipinos during the Spanish era.]]
Concurrently, northern Luzon became a center of the "Bahan Trade" (comercio de bafan), found in Luís Fróis' Historia de Japam, mainly refers to the robberies, raids, and pillages conducted by the Japanese pirates of Kyūshūa as they assaulted the China seas. The Sengoku period (1477–1603) or the warring states period of Japan had spread the [[wokou|wakō]]'s 倭寇 (Japanese Pirates) activities in the China Seas, some groups of these raiders relocated to the Philippines and established their settlements in Luzon. Because of the proximity to China's beaches, the Philippines were favorable a location to launch raids on the provinces of Guangdong and Fujian, and for shipping with Indochina and the Ryūkyū Islands.<ref>Hall and McClain 1991, 235.</ref> These were the halcyon days of the Philippine branch of the Bahan trade. Thus, the Spanish sought to fight off these Japanese Pirates, prominent among whom was warlord Tayfusa,<ref>His name appears also as "Taizufú", "Tayfuzu" or "Zaizufu". San Agustín 1975, 541</ref> whom the Spaniards expelled after he set up the beginnings of a city-state of Japanese pirates in Northern Luzon.<ref>AGI, Filipinas, 6, r. 5, n. 53.</ref> The Spanish repelled them in the fabled [[1582 Cagayan battles]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ostasien-verlag.de/zeitschriften/cr/pdf/CR_10_2013_155-194_Iaccarino.pdf|title="Merchants, Missionaries and Marauders: Trade and Traffic between Kyūshū (Japan) and Luzon (Philippines) in the Late Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries" By Ubaldo IACCARINO}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Due to the 1549 Ming ban on trade leveled against the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] as a consequence of the Wokou pirate raids, this resulted in the ban for all the Japanese to enter China, and for Chinese ships to sail to Japan. Thus, Manila became the only place where the Japanese and Chinese can openly trade, often also trading Japanese silver for Chinese silk.<ref>[https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/578752#page=22 The "Indo-Pacific" Crossroads] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123215704/https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/578752#page=22 |date=January 23, 2025 }}:
The Asian Waters as Conduits of Knowledge, People, Cargoes, and Technologies Page 107 (Citing:"Wang 1953; Tanaka Takeo 1961.")</ref>

In 1587, [[Magat Salamat]], one of the children of Lakandula, along with Lakandula's nephew and lords of the neighboring areas of Tondo, Pandacan, Marikina, Candaba, Navotas and Bulacan, were executed when the [[Conspiracy of the Maharlikas|Tondo Conspiracy of 1587–1588]] failed<ref name="Tondo">Martinez, Manuel F. Assassinations & conspiracies : from Rajah Humabon to Imelda Marcos. Manila: Anvil Publishing, 2002.</ref> in which a planned grand alliance with the Japanese Christian-captain, Gayo, (Gayo himself was a Woku who once pirated in Cagayan) and Brunei's sultan, would have restored the old aristocracy. Its failure resulted in the hanging of Agustín de Legaspi and the execution of Magat Salamat (the crown-prince of Tondo).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philjol.info/index.php/MALAY/article/viewFile/80/77|title=Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898|author=Fernando A. Santiago Jr. |access-date=July 18, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814203000/http://www.philjol.info/index.php/MALAY/article/viewFile/80/77|archive-date=August 14, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> Thereafter, some of the conspirators were exiled to Guam or Guerrero, Mexico.

Spanish power was further consolidated after Miguel López de Legazpi's complete assimilation of Madja-as, his subjugation of [[Rajah Tupas]], the Rajah of Cebu and [[Juan de Salcedo]]'s conquest of the provinces of Zambales, La Union, Ilocos, the coast of Cagayan, and the ransacking of the Chinese warlord [[Limahong]]'s pirate kingdom in [[Kaboloan|Pangasinan]].<ref>Kurlansky, Mark. (1999). ''The Basque History of the World''. New York: Walker & Company. p. 64. {{ISBN|0-8027-1349-1}}.</ref><ref name="JoaquinPhilBecoming">[[Nick Joaquin|Joaquin, Nick]]. (1988). ''Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming''. Manila: Solar Publishing.</ref>

The Spanish also invaded [[Spanish Formosa|Northern Taiwan]] and [[Ternate]] in Indonesia, using Filipino warriors, before they were driven out by the Dutch.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Borschberg |first1=Peter |title=Journal, Memorials and Letters of Cornelis Matelieff de Jonge: Security, Diplomacy and Commerce in 17th-century Southeast Asia |date=2015 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971-69-527-9 |pages=82, 84, 126, 421 }}</ref> The Sultanate of Ternate reverted to independence and afterwards led a coalition of sultanates against Spain.<ref>"Antonio de Morga, in Blair and Robertson, The Philippines Islands, XV, Pages 97-98"</ref><ref>Cesar A. Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999), 128–129.</ref> While Taiwan became the stronghold of the Ming-loyalist and pirate state of the [[Kingdom of Tungning]]. The Spanish and the Moros of the sultanates of Maguindanao, Lanao and Sulu also waged many wars over hundreds of years in the [[Spanish–Moro conflict]], they were supported by the Papuan language speaking [[Sultanate of Ternate]] in Indonesia which regained independence from Spain,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sordilla |first1=Shane Patrick |title=MAGUINDANAO AND TERNATE CONNECTION AND DISCONNECTION DURING THE AGE OF EUROPEAN COLONIZATION: AN OVERVIEW |url=https://www.academia.edu/38617032 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411182827/https://www.academia.edu/38617032/MAGUINDANAO_AND_TERNATE_CONNECTION_AND_DISCONNECTION_DURING_THE_AGE_OF_EUROPEAN_COLONIZATION_AN_OVERVIEW |url-status=live }}{{unreliable source?|date=September 2021}}</ref> as well as the Sultanate of Brunei, not until the 19th century did Spain succeed in defeating the Sulu Sultanate and taking Mindanao under nominal suzerainty.

The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the [[Reconquista]], a centuries-long campaign to retake and rechristianize the Spanish homeland which was invaded by the Muslims of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. The Spanish expeditions into the Philippines were also part of a larger Ibero-Islamic world conflict<ref>{{cite book|last1=Truxillo|first1=Charles A. |year=2012|publisher=Jain Publishing Company|title=Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=prA99TUDgKQC&pg=PA1|page=1|isbn=978-0-89581-864-5}}</ref> that included a war [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|against the Ottoman Caliphate]] which had just invaded former Christian lands in the Eastern Mediterranean and which had a center of operations in Southeast Asia at its nearby vassal, the [[Ottoman expedition to Aceh|Sultanate of Aceh]].<ref>Peacock Gallop (2015) "From Anatolia to Aceh: Ottomans, Turks and Southeast Asia".</ref> Thus the Philippines became a theatre of the ongoing world-wide-ranging [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars]].

In time, Spanish fortifications were also set up in [[Taiwan]] and the [[Maluku islands]]. These were abandoned and the Spanish soldiers, along with the [[Sultanate of Ternate|newly Christianized]] natives of the [[Moluccas]], withdrew back to the Philippines in order to re-concentrate their military forces because of a threatened invasion by the Japan-born [[Ming]]-dynasty loyalist, [[Koxinga]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Tungning]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Spanish experience in Taiwan, 1626–1642: the Baroque ending of a Renaissance endeavor |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |author=Borao, José Eugenio |year=2010 |page=199 |isbn=978-962-209-083-5 |jstor=j.ctt1xcrpk|chapter=The Baroque Ending of a Renaissance Endeavour }}</ref> However, the planned invasion was aborted. Meanwhile, settlers were sent to the Pacific islands of [[Palau]] and the [[Mariana Islands|Marianas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://micsem.org/pubs/articles/religion/frames/cathmissionsfr.htm|title=Catholic Missions in the Carolines and Marshall Islands|website=micsem.org|access-date=May 22, 2020|archive-date=November 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128085201/http://www.micsem.org/pubs/articles/religion/frames/cathmissionsfr.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Manila Cathedral (1792) by Brambila.jpg|thumb|The sketch of the [[Plaza de Roma]] Manila by Fernando Brambila, a member of the Malaspina Expedition during their stop in Manila in 1792.]]

In 1593, a diplomatic entourage addressed to the "King of Luzon" from the King of Cambodia which bore an elephant as a tribute<ref>Morga (2008), Sucesos, p. 81.</ref> arrived in Manila. The King of Cambodia which witnessed the military activity of precolonial [[Luzones]] people who were mercenaries across Southeast Asia including at Burma and Siam,<ref>{{cite book  |last=Reid   |first=Anthony  |author-link= Anthony Reid (academic)  |editor=Peter Bellwood |editor2=James J. Fox |editor3=Darrell Tryon |editor3-link=Darrell Tryon |title=The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives  |year=1995  |publisher=Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University  |location=Canberra   |chapter= Continuity and Change in the Austronesian Transition to Islam and Christianity  |doi=10.22459/A.09.2006 |hdl=2027/mdp.39015051647942 |isbn=9780731521326 |url=https://openresearchlibrary.org/ext/api/media/f3c41f5e-0a6e-4c6b-a292-1bbc81ed9492/assets/external_content.pdf |chapter-url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch16.html |doi-access=free }}</ref> now implored the new rulers of Luzon, the Spaniards, to aid him in a war to retake his kingdom from an invasion by the Siamese.<ref name="Kohn2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTDfAQAAQBAJ&q=1599+spanish+cambodia&pg=PA445|title=Dictionary of Wars|date=October 31, 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-95494-9|pages=445–|author=George Childs Kohn}}</ref> That had caused the ill-fated [[Cambodian–Spanish War|Spanish expedition to Cambodia]] that although ended in failure had set the foundations of the future restoration of Cambodia from Thai rule under [[French Cochinchina]] which tapped Spanish allies.

=== Incorporation to the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain ===
The founding of [[Manila]] by uniting the dominions of [[Rajah Sulayman|Sulayman III]] and [[Rajah Matanda|Rajah Ache ''Matanda'']] of [[Kingdom of Maynila|Maynila]] who was a vassal to the Sultan of Brunei, and [[Lakandula]] of [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]] who paid tribute to [[Ming dynasty]] China – caused the creation of Manila on February 6, 1579, through the [[Papal bull]] ''Illius Fulti Præsidio'' by [[Pope Gregory XIII]], encompassing all [[New Spain|Spanish colonies]] in Asia as a [[Suffragan diocese|suffragan]] of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico|Archdiocese of Mexico]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manilacathedral.org/History/history_1.htm |title=History – the First Cathedral 1581–1583 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524232007/http://www.manilacathedral.org/History/history_1.htm |archive-date=May 24, 2013 |website=Manila Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica Official Website |accessdate=March 22, 2013 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> Aside from Manila the capital, the Spanish and Latino populations were first concentrated in the 5 newly founded Spanish Royal Cities of [[Cebu City|Cebu]], [[Iloilo City|Arevalo]], [[Lal-lo|Nueva Segovia]], [[Naga, Camarines Sur|Nueva Caceres]], and [[Vigan City|Vigan]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#xd19e3408| title = A History of the Philippines by David P. Barrows| quote = The Largest Cities.—Most of this Spanish population dwelt in Manila or in the five other cities which the Spaniards had founded in the first three decades of their occupation. Those were as follows:—| access-date = January 15, 2022| archive-date = February 8, 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190208005625/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#xd19e3408| url-status = live}}</ref> Aside from these cities, they were also scattered across the [[Presidios]] of [[Cavite City|Cavite]], [[Calamianes]], [[Caraga Region|Caraga]], and [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]].<ref>[https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419 Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. Mawson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603111934/https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419 |date=June 3, 2018 }} AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r −428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r −41 v .</ref> For much of the Spanish period, the Philippines was part of the Mexico-based [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]]. Of the Spaniards and Latinos sent to the Philippines, almost half of the individuals levied to Manila were reported in judicial files as españoles (Spanish born in the colonies, who were often just "very pale [[mestizos]]"), and about a third, as mestizos (whereas Indian ([[Native American people|Native American]]), [[mulatto]]s, and blacks could be mistaken for mestizos of darker color).<ref>Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811. By Eva Maria Mehl, Published at University of North Carolina Wilmington. Chapter 4: Levies for the Philippines in Late Colonial Mexico (Page 174)</ref> Castizos amounted to a total of 15 percent, while peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) were around 5 percent of those punished with deportation to Manila.<ref>Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811. By Eva Maria Mehl, Published at University of North Carolina Wilmington. Chapter 4: Levies for the Philippines in Late Colonial Mexico (Page 172)</ref>

=== Spanish settlement during the 16th and 17th centuries ===
[[File:Unknown artist - Manila canal 19th C watercolour Philippines IMG 9389 Museum of Asian Civilisation.jpg|thumb|Spanish era Manila canal]]
The "Memoria de las Encomiendas en las Islas" of 1591, just twenty years after the conquest of Luzon, reveals a remarkable progress in the work of colonialization and the spread of Christianity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sánchez-Jiménez |first1=David |title=La hispanización y la identidad hispana en Filipinas |journal=Publications and Research |date=October 1, 2010 |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/ny_pubs/221/ |archive-date=September 14, 2021 |access-date=September 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914193646/https://academicworks.cuny.edu/ny_pubs/221/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A cathedral was built in the city of Manila with an episcopal palace, Augustinian, Dominican and Franciscan monasteries and a Jesuit house. The king maintained a hospital for the Spanish settlers and there was another hospital for the natives run by the Franciscans. In order to defend the settlements the Spaniards established in the Philippines, a network of military fortresses called "[[Presidio]]s" were constructed and officered by the Spaniards, and sentried by Latin-Americans and Filipinos, across the archipelago, to protect it from foreign nations such as the Portuguese, British and Dutch as well as raiding Muslims and [[Wokou]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://filipinokastila.tripod.com/fort.html/|title=Fortress of Empire, Rene Javellana, S. J. 1997|access-date=June 11, 2017|archive-date=July 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715191408/http://filipinokastila.tripod.com/fort.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Manila garrison was composed of roughly four hundred Spanish soldiers and the area of [[Intramuros]] as well as its surroundings, were initially settled by 1200 Spanish families.<ref>{{cite journal |url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139 |title = A History of the Philippines |last1 = Barrows |first1 = David |journal = Guttenburg Free Online E-books |year = 2014 |volume = 1 |page = 179 |quote = Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes. |archive-date = December 6, 2016 |access-date = February 2, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161206195339/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38269#pb139 |url-status = live }}</ref> In [[Cebu City]], at the Visayas, the settlement received a total of 2,100 soldier-settlers from [[New Spain]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.philippine-history.org/spanish-expeditions.htm
| title = Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines
| publisher = PHILIPPINE-HISTORY.ORG
| date = 2005
| access-date = March 24, 2017
| archive-date = August 31, 2019
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190831163553/http://www.philippine-history.org/spanish-expeditions.htm
| url-status = live
}}</ref> At the immediate south of Manila, Mexicans were present at Ermita<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila|title=West Coast Of The Island Of Luzon &#124; Tourist Attractions|first1=Don|last1=Herrington|website=www.livinginthephilippines.com|access-date=February 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206200644/http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila|archive-date=December 6, 2016|url-status=usurped}}</ref> and at [[Cavite City|Cavite]]<ref>Galaup "Travel Accounts" page 375.</ref><ref name="autogenerated235">"Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World" By Eva Maria Mehl, page 235.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139 |title = A History of the Philippines |last1 = Barrows |first1 = David |journal = Guttenburg Free Online E-books |year = 2014 |volume = 1 |page = 229 |quote = Reforms under General Arandía.—The demoralization and misery with which Obando's rule closed were relieved somewhat by the capable government of Arandía, who succeeded him. Arandía was one of the few men of talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs in these islands during two centuries. He reformed the greatly disorganized military force, establishing what was known as the "Regiment of the King," {{strong|made up very largely of Mexican soldiers}} [note: emphasis added]. He also formed a corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These were regular troops, who received from Arandía sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an army. |archive-date = December 6, 2016 |access-date = February 2, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161206195339/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38269#pb139 |url-status = live }}</ref> where they were stationed as sentries. In addition, men conscripted from [[Peru]], were also sent to settle [[Zamboanga City]] in Mindanao, to wage war upon Muslim pirates.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Emma Helen|url=https://archive.org/details/philippineisland25blai|title=The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898|last2=Robertson|first2=James Alexander|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company|year=1905|isbn=|volume=25|location=Cleveland, Ohio|pages=150–177}}</ref> These Peruvian soldiers who settled in Zamboanga were led by Don [[Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera]] who was governor of [[Panama]].<ref name= "Peru">[http://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508103044/https://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm |date=May 8, 2021 }} (Zamboanga City History)
"He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."</ref> He also used Panamanians, including even some Genoese from [[Panama Viejo]] descended from colonists at the [[Republic of Genoa]], a nation once active in the [[Crusades]].<ref>[http://www.panamaviejo.org/monumentos/casalos_genoveses.asp Casa de los Genoveses- Sitio Arqueológico de Panamá Viejo<!-- Titolo generato automaticamente -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205022307/http://www.panamaviejo.org/monumentos/casalos_genoveses.asp |data=5 febbraio 2012 }}</ref> There were also communities of Spanish-Mestizos that developed in [[Iloilo City|Iloilo]],<ref>[http://ilongo.weebly.com/iloilo-history-part-5.html Quinze Ans de Voyage Autor de Monde Vol. II ( 1840)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009181632/http://ilongo.weebly.com/iloilo-history-part-5.html |date=October 9, 2014}}. Retrieved July 25, 2014, from Institute for Research of Iloilo Official Website.</ref> [[Negros Island|Negros]]<ref>"The Philippine Archipelago" By Yves Boquet Page 262</ref> and [[Vigan]].<ref name="IlocosHeritage">{{cite book|last1=De la Torre|first1=Visitacion|title=The Ilocos Heritage|date=2006|publisher=Tower Book House|location=Makati City|isbn=978-971-91030-9-7|page=2}}</ref>

[[File:Quiazonfamily1880.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Principalía]] family by Simón Flores y de la Rosa, uncle of painter [[Fabián de la Rosa]]]]
Interactions between native Filipinos{{refn|name=filipinoterm|During the Spanish colonial period, the terms ''Insulares'' and  ''Filipino'' generally referred to full-blooded Spaniards who had been born in the Philippines, distinguishing them from Spaniards born in Spain who were termed ''Peninsulares''. The first documented use of the tern ''Filipino'' to refer to persons of Philippine ethnicity was in the 19th century poem ''[[A la juventud filipina]]'' by [[Jose Rizal]].{{sfn|Duka|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&dq=filipino&pg=PA72 72]}}}} and immigrant Spaniards plus the Latin-Americans and their Spanish-Mestizo descendants eventually caused the formation of a new language, [[Chavacano]], a creole of [[Mexican Spanish]].<ref>{{harvnb|Park|2022|p={{page needed|date=September 2022}}}} "For this, Bernal borrows a premise offered by linguist Keith Whinnom in Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the Philippine Islands (1956), namely that "Mexican Spanish" is "the basis of the vocabulary of the contact vernaculars." Quoted from León-Portilla, "Algunos nahuatlismos en el castellano de Filipinas." León-Portilla, in turn, affirms that he constructs his short reflection from Retana's Diccionario de Filipinismos (1923).</ref> Meanwhile, in the suburb of Tondo, there was a convent run by Franciscan friars and another by the Dominicans that offered Christian education to the Chinese converted to Christianity. The same report reveals that in and around Manila were collected 9,410 tributes, indicating a population of about 30,640 who were under the instruction of thirteen missionaries (ministers of doctrine), apart from the monks in monasteries. In the former province of Pampanga the population estimate was 74,700 and 28 missionaries. In Pangasinan 2,400 people with eight missionaries. In Cagayan and islands Babuyanes 96,000 people but no missionaries. In La Laguna 48,400 people with 27 missionaries. In Bicol and Camarines Catanduanes islands 86,640 people with fifteen missionaries. Based on the tribute counts, the total founding population of Spanish-Philippines was 667,612 people,<ref>The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the Philippines in the 21St Century By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (Page xii)</ref> of which: 20,000 were Chinese migrant traders,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=7QEjPVyd9YMC|page=751|text=In 1893, the Qing rulers officially withdrew the migration ban}}|title=History|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures around the World, Volume 1|editor1=Carol R. Ember |editor2=Melvin Ember |editor3=Ian A. Skoggard |date=2005 |publisher= Springer}}</ref> 15,600 were Latino soldier-colonists sent from Peru and Mexico (In the 1600s),<ref>Stephanie Mawson, 'Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific' (Univ. of Sydney M.Phil. thesis, 2014), appendix 3.</ref> Immigrants included 3,000 Japanese residents,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Google map of Paco district of Manila, Philippines |location=Philippines |title=Japanese Christian |url=http://ph.pagenation.com/mnl/Paco_120.9997_14.5808.map |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507124349/http://ph.pagenation.com/mnl/Paco_120.9997_14.5808.map |archive-date=May 7, 2010}}</ref> and 600 pure Spaniards from Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uco.es/aaf/garcia-abasolo/files/63df3.pdf|title=Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571–1599) By Antonio Garcia-Abasalo|access-date=August 8, 2018|archive-date=January 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117225634/https://www.uco.es/aaf/garcia-abasolo/files/63df3.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Of the 600 Spaniards from Europe, two hundred and thirty-six of them were given [[encomiendas]] and were ennobled, as they scattered across the many provinces of the Philippines to serve as administrators.<ref>Relacion de las Encomiendas existentes en Filipinas el dia 31 de Mayo de 1591. in Retana: Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, iv, pp. 39-112.</ref> There was also a large but unknown number of [[Indian Filipinos]] as majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were from [[Bengal]] or Southern [[India]],<ref>[https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/333213/azu_etd_13473_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&title=repository.arizona.edu Peasants, Servants, and Sojourners: Itinerant Asians in Colonial New Spain, 1571–1720 By Furlong, Matthew J.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429034134/https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/333213/azu_etd_13473_sip1_m.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y&title=repository.arizona.edu |date=April 29, 2022 }} "Slaves purchased by the indigenous elites, Spanish and Hokkiens of the colony seemed drawn most often from South Asia, particularly Bengal and South India, and less so, from other sources, such as East Africa, Brunei, Makassar, and Java..." Chapter 2 "Rural Ethnic Diversity" Page 164 (Translated from: "Inmaculada Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila (siglos xvi–xvii) (Córdoba: Universidad de Córdoba, 1997), 31, 35–36."</ref> adding [[Dravidian language|Dravidian]] speaking South Indians and [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] speaking [[Demographics of Bangladesh|Bangladeshis]] into the ethnic mix, and the rest were Malays and Negritos. They were under the care of 140 missionaries, of which 79 were Augustinians, nine Dominicans and 42 Franciscans.<ref>Retana, "Relacion de las Encomiendas existentes en Filipinas el dia 31 de 1.591" Archivo del Bibliófilo Filipino IV, p 39–112</ref> Adding during the Spanish evacuation of [[Ternate, Indonesia]], the 200 families of mixed Mexican-Filipino-Spanish and Moluccan-Portuguese descent who had ruled over the briefly Christianized [[Sultanate of Ternate]] (They later reverted to Islam) were relocated to [[Ternate, Cavite]] and Ermita, Manila.<ref>Zamboangueño Chavacano: Philippine Spanish Creole or Filipinized Spanish Creole? By Tyron Judes D. Casumpang (Page 3)</ref> and they were presaged by their previous ruler, Sultan Said Din Burkat who was enslaved but eventually converted to Christianity and was freed after being deported to [[Manila]].<ref>Bartolome Juan Leonardy y de Argensola, Conquistas de las islas Molucas (Madrid: Alonso Martin, 1909) pp. 351–8; Cesar Majul, Muslims in the Philippines (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1973) pp. 119–20; Hal, History of Southeast Asia, pp. 249–50.</ref>

[[File:Gobernadorcillo de Naturales by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A {{lang|es|[[Gobernadorcillo]]}} de Naturales comparable to a modern-day mayor. Mostly of Indio descent.]]
The islands were fragmented and [[Demographics of the Philippines#Population history|sparsely populated]]<ref>{{cite journal |url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm#pb139 |title = A History of the Philippines |last1 = Barrows |first1 = David |journal = Guttenburg Free Online E-books |year = 2014 |volume = 1 |page = 139 |quote = Fourth.—In considering this Spanish conquest, we must understand that the islands were far more sparsely inhabited than they are to-day. The Bisayan islands, the rich Camarines, the island of Luzon, had, in Legaspi's time, only a small fraction of their present great populations. This population was not only small, but it was also extremely disunited. Not only were the great tribes separated by the differences of language, but, as we have already seen, each tiny community was practically independent, and the power of a dato very limited. There were no great princes, with large forces of fighting retainers whom they could call to arms, such as the Portuguese had encountered among the Malays south in the Moluccas. |archive-date = December 6, 2016 |access-date = February 2, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161206195339/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38269#pb139 |url-status = live }}</ref> due to constant inter-kingdom wars<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Reyeg |first1=Fernardo |last2=Marsh |first2=Ned |date=December 2011 |title=The Filipino Way of War: Irregular Warfare Through The Centuries |type=Post Graduate |chapter=2 |publisher=Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California |page=21 |chapter-url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a556504.pdf |access-date=February 15, 2021 |archive-date=April 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415183151/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a556504.pdf |url-status=live |hdl=10945/10681 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and natural disasters (as the country is on the [[Typhoon#Frequency|Typhoon belt]] and [[Pacific Ring of Fire]]),<ref name="jstor.org"/> which made it easy for Spanish invasion. The Spanish then brought political unification to most of the Philippine archipelago via the conquest of the various small maritime states although they were unable to fully incorporate parts of the [[sultanates]] of [[Mindanao]] and the areas where the ethnic groups and highland plutocracy of the animist [[Ifugao]] of Northern [[Luzon]] were established. The Spanish introduced elements of [[Western culture|western civilization]] such as the [[code of law]], western printing and the [[Gregorian calendar]] alongside new food resources such as maize, [[pineapple]] and chocolate from Latin America.<ref>{{cite book| author=Spain|title=Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias. Titulo Quince. De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias| year=1680| id=[http://www.congreso.gob.pe/ntley/Imagenes/LeyIndia/0102015.pdf Spanish-language facsimile of the original]| location=Madrid}}</ref>

[[Philippines education during Spanish rule|Education]] played a major role in the socio-economic transformation of the archipelago. The oldest universities, [[college]]s, and [[vocational schools]] and the first modern [[state school|public education]] system in Asia were all created during the Spanish colonial period, and by the time Spain was replaced by the United States as the colonial power, Filipinos were among the most educated subjects in all of Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Coleman|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7oiTkrg9tfUC&pg=PA17 17–59]}}</ref> The Jesuits founded the Colegio de Manila in 1590, which later became the [[Universidad de San Ignacio]], a royal and pontifical university. They also founded the [[Colegio de San Ildefonso]] on August 1, 1595. After the [[Suppression of the Society of Jesus#Philippines|expulsion of the Society of Jesus]] in 1768, the management of the Jesuit schools passed to other parties. On April 28, 1611, through the initiative of Bishop Miguel de Benavides, the [[University of Santo Tomas]] was founded in Manila. The Jesuits also founded the Colegio de San José (1601) and took over the Escuela Municipal, later to be called the [[Ateneo de Manila University]] (1859). All institutions offered courses included not only religious topics but also [[Science and technology in the Philippines|Science]] subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics. The University of Santo Tomás, for example, started by teaching theology, philosophy and humanities and the Faculty of Jurisprudence and Canonical Law, together with the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened during the 18th century.

[[File:Panares Ancestral House.jpg|thumb|''[[Bahay na bato]]'', a typical Filipino urban house during the colonial era]]
Outside the tertiary institutions, the efforts of missionaries were in no way limited to religious instruction but also geared towards promoting social and economic advancement of the islands. They cultivated into the natives their taste for music and taught Spanish language to children.<ref>{{cite book| author=Antonio de Morga|title=Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas | year=1609 | publisher=Fondo de Cultura| isbn=978-0-521-01035-1|title-link=Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas}}</ref> They also introduced advances in rice agriculture, brought from America maize and cocoa and developed the farming of indigo, coffee and sugar cane. The only commercial plant introduced by a government agency was the plant of tobacco.

Church and state were inseparably linked in Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious establishments.<ref name="uslc-4">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-4}}</ref> One of Spain's objectives in colonialization of the Philippines was the conversion of the local population to Roman Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the disunity and insignificance of other organized religions, except for Islam, which was still predominant in the southwest.<ref name="uslc-4" /> The pageantry of the church had a wide appeal, reinforced by the incorporation of indigenous social customs into religious observances. The eventual outcome was a new Roman Catholic majority, from which the Muslims of western Mindanao and the upland tribal and animistic peoples of Luzon remained detached and alienated (Ethnic groups such as the Ifugaos of the Cordillera region and the Mangyans of Mindoro).

[[File:Travel through Calle Crisologo.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Villa Fernandina de [[Vigan]] founded by the Mexican conquistador [[Juan de Salcedo]].]]
At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of indirect rule helped create an indigenous upper class, called the ''principalía'', who had local wealth, high status, and other privileges. This perpetuated an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] system of local control. Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that the indigenous idea of communal use and ownership of land was replaced with the concept of private ownership and the conferring of titles on members of the ''principalía''.<ref name="uslc-4" />

Around 1608 [[William Adams (sailor, born 1564)|William Adams]], an English navigator, contacted the interim governor of the Philippines, [[Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco]], on behalf of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], who wished to establish direct trade contacts with [[New Spain]]. Friendly letters were exchanged, officially starting relations between Japan and New Spain. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]] from Mexico, via the ''Royal [[Audiencia Real|Audiencia]]'' of Manila, and administered directly from Spain from 1821 after the [[Mexican War of Independence|Mexican revolution]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Shafer|1958|p={{page needed|date=September 2022}}}}</ref> until 1898.

The [[Manila galleons]], were constructed in [[Bicol Region|Bicol]] and [[Cavite]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf|title=Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon|website=Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia|publisher=Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines|access-date=October 26, 2015|archive-date=April 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413233643/http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The Manila galleons were accompanied with a large naval escort as it traveled to and from Manila and [[Acapulco]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Williams, Glyn |year=1999 |title=The Prize of All the Oceans |publisher=Viking |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-89197-9 |page=4}}</ref> The galleons sailed once or twice a year, between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon, 1939. p. 193.</ref> The Manila Galleons brought with them goods,<ref>1996. "Silk for Silver: Manila-Macao Trade in the 17th Century." ''Philippine Studies'' 44, 1:52–68.</ref> settlers<ref name="autogenerated235"/> and military reinforcements<ref>[https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/431623 "Orden de enviar hombres a Filipinas desde México" (Consejo de Indias España)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250104042736/https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/431623 |date=January 4, 2025 }}(English Translation from Spanish original: "Royal Decree to the Count of Coruña, Viceroy of New Spain, informing him that, according to information from Captain Gabriel de Rivera who came from the Philippines, on a journey made by Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo to the Cagayan River some Spaniards were lost, and that to make up for this lack and populate these islands it was necessary to take up to two hundred men to them. The viceroy is ordered to attend to this request and send them from New Spain, in addition to another two hundred that were entrusted to him from Lisbon."</ref> destined for the Philippines, from [[Latin American Asian|Latin America]].<ref name="gutenberg1">[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16086/16086-h/16086-h.htm Letter from Fajardo to Felipe III From Manila, August 15 1620.(From the Spanish Archives of the Indies)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204103029/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16086/16086-h/16086-h.htm |date=February 4, 2018 }}("The infantry does not amount to two hundred men, in three companies. If these men were that number, and Spaniards, it would not be so bad; but, although I have not seen them, because they have not yet arrived here, I am told that they are, as at other times, for the most part boys, mestizos, and mulattoes, with some Indians (Native Americans). There is no little cause for regret in the great sums that reënforcements of such men waste for, and cost, your Majesty. I cannot see what betterment there will be until your Majesty shall provide it, since I do not think, that more can be done in Nueva Spaña, although the viceroy must be endeavoring to do so, as he is ordered.")</ref> The reverse voyage also brought Asian commercial products<ref>Fish, Shirley. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific, with an Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565–1815. Central Milton Keynes, England: Authorhouse 2011.</ref> and [[Filipino Mexicans|immigrants]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Seijas|first1=Tatiana|title=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-DGAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-95285-9}}<br />{{cite web |url=https://15minutehistory.org/2016/01/13/episode-76-the-trans-pacific-slave-trade/ |title=Episode 76: The Trans-Pacific Slave Trade |last1=Rose |first1=Christopher |date=January 13, 2016 |website=15 Minute History |publisher=University of Texas at Austin |access-date=January 13, 2016 |archive-date=July 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719171701/https://15minutehistory.org/2016/01/13/episode-76-the-trans-pacific-slave-trade/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> to the western side of the Americas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://personal.anderson.ucla.edu/eloisa.borah/chronology.pdf |title=Chronology of Filipinos in America Pre-1989 |author=Eloisa Gomez Borah |year=1997 |website=Anderson School of Management |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]] |access-date=February 25, 2012 |archive-date=February 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208123432/http://personal.anderson.ucla.edu/eloisa.borah/chronology.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Legally, the Manila Galleons were only allowed to trade between Mexico and the Philippines; however, illegal trade, commerce, and inter-migration, were happening in secret between the Philippines and other would-be nations in the Spanish Americas due to the tremendous demand and profitability of Asian products in Latin America and this clandestine defiance of Spanish colonial decrees forbidding trade, continued all throughout the term of the [[Manila Galleons]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1515/sai-2022-0008 | title=El Galeón de Manila y el comercio de Asia: Encuentro de culturas y sistemas | journal=Interacción Sino-Iberoamericana / Sino-Iberoamerican Interaction | date=March 2022 | volume=2 | issue=1 | pages=85–109 | last1=Villamar | first1=Cuauhtemoc | s2cid=249318172 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="text-align: left;" |Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.<ref name= "Mexicans" >[https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419 Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. Mawson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603111934/https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419 |date=June 3, 2018 }} AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r –428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r –41 v .</ref>
|-
! '''Location'''
! 1603
! 1636
! 1642
! 1644
! 1654
! 1655
! 1670
! 1672
|-
|[[Manila]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|900
|446
|—
|407
|821
|799
|708
|667
|-
|[[Fort Santiago]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|—
|22
|—
|—
|50
|—
|86
|81
|-
|[[Cavite City|Cavite]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|—
|70
|—
|—
|89
|—
|225
|211
|-
|[[Cagayan]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|46
|80
|—
|—
|—
|—
|155
|155
|-
|[[Calamianes]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|73
|73
|-
|[[Caraga]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|—
|45
|—
|—
|—
|—
|81
|81
|-
|[[Cebu City|Cebu]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|86
|50
|—
|—
|—
|—
|135
|135
|-
|[[Taiwan|Formosa]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|—
|180
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|-
|[[Moluccas]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|80
|480
|507
|—
|389
|—
|—
|—
|-
|[[Iloilo City|Otón]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|66
|50
|—
|—
|—
|—
|169
|169
|-
|[[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]]<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|—
|210
|—
|—
|184
|—
|—
|—
|-
|Other<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|255
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|-
|<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|—
|-
|Total Reinforcements<ref name= "Mexicans" />
|'''1,533'''
|'''1,633'''
|'''2,067'''
|'''2,085'''
|'''n/a'''
|'''n/a'''
|'''1,632'''
|'''1,572'''
|-
|}

The Spanish military fought off various indigenous revolts and several external challenges, especially from the British, Dutch, and Portuguese and Chinese pirates. Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity and founded schools, universities, and hospitals. In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced education, establishing public schooling in Spanish.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/92039812/|title=Philippines : a country study|via=The Library of Congress|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|year=1993|isbn=0-8444-0748-8|editor-last=Dolan|editor-first=Ronald E.|edition=4th|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=108–112|archive-date=May 26, 2022|access-date=February 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526064401/https://www.loc.gov/item/92039812/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the [[Battles of La Naval de Manila]] was fought between the forces of Spain and the [[Dutch Republic]], as part of the [[Eighty Years' War]]. Although the Spanish forces consisted of just two Manila galleons and a [[galley]] with crews composed mainly of Filipino volunteers, against three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch squadrons were severely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish-Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans for an invasion of the Philippines.

In 1687, [[Isaac Newton]] included an explicit reference to the Philippines in his classic [[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]] by mentioning Leuconia, the ancient Ptolemaic name for the Philippines.<ref name="manapat"/>

=== Spanish rule during the 18th century ===
[[File:NewSpainFlag.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Coat of arms]] of Manila were at the corners of the [[Cross of Burgundy flag|Cross of Burgundy]] in the Spanish-Filipino battle standard.]]
Colonial income derived mainly from [[entrepôt]] trade: The [[Manila Galleon]]s sailing from the port of Manila to the port of Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of [[silver bullion]], and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Asian, and Pacific products. A total of 110 Manila galleons set sail in the 250 years of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade (1565 to 1815). There was no direct trade with Spain until 1766.<ref name="uslc-4" />

[[File:Santo Tomas walled city Philippines.jpg|thumb|left|Plaza Santo Tomas in Intramuros, Manila; where the [[Santo Domingo Church]], [[Colegio de Santa Rosa - Intramuros|Colegio de Santa Rosa]] and the original [[University of Santo Tomas]] were built during the Spanish era.]]
The Philippines was never profitable as a colony during Spanish rule, and the long war against the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] from the West, in the 17th century together with the intermittent conflict with the Muslims in the South and combating Japanese [[Wokou]] piracy from the North nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.<ref name="uslc-4" /> Furthermore, the state of near constant war caused a high death and desertion rate among the [[Mestizo]] and Indio ([[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]) soldiers<ref name="gutenberg1"/> sent from Mexico and Peru that were stationed in the Philippines.<ref>Garcıa de los Arcos, "Grupos etnicos," ´ 65–66</ref> The high death and desertion rate also applied to the native Filipino<ref name=filipinoterm /> warriors conscripted by Spain, to fight in battles all across the archipelago. The repeated wars, lack of wages and near starvation were so intense, almost half of the soldiers sent from Latin America either died or fled to the countryside to live as vagabonds among the rebellious natives or escaped enslaved Indians (from India)<ref>The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market Page 36</ref> where they race-mixed through rape or prostitution, further blurring the racial caste system Spain tried hard to maintain.<ref>Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese." In other words, the Mexicans who had arrived in the previous century had so intermingled with the local population that distinctions of origin had been forgotten by the 19th century. The Mexicans who came with Legázpi and aboard succeeding vessels had blended with the local residents so well that their country of origin had been erased from memory.</ref> Mixed Spanish-Filipino descent may be more common than expected as many Spaniards often had Filipino concubines and mistresses and they frequently produced children out of wedlock.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42633385 | jstor=42633385 | title=Spanish and Mestizo Women of Manila | last1=Doran | first1=Christine | journal=Philippine Studies | date=1993 | volume=41 | issue=3 | pages=269–286 | archive-date=January 24, 2023 | access-date=September 19, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124033012/https://www.jstor.org/stable/42633385 | url-status=live }}</ref> These circumstances contributed to the increasing difficulty of governing the Philippines. The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote a letter to [[King Charles III of Spain]] in which he advises to abandon the colony, but the religious orders opposed this since they considered the Philippines a launching pad for the conversion of the Far East.<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|name=7–8}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Crossley |first=John Newsome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |title=Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age |date=July 28, 2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4094-8242-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 168–169] |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy paid by the Spanish Crown and often procured from taxes and profits accrued by the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico), and the 200-year-old fortifications at Manila had not been improved much since first built by the Spanish.<ref name=tracy1995p12p55>{{Harvnb|Tracy|1995|pp=12,55}}</ref> This was one of the circumstances that made possible the brief British occupation of Manila between 1762 and 1764.

==== British occupation (1762–1764) ====
{{Main|British occupation of Manila}}

Britain declared war against Spain on January 4, 1762, and on September 24, 1762, a force of British Army regulars and [[East India Company|British East India Company]] soldiers, supported by the ships and men of the East Indies Squadron of the British [[Royal Navy]], sailed into [[Manila Bay]] from Madras, India.<ref name=tracy1995p9>{{Harvnb|Tracy|1995|p=9}}</ref> [[Battle of Manila (1762)|Manila was besieged and fell]] to the British on October 4, 1762.

Outside of Manila, the Spanish leader [[Simón de Anda y Salazar]] organized a militia of 10,000 mostly from [[Pampanga]] to resist British attempts to extend their conquest outside Manila. Anda y Salazar established his headquarters first in Bulacan, then in Bacolor.<ref name=tracy1995p58>{{Harvnb|Tracy|1995|p=58}}</ref> After a number of skirmishes and failed attempts to support Filipino uprisings, the British command admitted to the War Secretary in London that the Spanish were "in full possession of the country".<ref>Backhouse, Thomas (1765). The Secretary at War to Mr. Secretary Conway. London: British Library. pp. v. 40.</ref> The occupation of Manila ended in April 1764 as agreed to in the peace negotiations for the [[Seven Years' War]] in Europe. The Spanish then persecuted the [[Binondo]] Chinese community for its role in aiding the British.<ref name="en.radio86.com">Raitisoja, Geni [http://en.radio86.com/travel/travel-destinations/chinatown-manila-oldest-world " Chinatown Manila: Oldest in the world"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110402180844/http://en.radio86.com/travel/travel-destinations/chinatown-manila-oldest-world |date=April 2, 2011}}, ''Tradio86.com'', July 8, 2006, accessed March 19, 2011.</ref> An unknown number of [[Presidency armies|Indian soldiers]] known as [[sepoy]]s, who came with the British, deserted and settled in nearby [[Cainta, Rizal]], which explains the uniquely Indian features of generations of Cainta residents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fish|2003|p=158}}</ref>

==== Spanish rule in the second part of the 18th century ====
In 1766 direct communication was established with Spain and trade with Europe through a national ship based on Spain. In 1774, colonial officers from Bulacan, Tondo, Laguna de Bay, and other areas surrounding Manila reported with consternation that discharged soldiers and deserters (from Mexico, Spain and Peru) during the British occupation were providing the indios military training for the weapons that had been disseminated all over the territory during the war.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mehl |first1=Eva Maria |title=Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-13679-3 |page=100 }}</ref> Expeditions from Spain were administered since 1785 by the [[Real Compañía de Filipinas]], which was granted a monopoly of trade between Spain and the islands that lasted until 1834, when the company was terminated by the Spanish crown due to poor management and financial losses.<ref>{{Cite web|first=|title=The Board of the Philippines|url=https://fundaciongoyaenaragon.es/obra/la-junta-de-filipinas/215|website=Fundacion Goya en Aragon|access-date=June 24, 2021|archive-date=July 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210705221315/https://fundaciongoyaenaragon.es/obra/la-junta-de-filipinas/215|url-status=live}}</ref> About this time, Governor-General Anda complained that the Latin-American and Spanish soldiers sent to the Philippines had dispersed "all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence".<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007 |chapter=Unruly Mexicans in Manila: Imperial Goals and Colonial Concerns |title=Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World |year=2016 |last1=Mehl |first1=Eva Maria |pages=227–266 |isbn=978-1-316-48012-0 |quote=In Governor Anda y Salazar's opinion, an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence. }}</ref>

In 1781, Governor-General [[José Basco y Vargas]] established the [[Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País|Economic Society of the Friends of the Country]].<ref name="uslc-5b">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-5}}</ref> The Philippines was administered from the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]] until the independence to Mexico in 1821 necessitated the direct rule from Spain of the Philippines from that year.

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de
las islas Filipinas"<ref name="Estadismo1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |title=ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish) |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=March 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309030040/http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Estadismo2">[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ_2 ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)]</ref> compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ncesc.com/geographic-faq/how-big-were-families-in-the-1700s/ |title="How big were families in the 1700s?" By Keri Rutherford |access-date=March 8, 2024 |archive-date=February 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223025955/https://www.ncesc.com/geographic-faq/how-big-were-families-in-the-1700s/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and two parents, per tribute)<ref name="Newson">{{cite book |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |date=April 16, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-6197-1 |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308195926/https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and came upon the following statistics:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Data reported for the 1700s-1800s as divided by ethnicity and province<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31,54,113}}
|-
! Province 
! Native Tributes
! Spanish Mestizo Tributes
! All Tributes{{efn|Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt}}  
|-
|[[Tondo, Manila|Tondo]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|14,437-1/2
|3,528
|27,897-7
|-
|[[Cavite]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|5,724-1/2
|859
|9,132-4
|-
|[[Laguna (province)|Laguna]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|14,392-1/2
|336
|19,448-6
|-
|[[Batangas]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|15,014
|451 
|21,579-7  
|-
|[[Mindoro]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|3,165
|3-1/2
|4,000-8
|-
|[[Bulacan]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|16,586-1/2
|2,007
|25,760-5 
|-
|[[Pampanga]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|16,604-1/2
|2,641
|27,358-1 
|-
|[[Bataan]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|3,082
|619
|5,433
|-
|[[Zambales]]<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}
|1,136 
|73 
|4,389
|-
|[[Ilocos]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}}
|44,852-1/2
|631 
|68,856
|- 
|[[Pangasinan]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}}
|19,836 
|719-1/2
|25,366
|-
|[[Cagayan]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}}
|9,888 
|0
|11,244-6
|-
|[[Camarines]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}}
|19,686-1/2 
|154-1/2 
|24,994
|-
|[[Albay]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}}
|12,339 
|146 
|16,093
|-       
|[[Tayabas]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}}
|7,396 
|12 
|9,228 
|-
|[[Cebu City|Cebu]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|28,112-1/2
|625 
|28,863  
|-        
|[[Samar]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|3,042 
|103 
|4,060  
|-
|[[Leyte]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|7,678 
|37-1/2
|10,011 
|-
|[[Caraga]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|3,497
|0
|4,977 
|-
|[[Misamis (province)|Misamis]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|1,278 
|0
|1,674 
|-
|[[Negros Island]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|5,741 
|0
|7,176  
|-
|[[Iloilo City|Iloilo]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|29,723 
|166 
|37,760  
|-
|[[Capiz]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|11,459 
|89 
|14,867  
|-
|[[Antique (province)|Antique]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|9,228 
|0
|11,620 
|-
|[[Calamianes]]<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
|2,289  
|0
|3,161 
|-    
|'''TOTAL'''
|'''299,049'''
|'''13,201'''
|''' 424,992-16'''
|}

The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Cavite at 13%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Laguna 2.28%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Batangas 3%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Bulacan 10.79%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Bataan 16.72%,<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Ilocos 1.38%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}} Pangasinan 3.49%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31}} Albay 1.16%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|54}} Cebu 2.17%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}} Samar 3.27%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}}
Iloilo 1%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}} Capiz 1%,<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|113}} [[Bicol region|Bicol]] 20%,<ref name="Pnas">{{cite web |author=Maximilian Larena |title=Supplementary Information for Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years (Appendix, Page 35) |publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=January 21, 2021 |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/suppl/2021/03/17/2026132118.DCSupplemental/pnas.2026132118.sapp.pdf |pages=35 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |access-date=March 23, 2021 |archive-date=July 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701002232/https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/suppl/2021/03/17/2026132118.DCSupplemental/pnas.2026132118.sapp.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Zamboanga Peninsula|Zamboanga]] 40%.<ref name="Pnas" /> According to the data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino.<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}} Summing up all the provinces including those with no Spanish Filipinos, all in all, in the total population of the Philippines, [[Spanish Filipinos]] and mixed Spanish-Filipinos composed 5% of the population.<ref name= "Estadismo1" />{{rp|539}}<ref name= "Estadismo2" />{{rp|31,54,113}}

The book, "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park" citing "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)" gave a higher number of later Mexican soldier-immigrants to the Philippines, pegging the number at 35,000 immigrants in the 1700s,<ref name= "Intercolonial">"Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 Paula C. Park" Page 100</ref> in a Philippine population which was only around 1.5 Million,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=67xO2hUwzasC&dq=Friar+Manuel+Buzeta+1,502,574&pg=PR12 "The Unlucky Country The Republic of the Philippines in the 21st Century" By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (2012)(page xii)]</ref> thus forming 2.33% of the population.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://bagn.archivos.gob.mx/index.php/legajos/article/view/1243|title=Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)|last=Garcia|first=María Fernanda|journal=Bolotin Archivo General de la Nación|volume=4|issue=11|year=1998|archive-date=August 12, 2022|access-date=September 20, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812123617/https://bagn.archivos.gob.mx/index.php/legajos/article/view/1243|url-status=live}}</ref>

Meanwhile, government records show that 20% of the Philippines' total population were either pure Chinese or Mixed [[Chinese-Filipinos]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Guanqun |first=Wang |date=August 23, 2009 |title=Chinese lunar new year might become national holiday in Philippines too |work=[[Xinhua]] |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826194926/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2009}}</ref><ref name="senate.gov.ph">{{Cite press release |title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday |date=January 21, 2013 |publisher=PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines |url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |last1=Macrohon |first1=Pilar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516035425/http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |archive-date=May 16, 2021}}</ref>

===Spanish rule during the 19th century===
[[File:Landing Balanguingui.jpg|thumb|The landing of the [[Spanish expedition to Balanguingui|Spanish expedition to Sulu]] by [[Antonio Brugada]].|left]]
The Philippines was included in the vast territory of the Kingdom of Spain, in the first constitution of Spain promulgated in Cadiz in 1812. It was never a colony as modern-day historical literature would say, but an overseas region in Asia (Spanish Constitution 1812). The Spanish Constitution of 1870 provides for the first autonomous community for "Archipelago Filipino" where all provinces in the Philippine Islands will be given the semi-independent home rule program.

[[File:Maria Clara Gown.jpg|thumb|upright|Filipina mestiza women]]
During the 19th century Spain invested heavily in education and infrastructure. Through the Education Decree of December 20, 1863, [[Isabella II of Spain|Queen Isabella II of Spain]] decreed the establishment of a free public school system that used Spanish as the language of instruction, leading to increasing numbers of educated Filipinos.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fundación Santa María (Madrid)|1994| p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QDegTDTzMlAC&pg=PA508 508]}}</ref> Additionally, the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869 cut travel time to Spain, which facilitated the rise of the [[ilustrado]]s, an enlightened class of Spanish-Filipinos that had been able to enroll in Spanish and European universities.

A great number of infrastructure projects were undertaken during the 19th century that put the Philippine economy and standard of living ahead of most of its Asian neighbors and even many European countries at that time. Among them were a [[Philippine National Railways|railway system]] for Luzon, a tramcar network for Manila, and Asia's first steel suspension bridge Puente Claveria, later called [[Puente Colgante (Manila)|Puente Colgante]].

<ref name="Borja">{{cite book|author=De Borja|first=Marciano R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXpiujH2uOwC&pg=PA132|title=Basques in the Philippines|publisher=University of Nevada Press|year=2005|isbn=9780874175905|location=Reno|page=132}}</ref>

[[File:Ilustrados 1890.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in Madrid, {{Circa|1890}}]]

On August 1, 1851, the [[Bank of the Philippine Islands|Banco Español-Filipino de Isabel II]] was established to attend the needs of the rapid economic boom, that had greatly increased its pace since the 1800s as a result of a new economy based on a rational exploitation of the agricultural resources of the islands. The increase in textile fiber crops such as [[abacá]], oil products derived from the coconut, indigo, that was growing in demand, etc., generated an increase in money supply that led to the creation of the bank. Banco Español-Filipino was also granted the power to print a Philippine-specific currency (the [[Philippine peso]]) for the first time (before 1851, many currencies were used, mostly the [[pieces of eight]]).

[[File:Marcelo Azcárraga por Kaulak.png|thumb|upright|Filipino [[Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero]] born in Manila to a [[Biscay|Vizcayan]] Spaniard who was a peninsulares general in the Philippines José de Azcárraga and a Filipina mestiza María Palmero. He became the Prime minister of Spain.]]
Spanish Manila was seen in the 19th century as a model of colonial governance that effectively put the interests of the original inhabitants of the islands before those of the colonial power. As [[John Crawfurd]] put it in its History of the Indian Archipelago, in all of Asia the "Philippines alone did improve in civilization, wealth, and populousness under the colonial rule" of a foreign power.<ref>John Crawfurd, ''History of the Indian Archipelago'', (1820), page 445</ref> [[John Bowring]], Governor General of British Hong Kong from 1856 to 1860, wrote after his trip to Manila:
{{blockquote|Credit is certainly due to Spain for having bettered the condition of a people who, though comparatively highly civilized, yet being continually distracted by petty wars, had sunk into a disordered and uncultivated state.

The inhabitants of these beautiful Islands upon the whole, may well be considered to have lived as comfortably during the last hundred years, protected from all external enemies and governed by mild laws vis-a-vis those from any other tropical country under native or European sway, owing in some measure, to the frequently discussed peculiar (Spanish) circumstances which protect the interests of the natives.<ref>John Bowring, "Travels in the Philippines", p. 18, London, 1875</ref>}}

In ''The Inhabitants of the Philippines'', Frederick Henry Sawyer wrote:
{{blockquote|Until an inept bureaucracy was substituted for the old paternal rule, and the revenue quadrupled by increased taxation, the Filipinos were as happy a community as could be found in any colony. The population greatly multiplied; they lived in competence, if not in affluence; cultivation was extended, and the exports steadily increased. [...] Let us be just; what British, French, or Dutch colony, populated by natives can compare with the Philippines as they were until 1895?.<ref>Frederic H. Sawyer, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=JqfeLUwFNh0C The inhabitants of the Philippines]", Preface, London, 1900</ref>}}

The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1878. The colony's population as of December 31, 1877, was recorded at 5,567,685 persons.<ref>[http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp Population of the Philippines Census Years 1799 to 2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704171010/http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp |date=July 4, 2012}}. ''National Statistical Coordination Board'',</ref> This was followed by the 1887 census that yielded a count of 6,984,727,<ref name=Gonzalez93>{{cite web| url=http://www.populstat.info/Asia/philippc.htm| title=The Philippines: historical demographical data of the whole country| access-date=July 19, 2003| author=Jan Lahmeyer| year=1996| archive-date=March 3, 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214300/http://www.populstat.info/Asia/philippc.htm| url-status=dead}}</ref> while that of 1898 yielded 7,832,719 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://1898.mforos.com/1026829/7262657-censos-de-cuba-puerto-rico-filipinas-y-espana-estudio-de-su-relacion/| title=CENSOS DE CUBA, PUERTO RICO, FILIPINAS Y ESPAÑA. ESTUDIO DE SU RELACION| access-date=December 12, 2010| author=Voz de Galicia| year=1898| archive-date=May 13, 2010| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513030017/http://1898.mforos.com/1026829/7262657-censos-de-cuba-puerto-rico-filipinas-y-espana-estudio-de-su-relacion/| url-status=live}}</ref>

===Latin-American revolutions and direct Spanish rule===
{{Main|Philippine Military Activities in the Americas}}
[[File:Gomburza (square crop).jpg|thumb|upright|Filipino Mestizo priests [[Mariano Gomez (priest)|Mariano Gomez]], [[José Burgos]], and [[Jacinto Zamora]] collectively known as the [[Gomburza]] was wrongly executed after [[1872 Cavite mutiny]]. It sparked the movements that would later bring about the revolution that would end Spain's control of the archipelago. ]]
In the Americas; overseas Filipinos were involved in several anti-colonial movements, Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr. in his paper: "Manilamen and seafaring: engaging the maritime world beyond the Spanish realm", stated therein that Filipinos who were internationally called Manilamen were active in the navies and armies of the world even after the era of the Manila Galleons such as the case of the [[Argentine war of independence]] wherein an Argentinian of French descent, Hypolite Bouchard, laid siege to Monterey California as a privateer for the Argentine army. His second ship, the Santa Rosa, which was captained by the American Peter Corney, had a multi-ethnic crew which included Filipinos.<ref>Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2006). Historia de México. México, D. F.: Pearson Educación.</ref> It has been proposed that those Filipinos were recruited in [[San Blas, Nayarit|San Blas]], an alternative port to Acapulco Mexico where several Filipinos had settled during the Manila-Acapulco Galleon trade era.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mercene|first=Floro L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSqhZphG_gQC|title=Manila Men in the New World|year=2007|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OSqhZphG_gQC&pg=PA52 52]|publisher=UP Press |isbn=9789715425292}}</ref> Argentinian-Philippine relations can be traced even earlier since the Philippines already received immigrants from South America, like the soldier [[Juan Fermín de San Martín]], who was the brother of the leader of the Argentinian Revolution [[Jose de San Martin]]. Likewise, in Mexico, about 200 Filipinos were recruited by [[Miguel Hidalgo]] in his revolution against Spain, the most prominent of which was the Manila-born [[Ramon Fabié]]<ref name=mexicanembassy>{{cite news |title=Mexican Embassy unveils commemorative plaque in honor of PH war hero |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2021/10/04/expats-diplomats/mexican-embassy-unveils-commemorative-plaque-in-honor-of-ph-war-hero/1817045 |access-date=October 7, 2021 |work=Manila Times |date=October 4, 2021 |archive-date=October 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007055705/https://www.manilatimes.net/2021/10/04/expats-diplomats/mexican-embassy-unveils-commemorative-plaque-in-honor-of-ph-war-hero/1817045 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://imdiversity.com/villages/hispanic/beyond-pacquaio-de-la-hoya-a-cultural-history| title = Beyond Pacquaio-De La Hoya, a Cultural History| access-date = August 5, 2021| archive-date = August 5, 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210805150424/https://imdiversity.com/villages/hispanic/beyond-pacquaio-de-la-hoya-a-cultural-history/| url-status = live}}</ref> afterwards when the revolution was continued by President Guerrero, General [[Isidoro Montes de Oca]], another Filipino-Mexican, had participated in the Mexican Revolutionary war against Spain too.<ref>According to Ricardo Pinzon, these two Filipino soldiers—Francisco Mongoy
and Isidoro Montes de Oca—were so distinguished in battle that they are regarded as folk heroes in Mexico. General Vicente Guerrero later became the first president of Mexico of African descent. See Floro L. Mercene, "[http://www.elizon.com/information/printer_476.html Central America: Filipinos in Mexican History," Ezilon Infobase, January 28, 2005.]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The recent participation of overseas Filipinos in Anti-Imperial wars in the Americas started even earlier when Filipinos in the settlement of [[Saint Malo, Louisiana]] assisted the United States in the defense of New Orleans during the [[War of 1812]].<ref name="AFPS">{{cite news |first1=Rudi |last1=Williams |title=DoD's Personnel Chief Gives Asian-Pacific American History Lesson |url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=16498 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615091238/http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=16498|archive-date=June 15, 2007|work=American Forces Press Service |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |date=June 3, 2005 |access-date=August 26, 2009}}</ref>

Upon Mexican independence, the Filipinos had such an effect on Mexico that there were plans among the newly independent Mexicans, to help the Filipinos revolt against Spain too, there was even a secret memorandum from the Mexican government which read:

{{blockquote|Now that we Mexicans have fortunately obtained our independence by revolution against Spanish rule, it is our solemn duty to help the less fortunate countries especially the Philippines, with whom our country has had the most intimate relations during the last two centuries and a half. We should send secret agents with a message to their inhabitants to rise in revolution against Spain and that we shall give them financial and military assistance to win their freedom. Should the Philippines succeed in gaining her independence from Spain, we must felicitate her warmly and from an alliance of amity and commerce with her as a sister nation. Moreover, we must resume the intimate Mexico-Philippine relations, as they were during the halcyon days of the Acapulco-Manila galleon trade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guevarra |first1=Rudy P. Jr. |title=Filipinos in Nueva España: Filipino-Mexican Relations, Mestizaje, and Identity in Colonial and Contemporary Mexico |journal=Journal of Asian American Studies |date=2011 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=389–416 |id={{Project MUSE|456194}} |doi=10.1353/jaas.2011.0029 |s2cid=144426711 }}</ref>}}

Likewise, in this period, overseas Filipinos were also active in the Asia-Pacific especially in China and Indochina. During the Taiping rebellion, Frederick Townsend Ward had a militia employing foreigners to quell the rebellion for the Qing government, at first he hired American and European adventurers but they proved unruly, while recruiting for better troops, he met his aide-de-camp, Vincente (Vicente?) Macanaya, who was twenty three years old in 1860 and was part of the large Filipino population then living in Shanghai, who "were handy on board ships and more than a little troublesome on land", as Caleb Carr journalistically put it.<ref>Caleb Carr, The devil soldier: the story of Frederick Townsend Ward, New York: Random House, 1992, p. 91.</ref> Smith, another writer about China also notes in his book: "Mercenaries and Mandarins" that Manilamen were "Reputed to be brave and fierce fighters" and "were plentiful in Shanghai and always eager for action". During this Taiping rebellion, by July 1860, Townsend Ward's force of Manilamen ranging from one to two hundred mercenaries successfully assaulted Sung-Chiang Prefecture.<ref>Smith, Mercenaries and mandarins, p. 29.</ref> Thus, while the Philippines was slowly engendered with revolutionary fervour being suppressed by Spain, overseas Filipinos have had an active role in the military and naval engagements of various nations in the [[Americas]] and [[Asia-Pacific]].<ref>For an exploration of Manilamen as mercenaries and filibusters in relation to the person and work of Jose´ Rizal, see Filomeno Aguilar Jr, 'Filibustero, Rizal, and the Manilamen of the nineteenth century', Philippine Studies, 59, 4, 2011, pp. 429–69.</ref> Soldiers from the Philippines were recruited by [[France]], which was allied to [[Spain]], to initially protect Indo-Chinese converts to Roman Catholicism who were persecuted by their native governments, and later for an actual conquest of Vietnam and Laos as well as the establishment of the Protectorate of Cambodia which was liberated from Thai invasions and re-established as a vassal-state of France with the combined Franco-Spanish-Filipino forces creating [[French Cochinchina]] which was governed from the former Cambodian and now Vietnamese city of [[Saigon]].<ref name="nigelgooding.co.uk">{{Cite web
|url=http://www.nigelgooding.co.uk/Spanish/Cochinchina/cochinchina.htm
|title=Filipino Involvement in the French-Spanish Campaign in Indochina
|work=Cochinchina Campaign
|last=Gooding
|first=Nigel
|access-date=July 4, 2008
|archive-date=August 3, 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803120742/http://www.nigelgooding.co.uk/Spanish/Cochinchina/cochinchina.htm
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
[[File:Santa-lucia-gate-intramuros.jpg|thumb|Santa Lucia Gate, [[Intramuros]], [[Manila|Manila overlooking]] [[San Agustin Church (Manila)|San Agustin]], [[San Ignacio Church (Manila)|San Ignacio Church]] belltowers and [[Ateneo de Manila University|Ateneo de Manila]] where Jose Rizal once studied.]]
The ''{{lang|es|Criollo}}'' and ''Latino'' dissatisfaction against the Peninsulares (Spaniards direct from Spain) spurred by their love of the land and their suffering people had a justified hatred against the exploitative ''[[Peninsulares]]'' who were only appointed to high positions due to their race and unflinching loyalty to the homeland. This resulted in the uprising of [[Andres Novales]] a Philippine born soldier of Mexican descent,<ref>Nick Joaquin, Manila, My Manila, Page 90</ref><ref>Bernal, México en Filipinas, Pages 102–104</ref>{{sfn|Park|2022|p=159}} who earned great fame in richer Spain but chose to return to serve in poorer Philippines. He was supported by local soldiers as well as former officers in the Spanish army of the Philippines who were primarily from the now sovereign [[Mexico]]<ref>Garcia de los Arcos has noted that the Regiment of the King, which had absorbed a large percentage of Mexican recruits and deportees between the 1770s and 1811, became the bastion of discontent supporting the Novales mutiny. ~Garcia de los Arcos, "Criollismo y conflictividad en Filipinas a principios del siglo XIX," in El lejano Oriente espanol: Filipinas ( ˜ Siglo XIX). Actas, ed. Paulino Castaneda ˜ Delgado and Antonio Garcia-Abasolo Gonzalez (Seville: Catedra General Casta ´ nos, ˜1997), 586.</ref> as well as the freshly independent nations of [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Peru]], [[Chile]], [[Argentina]] and [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilMex.html| title = "Filipino-Mexican-Central-and-South American Connection" By: Gemma Guerrero Cruz| access-date = February 17, 2021| archive-date = February 25, 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210225193056/https://filipinokastila.tripod.com/FilMex.html| url-status = live}}</ref> The uprising was brutally suppressed but it foreshadowed the 1872 [[Cavite Mutiny]] that was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution.<ref name="Cavite Mutiny">Nuguid, Nati. (1972). [http://stuartxchange.com/CaviteMutiny.html "The Cavite Mutiny"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212172947/http://stuartxchange.com/CaviteMutiny.html |date=February 12, 2015 }}. in Mary R. Tagle. ''12 Events that Have Influenced Philippine History''. [Manila]: National Media Production Center. Retrieved December 20, 2009, from [http://stuartxchange.com/ StuartXchange Website] .</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite book|last=Joaquin|first=Nick|title=A Question of Heroes : Essays in Criticism on Ten Key Figures of Philippine History|publisher=Filipinas Foundation|year=1977|location=Manila}}</ref><ref name=RichardsonBonifacio>{{cite web |url=http://kasaysayan-kkk.info/docs.ab.240497.jn.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115200707/http://kasaysayan-kkk.info/docs.ab.240497.jn.htm |archive-date=January 15, 2013 |title=Andrés Bonifacio Letter to Julio Nakpil, April 24, 1897 |website=Documents of the Katipunan |author=Richardson, Jim |date=January 2006 |access-date=December 19, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, Hispanic-Philippines reached its zenith when the Philippine-born [[Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero]] became a hero as he restored the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] dynasty of Spain to the throne during his stint as Lieutenant-General (Three Star General) after the Bourbons have been deposed by revolutionaries. He eventually became Prime Minister of the Spanish Empire and was awarded membership in the [[Order of the Golden Fleece]], which is considered the most exclusive and prestigious order of chivalry in the world.<ref name="Manila, My Manila">{{cite book|author=Joaquin, Nick|title=Manila, My Manila|publisher=Vera-Reyes, Inc.|year=1990}}</ref> In the aftermath of Chilean soldiers' participation in the [[Andres Novales]] uprising against Spain, the Irish-Chilean founder of Chile, [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], caught wind of anti-Spanish sentiment among Filipinos and planned to send a fleet to liberate the Philippines from Spain, under the command of Scottish-Chilean admiral, Lord Thomas Cochrane. The fleet would have been sent to the Philippines had it not been for [[Bernardo O'Higgins]]' untimely exile.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines. 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park] (INTRODUCTION: Residual Intercolonial Intimacies across the "Hispanic" Pacific)</ref>

=== Philippine Revolution ===
{{Main|Philippine Revolution}}

[[File:Andrés Bonifacio (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Andrés Bonifacio]], father of the Philippine Revolution.]]
Revolutionary sentiments arose in 1872 after three Filipino priests, [[Mariano Gomez (priest)|Mariano Gomez]], [[José Burgos]], and [[Jacinto Zamora]], known as [[Gomburza]], were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and executed by [[garotte]]. This would inspire the [[Propaganda Movement]] in Spain, organized by [[Marcelo H. del Pilar]], [[José Rizal]], [[Graciano López Jaena]], and [[Mariano Ponce]], that clamored for adequate representation to the [[Cortes Generales|Spanish Cortes]] and later for independence. [[José Rizal]], the most celebrated intellectual and radical ilustrado of the era, wrote the novels "[[Noli Me Tángere (novel)|Noli Me Tángere]]", and "[[El filibusterismo]]", which greatly inspired the movement for independence.<ref name="pinas">{{cite web|title=Philippine History |url=http://pinas.dlsu.edu.ph/history/history.html |publisher=DLSU-Manila |access-date=August 21, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822045537/http://pinas.dlsu.edu.ph/history/history.html |archive-date=August 22, 2006}}</ref> The [[Katipunan]], a [[secret society]] whose primary purpose was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines, was founded by [[Andrés Bonifacio]] who became its ''Supremo'' (leader).

In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas of the Philippines, especially at Manila, according to burial statistics, as much as 3.3% of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9.9%. The Spanish-Filipino and Chinese-Filipino Mestizo populations also fluctuated. Eventually, everybody belonging to these non-native categories diminished because they were assimilated into and chose to self-identify as pure Filipinos<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doeppers |first1=Daniel F. |title=Tracing the Decline of the Mestizo Categories in Philippine Life in the Late 19Th Century |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |date=1994 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=80–89 |jstor=29792149 }}</ref> since during the Philippine Revolution, the term "Filipino" included anybody born in the Philippines coming from any race.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta |last2=Sidel |first2=John |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-75421-2 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C&pg=PA71 |access-date=July 30, 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 | quote = The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community. Increasingly powerful but adrift, they linked with the Spanish mestizos, who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire, many of the settlers from the New World, Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru, became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish. The Spanish Empire had lost its universality. |chapter=Chapter – 3 A SINGULAR AND A PLURAL FOLK |last=Steinberg |first=David Joel |title=THE PHILIPPINES A Singular and a Plural Place |publisher=Routledge |date=2018 |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |doi=10.4324/9780429494383 |isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5}}</ref>
That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese, Spanish and mestizo, percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903.<ref>'Tracing The Decline Of The Mestizo Categories In Philippine Life In The Late 19th Century' By Daniel F. Doeppers)</ref>

The [[Philippine Revolution]] began in 1896. Rizal was wrongly implicated in the outbreak of the revolution and executed for [[treason]] in 1896. The Katipunan in [[Cavite]] split into two groups, [[Magdiwang (Katipunan faction)|Magdiwang]], led by [[Mariano Álvarez]] (a relative of Bonifacio's by marriage), and [[Magdalo (Katipunan faction)|Magdalo]], led by [[Baldomero Aguinaldo]] cousin of [[Emilio Aguinaldo]]. Tension between the factions led to the [[Tejeros Convention]] in 1897, at which an election chose Emilio Aguinaldo as president over Bonifacio and Trias. Subsequent leadership conflicts with Bonifacio culminated in his execution by Aguinaldo's soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to a truce with the [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]] and Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were [[Hong Kong Junta|exiled to Hong Kong]]. Not all the revolutionary generals complied with the agreement. One, General [[Francisco Macabulos]], established a [[Central Executive Committee (Philippines)|Central Executive Committee]] to serve as the [[interim government]] until a more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time coming from almost every province in Spanish-governed Philippines.

[[File:Malolos congress.jpg|thumb|left|Revolutionaries gather during the [[Malolos Congress (1898)|Malolos Congress]] of the [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines]].]]
In 1898, as conflicts continued in the Philippines, the [[USS Maine (ACR-1)|USS Maine]], having been sent to Cuba because of U.S. concerns for the safety of its citizens during an ongoing [[Cuban War of Independence|Cuban revolution]], exploded and sank in [[Havana]] harbor. This event precipitated the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq71-1.htm |title=The Destruction of USS Maine |publisher=U.S. Department of the Navy, Naval Historical Center |access-date=August 20, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818121552/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq71-1.htm |archive-date=August 18, 2007}}</ref> After [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[George Dewey]] defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila, a [[German Empire|German]] squadron arrived in Manila and engaged in maneuvers which Dewey, seeing this as obstruction of his blockade, offered war—after which the Germans backed down.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wionzek|2000|p=xiv}}.</ref> The German Emperor expected an American defeat, with Spain left in a sufficiently weak position for the revolutionaries to capture Manila—leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wionzek|2000|p=xvi}}.</ref>

The U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898, via transport provided by Dewey. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared the independence]] of the Philippines in [[Kawit]], [[Cavite]]. Aguinaldo proclaimed a [[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines]] on June 23. By the time U.S. land forces arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon except for the Spanish capitol in the walled city of [[Intramuros]]. In the [[Battle of Manila (1898)|Battle of Manila]], on August 13, 1898, the United States captured the city from the Spanish. This battle marked an end of Filipino-American collaboration, as Filipino forces were prevented from entering the captured city of Manila, an action deeply resented by the Filipinos.<ref name="lac126">{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|1990|p=126}}</ref>

== The First Philippine Republic (1899–1901) ==
[[File:Emilio Aguinaldo (ca. 1898).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Emilio Aguinaldo]], President of the [[First Philippine Republic]]]]
On January 23, 1899, the [[First Philippine Republic]] was proclaimed under Asia's first democratic constitution, with Aguinaldo as its president.<ref name="pinas" /> Under Aguinaldo, The [[Philippine Revolutionary Army]] was also renowned to be racially tolerant and progressive as it had a multi-ethnic composition that included various other races and nationalities asides from the native Filipino,<ref name=filipinoterm /> being its officers. [[Juan Cailles]] an Indian and French Mestizo served as a [[Major General]],<ref name=Foreman>{{cite book|last=Foreman|first=J.|year=1906|title=The Philippine Islands: A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago|location=New York|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|page=507}}</ref> the Chinese Filipino [[José Ignacio Paua]] was a [[Brigadier General]],<ref>[http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2013/02/10/906952/gen.-jose-paua-chinese-philippine-revolution Gen. Jose Paua, the Chinese in Philippine revolution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014234744/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2013/02/10/906952/gen.-jose-paua-chinese-philippine-revolution |date=October 14, 2017 }} by Raymund Catindig (The Philippine Star)</ref> and [[Vicente Catalan]] who was appointed supreme Admiral of the Philippine Revolutionary Navy was a Cuban of Criollo descent.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://philippinenavy.tripod.com/history.html| title = History of the Philippine Navy| access-date = May 7, 2020| archive-date = August 21, 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180821181325/http://philippinenavy.tripod.com/history.html| url-status = live}}</ref> There were even Japanese, French and Italian soldiers in the Revolution and Republic, such as the Japanese officer Captain Chizuno Iwamoto, French soldier Estaquio Castellor, and Italian revolutionary Captain [[Camillo Ricchiardi]]. And, even among the defeated Spanish Army and American invaders, [[Philippine Revolutionary Army#Notable officers and servicemen and their ethnic background|there are those who defected to the side of the Philippine Republic]]. The most famous of which was African-American Captain [[David Fagen]] who joined the Filipinos due to his disgust of American racism against both African-Americans and Filipinos. Various nations, mostly Latin American, also influenced the new Republic, the Sun in the Philippine flag was taken from the [[Sun of May]] of [[Peru]], [[Argentina]], and [[Uruguay]] which symbolized Inti who was the Incan Sun God, while the stars in the flag were inspired by the stars in the flags of the nations of [[Texas]], [[Cuba]], and [[Puerto Rico]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/the-philippine-flag/|title=The Philippine flag|website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|access-date=February 9, 2022|archive-date=April 6, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406081842/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/the-philippine-flag/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Constitution of the First Philippine Republic was also influenced by the Constitutions of [[Cuba]], [[Belgium]], [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Guatemala]], in addition to using the [[French Constitution of 1793]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Calderón|first=Felipe|title=Mis memorias sobre la revolución filipina: Segunda etapa, (1898 á 1901)|url=https://archive.org/details/arb8046.0001.001.umich.edu|year=1907|publisher=Imp. de El Renacimiento|location=Manila|page=Appendix I, p. 17}}</ref>

[[File:Bandera 03.jpg|thumb|right|An early flag of the Filipino revolutionaries.]]Despite the establishment of the First Philippine Republic, Spain and the United States had sent commissioners to Paris to draw up the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] to end the Spanish–American War. The Filipino representative, [[Felipe Agoncillo]], had been excluded from sessions as Aguinaldo's government was not recognized by the family of nations.<ref name="lac126" /> Although there was substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided to annex the Philippines. Despite the fact that the first Philippine Republic was patterned after the French and American Revolutions, plus the Latin-American Republics; the Americans and French themselves sought to crush the revolution in the Philippines.{{sfn|Kalaw|1927|pp=199–200}} In addition to [[Guam]] and Puerto Rico, Spain was forced in the negotiations to [[cession|cede]] the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for US$20,000,000.00.<ref name="uslc-14">{{cite web|title=Philippines – The Malolos Constitution and the Treaty of Paris|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/14.htm|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=August 22, 2006}}</ref> U.S. President McKinley justified the annexation of the Philippines by saying that it was "a gift from the gods" and that since "they were unfit for self-government, ... there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them",<ref>{{cite web |title=President McKinley gives his reasons for the U.S. to keep the Philippines |url=http://www.spanamwar.com/McKinleyphilreasons.htm |access-date=June 9, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Woods|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PA49 49]}}</ref> in spite of the Philippines having been already Christianized by the Spanish over the course of several centuries. The First Philippine Republic resisted the U.S. occupation, resulting in the [[Philippine–American War]] (1899–1913).

== American rule (1898–1946) ==
{{anchor|American period (1898–1946)}}
{{Main|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)}}
[[File:McKinleyPhilippinesCartoon.jpg|thumb|upright|right|1898 political cartoon showing U.S. President [[William McKinley|McKinley]] with a native child. Here, returning the Philippines to Spain is compared to throwing the child off a cliff.]]
Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|1990|p=135}}</ref> However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of support for [[Independence Day (Philippines)|Philippine independence]].<ref name="uslc-13">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-13}}</ref> The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States alongside [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]] as a result of the latter's victory in the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Halstead|first1=M|title=The Story of the Philippines|journal=Nature|volume=70|issue=1811|pages=248–249|date=1898|bibcode=1904Natur..70..248T|doi=10.1038/070248a0|doi-access=free}}</ref> A compensation of US$20&nbsp;million was paid to Spain according to the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|1898 Treaty of Paris]].<ref>Price, Michael G. (2002). Foreword. In A.B. Feuer, [https://books.google.com/books?id=f-2Qef1JSjsC ''America at War: the Philippines, 1898–1913''] (pp. xiii–xvi). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. {{ISBN|0-275-96821-9}}.</ref> Relations deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands to stay.<ref name="uslc-13" />

=== Philippine–American War ===
{{Main|Philippine–American War}}
[[File:Filipino casualties on the first day of war.jpg|left|thumb|Filipino casualties on the first day of war]]
Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American privates killed three Filipino soldiers as American forces launched a major attack in [[San Juan, Metro Manila|San Juan]], a [[Manila]] suburb.<ref name="uslc-15">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-15}}</ref> This began the [[Philippine–American War]], which would cost far more money and take far more lives than the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref name="pinas" /> Some 126,000 American soldiers would be committed to the conflict; 4,234 Americans died,<ref name="uslc-15" /> as did 12,000–20,000 [[Philippine Revolutionary Army|Philippine Republican Army]] soldiers who were part of a nationwide [[guerrilla]] movement of at least 80,000 to 100,000 soldiers.<ref name=deady2005p55>{{Harvnb|Deady|2005|p=55 (page 3 of the PDF)}}</ref>

The general population, caught between Americans and rebels, suffered significantly. At least 200,000 Filipino civilians died as an indirect result of the war mostly as a result of the [[cholera]] epidemic at the war's end that took between 150,000 and 200,000 lives.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Silbey|title=A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine–American War, 1899–1902|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Vp63xXFh64C&pg=PA200|year=2008|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|pages=200–01|isbn=9780809096619}}</ref> Atrocities were committed by both sides.<ref name="uslc-15" />
[[File:Americans guarding Pasig River bridge, 1898.jpg|left|thumb|American troops guarding the bridge over the River Pasig on the afternoon of the surrender. From ''Harper's Pictorial History of the War with Spain'', Vol. II, published by Harper and Brothers in 1899.]]

The poorly equipped Filipino troops were easily overpowered by American troops in open combat, but they were formidable opponents in guerrilla warfare.<ref name="uslc-15" /> [[Malolos City|Malolos]], the revolutionary capital, was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government escaped, however, establishing a new capital at [[San Isidro, Nueva Ecija]]. On June 5, 1899, [[Antonio Luna]], Aguinaldo's most capable military commander, was killed by Aguinaldo's guards in an apparent assassination while visiting [[Cabanatuan]], [[Nueva Ecija]] to meet with Aguinaldo.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=222}}; {{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|p=270}}.</ref> With his best commander dead and his troops suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into northern [[Luzon]], Aguinaldo dissolved the regular army on November 13 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla commands in each of several military zones.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linn|2000|p=148}}.</ref> Another key general, [[Gregorio del Pilar]], was killed on December 2, 1899, in the [[Battle of Tirad Pass]]—a [[rear guard]] action to delay the Americans while Aguinaldo made good his escape through the mountains.

[[File:Emilio Aguinaldo boarding USS Vicksburg.jpg|thumb|President Emilio Aguinaldo boarding the [[USS Vicksburg (PG-11)|USS Vicksburg]] after his capture by American forces.]]
Aguinaldo was captured at [[Palanan, Isabela]] on March 23, 1901, and was brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an end to the war.<ref name="uslc-15" /> However, sporadic insurgent resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the Muslim south, until 1913.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=247–260, 294–297}}</ref>

In 1900, President McKinley sent the [[Taft Commission]] to the Philippines with a mandate to legislate laws and re-engineer the political system.<ref>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|pp=86–87}}.</ref> On July 1, 1901, [[William Howard Taft]], the head of the commission, was inaugurated as Civil Governor, with limited executive powers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Taft|1908|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxqmVdt6hKgC 1]}}</ref> The authority of the Military Governor was continued in those areas where the insurrection persisted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ellis|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=phT0ympWgeQC&pg=PA2143 2143]}}</ref> The Taft Commission passed laws to set up the fundamentals of the new government, including a judicial system, civil service, and local government. A [[Philippine Constabulary]] was organized to deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement and gradually assume the responsibilities of the [[United States Army]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|pp=86–169 (ch. 5, ''Laying the Foundations of Colonial Rule'')}}</ref>

=== The Tagalog, Negros, and Zamboanga Republics ===
Brigadier General [[James F. Smith]] arrived at Bacolod on March 4, 1899, as the [[Military Governor]] of the Sub-district of Negros, after receiving an invitation from [[Aniceto Lacson]], president of the breakaway [[Republic of Negros|Cantonal Republic of Negros]].{{sfn|Linn|2000|pp=75–76}} The Negros Republic became a Pro-American protectorate of the United States.<ref>[http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/429/434 The Republic of Negros By Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr.] Philippine Studies vol. 48, no. 1 (2000): 26–52</ref> Another insurgent republic was briefly formed during American administration: the [[Tagalog Republic]] in Luzon, under [[Macario Sakay]].<ref name="antonio abad">{{cite book|last1=Kabigting Abad|first1=Antonio|title=General Macario L. Sakay: Was He a Bandit or a Patriot?|year=1955|publisher=J. B. Feliciano and Sons Printers-Publishers}}</ref> In the island of Mindanao the [[Chavacano Language|Chavacano-speaking]] [[Republic of Zamboanga]] was proclaimed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zamboanga.com/history/republic_of_zamboanga.html |title=History of The Republic of Zamboanga (May 1899 – March 1903) |date=July 18, 2009 |publisher=Zamboanga.com |location=Zamboanga City, Philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201023553/http://zamboanga.com/history/republic_of_zamboanga.html |archive-date=December 1, 2010 |access-date=August 13, 2010 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> That government was formed by [[Vicente Álvarez (general)|Vicente Álvarez]] with the support of [[Jamalul Kiram II]], the then [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sultan of Sulu]], and included Latin-American (Peruvian, [[Juan Fermin de San Martin|Uruguayan]] and [[José de San Martín#Legacy|Argentinian]])<ref>In Spanish: [https://www.infobae.com/2015/01/15/1621145-el-hermano-desconocido-san-martin-que-lucho-y-murio-filipinas/ The unknown brother of San Martin who fought and died in the Philippines By Claudia Peiro]</ref> enslaved soldiers who had revolted against the Spanish colonial government and included Muslims, Lumads, and Christians in his anti-Spanish army.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bautista|first=Rolando|title=Zamboanga Hermosa: Memories of the Old Town|date=1984|publisher=Filipinas Foundation, Inc.|location=Makati, Philippines|pages=89–91}}</ref>

=== Insular Government (1901–1935) ===
{{Main|Insular Government of the Philippine Islands}}

[[File:Taft Addressing First Philippine Assembly 1907.jpg|thumb|right|[[William Howard Taft]] addressing the audience at the [[Philippine Assembly]].]]
[[File:Manuel Luis Quezon, (center), with representatives from the Philippine Independence Mission (cropped).jpg|thumb|Representatives from the Philippine Independence Mission left to right: [[Isauro Gabaldón]], [[Sergio Osmeña]], [[Manuel L. Quezon]], [[Claro M. Recto]], [[Pedro Guevara]], Jorge Bocobo]]
The [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]] was the basic law for the [[Insular Government]], so called because civil administration was under the authority of the U.S. [[Bureau of Insular Affairs]]. This government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence.<ref name="uslc-16">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-16}}</ref> On July 4, 1902, the office of military governor was abolished and full executive power passed from [[Adna Chaffee]], the last military governor, to Taft, who became the first U.S. [[Governor-General of the Philippines]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ellis|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=phT0ympWgeQC&pg=PA2163 2163]}}</ref>
United States policies towards the Philippines shifted with changing administrations.<ref name="pinas" /> During the early years of territorial administration, the Americans were reluctant to delegate authority to the Filipinos, but an elected [[Philippine Assembly]] was inaugurated in 1907, as the lower house of a [[bicameral legislature]], with the appointive Philippine Commission becoming the upper house.

Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as:
:steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated [[Port of Manila]]; dredging the [[River Pasig]]; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey.<ref>Andrew Roberts, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900'' (2008), p 26.</ref>

In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in the rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law's failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines' best path to development.<ref>{{Cite journal | jstor=10.3098/ah.2016.090.4.459| doi=10.3098/ah.2016.090.4.459|title = From Small Farms to Progressive Plantations: The Trajectory of Land Reform in the American Colonial Philippines, 1900–1916|journal = Agricultural History| volume=90| issue=4| pages=459–483|year = 2016|last1 = Theresa Ventura}}</ref>

[[File:Calle Sebastian Calle Hidalgo Manila.jpg|left|thumb|[[Tranvía]] in Manila during American Era]]Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women's Clubs.<ref>Mina Roces, "Filipino Elite Women and Public Health in the American Colonial Era, 1906–1940." Women's ''History Review'' 26#3 (2017): 477–502.</ref>

When Democrat [[Woodrow Wilson]] became U.S. president in 1913, new policies were launched designed to gradually lead to Philippine independence. In 1902 U.S. law established Filipinos citizenship in the Philippine Islands; unlike Hawaii in 1898 and Puerto Rico in 1918, they did not become citizens of the United States. The [[Jones Act (Philippines)|Jones Law]] of 1916 became the new basic law, promised eventual independence. It provided for the election of both houses of the legislature.
[[File:Plaza Moraga Manila Philippines.jpg|thumb|Manila, Philippines, ca.1900s]]
In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601&nbsp;million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States.<ref>{{cite book| last1=Reyes| first1=Jose| title=Legislative history of America's economic policy toward the Philippines| publisher=Columbia University| series=Studies in history, economics and public law| volume=106| edition=2| year=1923| pages=192 of 232| url=http://www.questiaschool.com/read/3845789?title=Legislative%20History%20of%20America%27s%20Economic%20Policy%20toward%20the%20Philippines}}{{dead link|date=June 2021}}<!-- goes to a page which does not relate to this --></ref> A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the [[mortality rate]] from all causes, including various [[tropical disease]]s, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of [[slavery]], [[piracy]] and [[headhunting]] were suppressed but not entirely extinguished.
A new educational system was established with English as the medium of instruction, eventually becoming a ''lingua franca'' of the Islands. The 1920s saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with American governors-general, depending on how intent the incumbent was on exercising his powers vis-à-vis the Philippine legislature. Members of the elected legislature lobbied for immediate and complete independence from the United States. Several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C. A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918.
[[File:El Hogar building Manila.jpg|thumb|[[El Hogar Filipino Building|El Hogar Building.]] With Manila's Hispanic- Austronesian-Sinic roots. [[Daniel Burnham]] built a plan that takes advantage of its cityscape, possessing the [[Gulf of Naples|Bay of Naples]], the winding river of [[Paris]], and the canals of [[Venice]]. With his [[City Beautiful movement]] style of Urban planning.]]
Philippine politics during the American territorial era was dominated by the [[Nacionalista Party]], which was founded in 1907. Although the party's platform called for "immediate independence", their policy toward the Americans was highly accommodating.<ref name="uslc-17">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-17}}</ref> Within the political establishment, the call for independence was spearheaded by [[Manuel L. Quezon]], who served continuously as [[Senate president]] from 1916 until 1935.

World War I gave the Philippines the opportunity to pledge assistance to the US war effort. This took the form of an offer to supply a division of troops, as well as providing funding for the construction of two warships. A locally recruited national guard was created and significant numbers of Filipinos volunteered for service in the US Navy and army.<ref>Page 92, Volume 32 ''The Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1922 edition</ref>

[[Daniel Burnham]] built an architectural plan for Manila which would have transformed it into a modern city.<ref>Moore, Charles (1921). [https://books.google.com/books?id=aR7iAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162 "Daniel H. Burnham: Planner of Cities"]. Houghton Mifflin and Co., Boston and New York.</ref>

[[Frank Murphy]] was the last [[Governor-General of the Philippines]] (1933–35), and the first U.S. [[High Commissioner of the Philippines]] (1935–36). The change in form was more than symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to independence.

=== Commonwealth ===

{{Main|Commonwealth of the Philippines}}
[[File:Manuel L. Quezon (November 1942).jpg|left|thumb|Philippine President [[Manuel L. Quezon]]|179x179px]]

The [[Great Depression]] in the early thirties hastened the progress of the Philippines towards independence. In the United States it was mainly the sugar industry and labor unions that had a stake in loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines since they could not compete with the Philippine cheap sugar (and other commodities) which could freely enter the U.S. market. Therefore, they agitated in favor of granting independence to the Philippines so that its cheap products and labor could be shut out of the United States.<ref>Goff, Richard; Moss, Walter G.; Terry, Janice; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa: ''The Twentieth Century: A Brief Global History'', Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998, pp. 212</ref>

[[File:Quezon Roosevelt.jpg|thumb|right|Commonwealth President [[Manuel L. Quezon]] with United States President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in Washington, D.C.|162x162px]]
In 1933, the [[United States Congress]] passed the [[Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act]] as a Philippine Independence Act over President [[Herbert Hoover]]'s veto.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=345–346}}</ref> Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by Philippine Senate President [[Manuel L. Quezon]], partially because of provisions leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill.<ref name="uslc-20">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-20}}</ref> The following year, a revised act known as the [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] was finally passed. The act provided for the establishment of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] with transition to full independence after a ten-year period. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of the United States president.<ref name="uslc-20" /> The Act stipulated that the date of independence would be on July 4 following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth.
[[File:Aurora Quezon in Malacañan Palace.jpg|left|thumb|267x267px|[[Philippine First Lady]] [[Aurora Quezon]]]]
A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on March 23, 1935, and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522092815/http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html|title=Corpus Juris – 1935 Constitution|author=Super Administrator|archive-date=May 22, 2009|work=thecorpusjuris.com|access-date=February 29, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|pp=317–318}} (archived from [http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html the original] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522092815/http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html |date=May 22, 2009}} on May 22, 2009)</ref>

On September 17, 1935,<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14980#axzz1nmGfKCgR|title=Franklin D. Roosevelt: Proclamation 2148 – Establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines|work=ucsb.edu}}</ref> [[1935 Philippine presidential election|presidential elections]] were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the ''[[Philippine Independent Church|Iglesia Filipina Independiente]]'' leader [[Gregorio Aglipay]], and others. [[Manuel L. Quezon]] and [[Sergio Osmeña]] of the [[Nacionalista Party]] were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.<ref name="US-influence">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Philippines, The period of U.S. influence|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23717/Philippines|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=February 10, 2007}}</ref>

The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the [[Old Legislative Building (Manila)|Legislative Building]] in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people.<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu" /> Under the Tydings–McDuffie Act this meant that the date of full independence for the Philippines was set for July 4, 1946, a timetable which was followed after the passage of almost eleven very eventful years.

[[File:Central facade of the Legislative Building.jpg|thumb|Legislative Building of the commonwealth of the Philippines]]
The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence.<ref name="US-influence2">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Philippines, The period of U.S. influence|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23717/Philippines|access-date=February 10, 2007|edition=online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205150116/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23717/Philippines|archive-date=February 5, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> These included national defense (such as the [[National Defense Act of 1935]], which organized a [[conscription]] for service in the country), greater control over the [[Economy of the Philippines|economy]], the perfection of democratic institutions, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the promotion of local capital, industrialization, and the colonization of [[Mindanao]].

However, uncertainties, especially in the diplomatic and military situation in [[Southeast Asia]], in the level of U.S. commitment to the future [[Republic of the Philippines]], and in the economy due to the [[Great Depression]], proved to be major problems. The situation was further complicated by the presence of agrarian unrest, and of power struggles between Osmeña and Quezon,<ref name="US-influence2" /> especially after Quezon was permitted to be re-elected after one six-year term.

A proper evaluation of the policies' effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|occupation]] during World War II.

=== World War II and Japanese occupation ===
{{Main|Japanese occupation of the Philippines|Second Philippine Republic|Home front during World War II#The Philippines}}

==== Military ====
[[File:Roxas and his Japanese friend.jpg|thumb|upright|Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo and Manuel Roxas began and ended the conflict on opposite sides.]]
[[Japan]] launched a surprise [[Battle of the Philippines (1942)|attack]] on the Clark Air Base in [[Pampanga]] on the morning of December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General [[Douglas MacArthur]]. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the [[Bataan Peninsula]] and to the island of [[Corregidor]] at the entrance to Manila Bay.

On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an [[open city]] to prevent its destruction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=392}}</ref> The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the [[Bataan Peninsula]] in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous [[Bataan Death March]] to a prison camp 105&nbsp;kilometers to the north. About 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|1990|p=168}}</ref>
President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=415}}</ref> MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines.
[[File:Washington, D.C. Representatives of 26 United Nations at Flag day ceremonies in the White House to reaffirm their pact.jpg|thumb|Exiled Manuel L. Quezon (sitting second to the right) in Washington, D.C., with Representatives of 26 United Nations at Flag day ceremonies in the [[White House]] to reaffirm their pact. ]]
The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the [[Philippine Executive Commission]]. They initially organized a [[Philippine Council of State|Council of State]], through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when Japan declared the Philippines an independent republic at Gozen Kaigi since U.S. government had promised independence of the Philippines in 1935. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President [[José P. Laurel]] proved to be unpopular.<ref name="uslc-21">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-21}}</ref>

From mid-1942 through mid-1944, Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines#Resistance|underground and guerrilla activity]].<ref name="McAAE">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128153210/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html|archive-date=January 28, 2017 |title=The Guerrilla War |website=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=February 24, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maranao.com/bangsamoro/0506-japan_invasion.htm |title=The Japanese Invasion |first1=Salah |last1=Jubair |publisher=Maranao.Com |access-date=February 23, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727232925/http://www.maranao.com/bangsamoro/0506-japan_invasion.htm |archive-date=July 27, 2010 }}</ref> The [[Philippine Army]], as well as remnants of the [[U.S. Army Forces Far East]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Norling|2005}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Intrepid Guerrillas of North Luzon |url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/june/guerrillas.htm |work=Defense Journal |year=2002 |access-date=May 21, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323170920/http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/june/guerrillas.htm |archive-date=March 23, 2010 }}</ref> continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army.<ref>{{cite web |title=Map of known insurgent activity |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v1/Images/p_084.jpg |work=Center of Military History |publisher=United States Army |access-date=August 26, 2009 |archive-date=June 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603023221/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/Images/p_084.jpg |url-status=dead }}</ref> Supplies and encouragement were provided by U.S. Navy submarines and a few parachute drops.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Dominic J. |last1=Caraccilo |title=Surviving Bataan And Beyond: Colonel Irvin Alexander's Odyssey As A Japanese Prisoner Of War |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aWfqFW_OFmQC |year=2005 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-3248-2 |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aWfqFW_OFmQC&pg=PA287 287]}}</ref> Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]].<ref name="uslc-21" /> One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the [[Hukbalahap]], which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon.<ref name="uslc-21" /> While remaining loyal to the United States, many Filipinos hoped and believed that liberation from the Japanese would bring them freedom and their already-promised independence.<ref name="Dispositions">{{cite web |title=Dispositions and deaths |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument |website=Australia-Japan Research Project |access-date=April 21, 2020 }}</ref>

[[File:Photograph of American Prisoners Using Improvised Litters to Carry Comrades, 05-1942 - NARA - 535564.jpg|thumb|left|As many as 10,000 American and Filipino soldiers died in the [[Bataan Death March]]]]The Philippines was the bloodiest theater of the war for the invading empire, with at least 498,600 Japanese troops killed in fighting the combined Filipino resistance and American soldiers, a larger number of casualties compared to the second-placed theater, the entirety of China, which caused the Japanese about 455,700 casualties.<ref>{{cite web |title=Figures were compiled by the Relief Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare in March 1964. |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument |website=Australia-Japan Research Project |access-date=March 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311073745/http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument |archive-date=March 11, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dispositions" /> The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's conclusion. At the eve of the liberation of the Philippines, the Allied forces and the Japanese Empire waged the largest naval battle in history, by gross tonnage in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]].{{refn|<ref name="Woodward1947">{{cite book |title=The Battle for Leyte Gulf |last1=Woodward |first1=C. Vann |year=1947 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York}}</ref><ref>"LIEUTENANT RAMSEY'S WAR" by EDWIN PRICE RAMSEY and STEPHEN J. RIVELE.Published by Knightsbride publishing Co, Los Angeles, California</ref>}} The American army had been fighting the [[Philippines Campaign (1944–45)|Philippines Campaign]] since October 1944, when MacArthur's [[Sixth United States Army]] [[Battle of Leyte|landed]] on [[Leyte]]. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945. Approximately 10,000 U.S. soldiers were missing in action in the Philippines when the war ended, more than in any other country in the Pacific or European Theaters. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the [[Battle of Manila (1945)|Battle of Manila]]. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged.<ref name="uslc-21" />

==== Home front ====
[[File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|[[Leyte]] Landing of General [[Douglas MacArthur]] to liberate the Philippines from the Empire of Japan]]
As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corruption, and black markets were endemic. Japan in 1943 proposed independence on new terms, and some collaborators went along with the plan, but Japan was clearly losing the war and nothing became of it.<ref>Dear and Foot, eds. ''Oxford Companion to World War II'' pp 877–79</ref>

With a view of building up the economic base of the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]], the Japanese Army envisioned using the islands as a source of agricultural products needed by its industry. For example, the Japanese had a surplus of sugar from Taiwan but a severe shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow cotton on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the seeds, [[pesticide]]s, and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flocked to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for fuel, [[castor bean]]s and [[copra]] for oil, [[derris]] for [[quinine]], cotton for uniforms, and [[abaca]] (hemp) for rope. The plans were very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather, and transportation shortages. The program was a failure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food production.

Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult because of lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, due to inflation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ara | first1 = Satoshi | year = 2008 | title = Food supply problem in Leyte, Philippines, during the Japanese Occupation (1942–44)| journal = Journal of Southeast Asian Studies | volume = 39 | issue = 1| pages = 59–82 | doi=10.1017/s0022463408000039| s2cid = 162389263 }}</ref>

== The Third Republic (1946–1965) ==
{{Main|History of the Philippines (1946–1965)}}
[[File:Philippine Independence, July 4 1946.jpg|thumb|upright|The Flag of the United States of America is lowered while the Flag of the Philippines is raised during the Independence Day ceremonies on July 4, 1946]]

The return of the Americans in spring 1945 was welcomed by nearly all the Filipinos, in sharp contrast to the situation in nearby Dutch East Indies. The collaborationist "Philippine Republic" set up by the Japanese under [[Jose P. Laurel]], was highly unpopular, and the extreme destructiveness of the Japanese Army in Manila in its last days solidified Japan's image as a permanent target of hate. The pre-war Commonwealth system was reestablished under [[Sergio Osmeña]], who became president in exile after President Quezon died in 1944. Osmeña was little-known and his [[Nacionalista Party]] was no longer such a dominant force. Osmeña supporters challenged the legitimacy of Manuel Roxas who had served as secretary to Laurel. MacArthur testified to Roxas' patriotism and the collaborationist issue disappeared after Roxas was elected in 1946 on a platform calling for closer ties with the United States; adherence to the new United Nations; national reconstruction; relief for the masses; social justice for the working class; the maintenance of peace and order; the preservation of individual rights and liberties of the citizenry; and honesty and efficiency of government.<ref>Bonifacio S. Salamanca,"Quezon, Osmena and Roxas and the American Military Presence in the Philippines." ''Philippine Studies'' 37.3 (1989): 301–316. [http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/3532/6424 online]</ref> The United States Congress passed a series of programs to help rehabilitation, including $2 billion over five years for war damages and rehabilitation, and a new tariff law that provided for a 20-year transition from free trade to a low tariff with the United States. Washington also demanded that Americans would have equal rights with Filipinos in business activities, a special treatment that was resented. In 1947 the United States secured an agreement that it would keep its major military and naval bases. On the whole the transition to independence, achieved in 1946, was mostly peaceful and highly successful, despite the extreme difficulties caused by massive war damages.<ref>Paul H. Clyde, and Burton F. Beers, ''The Far East: A History of Western Impacts and Eastern Responses, 1830–1975'' (1975) pp 476–77.</ref> The special relationship with the United States remained the dominant feature until sharp criticism arose in the 1960s.<ref>Man Mohini Kaul, "Philippine Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect." ''India Quarterly'' 33.1 (1977): 33–48.</ref>

=== Administration of Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) ===
[[File:ManuelRoxasfirstinauguration.jpg|thumb|Manuel Roxas inaugurated as president in 1946]]

Elections were held in April 1946, with [[Manuel Roxas]] becoming the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. The United States [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|ceded its sovereignty]] over the Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. Ending the 381 years of colonial rule in the country that had lasted from April 27, 1565, since the Spanish settlement.<ref name="pinas" /><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.chanrobles.com/rpustreatyofgeneralrelations.htm|title=Treaty of General Relations between the Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America|date=July 4, 1946|publisher=Chanrobles law library|access-date=November 30, 2007}}</ref> However, the [[Economy of the Philippines|Philippine economy]] remained highly dependent on [[Economy of the United States|United States markets]]—more dependent, according to United States high commissioner [[Paul McNutt]], than any single U.S. state was dependent on the rest of the country.<ref name="uslc-23">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-23}}</ref> The [[Philippine Trade Act]], passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States,<ref name="beterano">{{cite web|title=Balitang Beterano: Facts about Philippine Independence|url=http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/tl/tl012375.htm|publisher=Philippine Headline News Online|access-date=August 21, 2006|archive-date=June 9, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609104852/http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/tl/tl012375.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> exacerbated the dependency with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact was signed in 1947 granting the United States a 99-year lease on designated [[military base]]s in the country.

During Roxas' term of office administration of the [[Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi|Turtle Islands]] and [[Mangsee Islands]] was transferred by the [[United Kingdom]] to the [[Republic of the Philippines]]. By an international treaty concluded in 1930 between the [[United States]] (in respect of its then overseas territory, the [[Philippine Archipelago]]) and the [[United Kingdom]] (in respect of its then protectorate, the [[North Borneo|State of North Borneo]]) the two powers agreed the international boundaries between those respective territories.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/b-gb-ust000012-0473.pdf| title = Convention between the United States and the United Kingdom done at Washington on 2 January 1930| website = [[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> In that treaty the United Kingdom also accepted that the Turtle Islands as well as the Mangsee Islands were part of the Philippines Archipelago and therefore under US sovereignty. However, by a supplemental international treaty concluded at the same time, the two powers agreed that those islands, although part of the Philippines Archipelago, would remain under the administration of the [[North Borneo|State of North Borneo]]'s [[British North Borneo Company]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/b-gb-ust000012-0473.pdf| title = Exchange of Notes between the United States and the United Kingdom done at Washington on 2 January 1930| website = [[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> The supplemental treaty provided that the British North Borneo Company would continue to administer those islands unless and until the United States government gave notice to the United Kingdom calling for administration of the islands to be transferred to the U.S. The U.S. never gave such a notice. On July 4, 1946, the [[Republic of the Philippines]] was born. It became the successor to the U.S. under the treaties of 1930. On July 15, 1946, the United Kingdom annexed the State of North Borneo and, in the view of the United Kingdom, became the sovereign power with respect to what had been the State of North Borneo.<ref>The North Borneo Cession Order in Council 1946</ref> On September 19, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines notified the United Kingdom that it wished to take over the administration of the [[Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi]] and the Mangesse Islands. Pursuant to a supplemental international agreement, the transfer of administration became effective on October 16, 1947.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Exchange of Notes between the Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the Republic of the Philippines regarding the transfer of the administration of the Turtle and Mangsee Islands to the Philippine Republic; Cmd 8320|url=http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1951/TS0058%20%281951%29%20CMD-8320%201948%2020%20APR%2C%20MANILA%3B%20NOTES%20BETWEEN%20GOV%20OF%20UK%20%26%20PHILIPPINES%20REGARDING%20TRANSFER%20OF%20ADMINISTRATION%20OF%20TURTLE%20%26%20MANGSEE%20ISLANDS.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180505194733/http://treaties.fco.gov.uk/docs/fullnames/pdf/1951/TS0058%20%281951%29%20CMD-8320%201948%2020%20APR%2C%20MANILA%3B%20NOTES%20BETWEEN%20GOV%20OF%20UK%20%26%20PHILIPPINES%20REGARDING%20TRANSFER%20OF%20ADMINISTRATION%20OF%20TURTLE%20%26%20MANGSEE%20ISLANDS.pdf|archive-date=May 5, 2018|access-date=January 15, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Peter C. Richards|date=December 6, 1947|title=New Flag Over Pacific Paradise|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1301&dat=19471206&id=Sf5UAAAAIBAJ&pg=4610,725646&hl=en|access-date=October 22, 2015|publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]}}</ref>

Roxas did not stay long in office because of a heart attack as he was speaking at Clark Air Base on April 15, 1948. He was succeeded by his vice president [[Elpidio Quirino]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080729040135/http://www.op.gov.ph/museum/pres_roxas.asp Philippine presidents " Manuel A. Roxas], Malacañang Museum (archived from [http://www.op.gov.ph/museum/pres_roxas.asp the original] on July 29, 2008).</ref>

=== Administration of Elpidio Quirino (1948–1953) ===
[[File:Elpidio Quirino family Malacanang Palace..webp|thumb|244x244px|President Quirino (in the center-left) and family in Malacañang Palace.]]
The Roxas administration granted general amnesty to those who had collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except for those who had committed violent crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1948, and the vice president, [[Elpidio Quirino]], was elevated to the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating [[José P. Laurel]] and winning a four-year term.

World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the activities of the Communist-supported [[Hukbalahap]] guerrillas (known as "Huks"), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the new Philippine government. Government policy towards the Huks alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of Defense [[Ramon Magsaysay]] initiated a campaign to defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk leader [[Luis Taruc]] in May 1954.

Enhancing President [[Manuel Roxas]]' policy of social justice to alleviate the lot of the common mass, President Quirino, almost immediately after assuming office, started a series of steps calculated to effectively ameliorate the economic condition of the people.<ref name="Molina, Antonio 19612">Molina, Antonio. ''The Philippines: Through the centuries''. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.</ref> After periodic surprise visits to the slums of [[Manila]] and other backward regions of the country, President Quirino officially made public a seven-point program for social security, to wit:<ref name="Molina, Antonio 19612" /> unemployment insurance, old-age insurance, accident and permanent disability insurance, health insurance, maternity insurance, state relief, and labor opportunity.

President Quirino also created the Social Security Commission, making Social Welfare Commissioner Asuncion Perez chairman of the same.<ref name="Molina, Antonio 19612" /> This was followed by the creation of the President's Action Committee on Social Amelioration, charged with extending aid, loans, and relief to the less fortunate citizens. Both the policy and its implementation were hailed by the people as harbingers of great benefits.<ref name="Molina, Antonio 19612" />

=== Administration of Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957) ===
[[File:Prime-Minister-Pibulsonggram-Vice-President-Carlos-P-Garcia-President-Ramon.jpg|thumb|upright|President [[Ramon Magsaysay|Magsaysay]] (right) in 1957]]

As President, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman against communism during the [[Cold War]]. He led the foundation of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]], also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist movements in Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific.

During his term, he made [[Malacañan Palace|Malacañang]] literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public. One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the [[Philippine Air Force]] (PAF): President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight. He restored the people's trust in the military and in the government.

Magsaysay's administration was considered one of the cleanest and most corruption-free in modern Philippine history; his rule is often cited as the Philippines' "Golden Years". Trade and industry flourished, the [[Philippine military]] was at its prime, and the country gained international recognition in sports, culture, and foreign affairs. The Philippines placed second on a ranking of Asia's clean and well-governed countries.

Supported by the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1953 on a [[populism|populist]] platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made progress in [[Land reform in the Philippines|land reform]] by promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities.<ref name="uslc-26">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-26}}</ref> Remnants of the communist [[Hukbalahap]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff |url-access=registration |quote=huk rebellion. |title=No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991 |last1=Goodwin |first1=Jeff |date=June 4, 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-62948-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff/page/119 119]}}</ref> were defeated by Magsaysay.<ref name="Molina, Antonio 1961">Molina, Antonio. ''The Philippines: Through the Centuries''. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.</ref><ref>Carlos P. Romulo and Marvin M. Gray, The Magsaysay Story (1956), is a full-length biography</ref> He was extremely popular with the common people, and his death in an [[1957 Cebu Douglas C-47 crash|airplane crash]] in March 1957 dealt a serious blow to national morale.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809261,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418020304/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809261,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 18, 2010 |title=THE PHILIPPINES: Death of a Friend |date=March 25, 1957 |magazine=Time |access-date=November 30, 2010 }}</ref> At this time, the Philippines joined the United Nations in defending South Korea from North Korean invasions. The Philippines was the first country in Southeast Asia to recognize South Korean independence and was the first to send military units to fight on [[South Korea]]'s behalf.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1083430 |title=SoKor thanks anew PH military assistance in Korean War |work=Philippine News Agency |access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/12/18/20/south-korea-honors-filipinos-who-fought-in-korean-war-on-70th-anniversary |title=South Korea honors Filipinos who fought in Korean War on 70th anniversary |publisher=ABS-CBN News |access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref>

=== Administration of Carlos P. Garcia (1957–1961) ===
[[File:Carlos P Garcia second inauguration, 1957.jpg|thumb|left|Garcia inaugurated as president in 1957]]

[[Carlos P. Garcia]] succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay's death, and was elected to a four-year term in the election of November that same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of "Filipino first", arguing that the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the country's economy.<ref name="cgarcia">{{cite web|title=Carlos Garcia: Unheralded nationalist |url=http://www.philippinenews.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=555a3972999c72ad3bc05bbadf8225f6 |publisher=Philippine News Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061026052206/http://www.philippinenews.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=555a3972999c72ad3bc05bbadf8225f6 |archive-date=October 26, 2006 |access-date=December 20, 2007}}</ref>

Garcia successfully negotiated for the United States' relinquishment of large military land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on issues of government corruption as his term advanced.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|1990|p=184}}</ref>

{{clear left}}

=== Administration of Diosdado Macapagal (1961–1965) ===
[[File:Diosdado Macapagal departing for Malacañang.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Diosdado Macapagal departing for Malacañang]]
In the presidential elections held on November 14, 1961, Vice President [[Diosdado Macapagal]] defeated re-electionist President [[Carlos P. Garcia]] and [[Emmanuel Pelaez]] as a vice president. President [[Macapagal]] changed the [[Independence Day (Philippines)|independence day of the Philippines]] from July 4 to June 12.

The [[Agricultural Land Reform Code]] (RA 3844) was a major Philippine [[land reform]] law enacted in 1963 under President Macapagal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1963/ra_3844_1963.html|title=Republic Act No. 3844 : The Agricultural Land Reform Code of the Philippines|date=August 8, 1963}}</ref>

== Marcos era ==
{{Main|History of the Philippines (1965–1986)}}
[[File:CongressBuilding SEATO.jpg|thumb|left|The leaders of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]] nations in front of the Congress Building in [[Manila, Philippines|Manila]], hosted by Philippine President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] (4th from left) on October 24, 1966.]]

Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but was defeated by his former [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|party]]-mate, Senate President [[Ferdinand Marcos]], who had switched to the [[Nacionalista Party]]. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated public works projects and intensified tax collection.<ref name=":10" /> In a failed attempt to retake east [[Sabah]], the [[Jabidah massacre]], where Muslim Tausug Filipinos were killed by the Philippine Army, occurred under the authority of Marcos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/24025-jabidah-massacre-merdeka-sabah|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913010948/http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/24025-jabidah-massacre-merdeka-sabah|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 13, 2015|title=Jabidah and Merdeka: The inside story|date=September 13, 2015}}</ref> Due to his popularity among Christians, Marcos was re-elected president in 1969, becoming the first president of the Philippines to get a second term.<ref name=":10" /> Crime and civil disobedience increased. The [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] formed the [[New People's Army]] and the [[Moro National Liberation Front]] continued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in Mindanao. An explosion which killed opposition lawmakers during the proclamation rally of the senatorial slate of the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]] on August 21, 1971, led Marcos to suspend the [[writ of habeas corpus]]. Protests surged and the writ was restored on January 11, 1972.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/146939-martial-law-explainer-victims-stories|title=Martial Law, the dark chapter in Philippine history|first1=Katerina|last1=Francisco|website=Rappler|date=September 22, 2016 }}</ref>
[[File:Meeting of the Marcoses and the Nixons in 1969 at the Malacañang Palace.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Ferdinand Marcos|Marcoses]] and the [[Richard Nixon|Nixons]] at the [[Malacañang Palace]]]]

=== Martial law ===
{{Main|Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship}}

Amid the growing popularity of the opposition, Marcos declared [[martial law]] on September 21, 1972, by virtue of [[Proclamation No. 1081]] to stifle dissent. Marcos justified the declaration by citing the threat of Communist insurgency and the alleged ambush of defense secretary Juan Ponce Enrile.<ref name="auto"/> Ruling by decree, Marcos curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, abolished Congress, closed down major media establishments, ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics: senators [[Benigno Aquino Jr.]], [[Jovito R. Salonga]], and [[José W. Diokno]].<ref name="uslc-28">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-28}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> Crime rates plunged dramatically after a curfew was implemented.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=576–577}}</ref> Many protesters, students, and political opponents were forced to go into exile, and a number were killed.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://newslab.philstar.com/31-years-of-amnesia/first-family|title=A family affair &#124; 31 years of amnesia|first1=Research by Kristian|last1=Javier|website=newslab.philstar.com}}</ref>

A [[constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]], which had been called for in 1970 to replace the colonial [[1935 Constitution of the Philippines|1935 Constitution]], continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing the form of government from presidential to [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a "New Society", which he would rule for more than two decades.<ref name="auto"/> The economy during the 1970s was robust, due to previous engagements by various administrations. However, the economy suffered after incurring massive debt and downgrading prospects of the Philippines under martial rule, while the wife of the president, [[Imelda Marcos]], lived in high society.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/>

The [[Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship|human rights abuses]]<ref name="McCoy199909202">{{cite web|url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54a/062.html|title=Alfred McCoy, Dark Legacy: Human rights under the Marcos regime|date=September 20, 1999|publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]]}}</ref><ref name="Abinales&Amoroso20052">{{Cite book|last1=Abinales|first1=Patricio N.|title=State and society in the Philippines|last2=Amoroso|first2=Donna J.|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.|year=2005|isbn=978-0742510234|location=Lanham, MD|oclc=57452454}}</ref> under the [[dictatorship]] particularly targeted political opponents, student activists,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/182828-marcos-dictatorship-martial-law-youth-leaders-killed|title=Gone too soon: 7 youth leaders killed under Martial Law|work=Rappler|access-date=June 15, 2018|language=en}}</ref> journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought back against the administration. Based on the documentation of [[Amnesty International]], [[Task Force Detainees of the Philippines]], and similar human rights monitoring entities,<ref name="RachelAGReyes201604122">{{cite web|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/3257-fact-checking-the-marcos-killings-1975-1985/255735/|title=3,257: Fact checking the Marcos killings, 1975–1985 – The Manila Times Online|website=www.manilatimes.net|language=en-US|access-date=June 15, 2018|date=April 12, 2016|archive-date=April 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419011712/https://www.manilatimes.net/3257-fact-checking-the-marcos-killings-1975-1985/255735/|url-status=dead}}</ref> the dictatorship was marked by 3,257 known extrajudicial killings,<ref name="RachelAGReyes201604122" /> 35,000 documented tortures, 77 'disappeared', and 70,000 incarcerations.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/document/?indexNumber=asa35%2f019%2f1977&language=en|title=Report of an AI Mission to the Republic of the Philippines 1975|website=www.amnesty.org}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last1=Robles|first1=Raissa|title=Marcos Martial Law: Never Again|publisher=Filipinos For A Better Philippines, Inc|year=2016}}</ref>

Some 2,520 of the 3,257 murder victims were tortured and mutilated before their bodies were dumped in various places for the public to discover – a tactic meant to sow fear among the public,<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=Policing America's empire : the United States, the Philippines, and the rise of the surveillance state|last1=McCoy |first1=Alfred W.|date=2009|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=9780299234133|location=Madison, Wis.|oclc=550642875}}</ref> which came to be known as "salvaging."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.postguam.com/forum/featured_columnists/salvage-victims/article_1ca514a4-1812-11e6-900a-8304df53116c.html|title='Salvage' victims|last1=Cagurangan|first1=Mar-Vic|work=The Guam Daily Post|access-date=June 24, 2018}}</ref> Some bodies were even cannibalized.<ref name=":52">{{Cite AV media|last=Aguilar|first=Mila D.|title=So Why Samar?|date=October 3, 2015|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6vw6rFaabA&t=1374s| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/H6vw6rFaabA| archive-date=October 30, 2021|access-date=June 18, 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Fourth Republic ===
[[File:Manila December 1982-5.jpg|left|thumb|Manila circa 1980s]]
Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, he retained much of the government's power for arrest and detention. [[Corruption in the Philippines|Corruption]] and [[nepotism]] as well as civil unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and development under Marcos, whose own health faced obstacles due to [[lupus erythematosus|lupus]]. The political opposition boycotted the [[1981 Philippine general election|1981 presidential elections]], which pitted Marcos against retired general [[Alejo Santos]], in protest over his control over the results.<ref name="uslc-28" /> Marcos won by a margin of over 16 million votes, allowing him to have another six-year term under the new Constitution that his administration crafted.<ref name="auto1"/> Finance Minister [[Cesar Virata]] was eventually appointed to succeed Marcos as Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sp3U1oCNKlgC&pg=PA75|page=75|title=Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: the political economy of authoritarianism|first1=Albert|last1=Celoza|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1997|isbn=978-0-275-94137-6}}</ref>

In 1983, opposition leader [[Ninoy Aquino]] was assassinated at [[Ninoy Aquino International Airport|Manila International Airport]] upon his return to the Philippines after a long period of exile. This coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of events, including pressure from the United States, that culminated in a snap [[1986 Philippine presidential election|presidential election]] in February 1986.<ref name="auto1"/> The opposition united under Aquino's widow, [[Corazon Aquino]]. The official election canvasser, the [[Commission on Elections]] (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the Comelec results and that of [[Namfrel]], an accredited poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by local and international observers.<ref name="uslc-29">{{cite web|title=Philippines – From Aquino's Assassination to People Power|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/29.htm|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=August 22, 2006}}</ref> [[Jaime Sin|Cardinal Jaime Sin]] declared support for Corazon Aquino, which encouraged popular revolts.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/cardinal-jaime-sin-294095.html|title=Cardinal Jaime Sin|date=June 22, 2005|website=The Independent}}</ref> General [[Fidel Ramos]] and Defense Minister [[Juan Ponce Enrile]] withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian-military uprising, now popularly called the [[People Power Revolution]], forced Marcos into exile and installed [[Corazon Aquino]] as president on February 25, 1986. The administration of Marcos has been called by various sources as a [[kleptocracy]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=Robert A. |title=The Philippines in Crisis |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=1984 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=392–410 |doi=10.2307/20042190 |jstor=20042190 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9780230622456_7 |chapter=The Marcos Kleptocracy |title=Corruption and Money Laundering |year=2009 |last1=Chaikin |first1=David |last2=Sharman |first2=J. C. |pages=153–186 |isbn=978-1-349-37827-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Verdier |first2=Thierry |last3=Robinson |first3=James A. |title=Kleptocracy and Divide-and-Rule: A Model of Personal Rule |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |date=May 1, 2004 |volume=2 |issue=2–3 |pages=162–192 |doi=10.1162/154247604323067916 |s2cid=7846928 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w10136.pdf }}</ref> and a [[conjugal dictatorship]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Mijares|first=Primitivo|url=http://rizalls.lib.admu.edu.ph:8080/ebooks2/Primitivo%20Mijares.pdf|title=The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos I|publisher=Union Square Publications|year=1976|location=San Francisco}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/>

== Fifth Republic (1986–present) ==
{{Main|History of the Philippines (1986–present)}}
{{Further|1986–90 Philippine coup attempts}}

=== Administration of Corazon Aquino (1986–1992) ===
{{Main|Presidency of Corazon Aquino}}
[[File:Corazon Aquino inauguration.jpg|thumb|[[Corazon Aquino]], widow of the [[Assassination of Ninoy Aquino|assassinated]] opposition leader [[Ninoy Aquino]], takes the Oath of Office on February 25, 1986]]
[[File:Pinatubo ash plume 910612.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mount Pinatubo]] erupted in 1991.]]

Corazon Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation, and provided for a transitional "[[Constitution of the Philippines#The 1986 Freedom Constitution|Freedom Constitution]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=585}}</ref> A new permanent constitution was ratified and enacted in February 1987.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=586}}</ref>

The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the [[Cordillera Administrative Region|Cordilleras]] and [[Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao|Muslim Mindanao]], and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.<ref name="usdos">{{cite web|title=Background Notes: Philippines, November 1996|url=http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/eap/philippines9611.html|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=August 16, 2006|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084020/http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/eap/philippines9611.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military.<ref name="cnn-cory">{{cite web|title=Then & Now: Corazon Aquino|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2005/US/09/19/cnn25.aquino.tan/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=August 16, 2006}}</ref>

Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters, including the [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo]] that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pinatubo – Eruption Features|url=http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/stratoguide/pinfeat.html|publisher=National Geophysical Data Center|access-date=April 3, 2010}}</ref>

During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed [[1986–90 Philippine coup attempts|six unsuccessful coup attempts]], the [[1989 Philippine coup attempt|most serious]] occurring in December 1989.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riggs|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8NBc_QT26ZoC&pg=PA129 129–130]}} (footnote 18)</ref>

In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shenon |first1=Philip |title=PHILIPPINE SENATE VOTES TO REJECT U.S. BASE RENEWAL |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/16/world/philippine-senate-votes-to-reject-us-base-renewal.html |work=The New York Times |date=September 16, 1991 }}</ref> The United States turned over [[Clark Air Base]] in [[Pampanga]] to the government in November, and [[Subic Bay Naval Base]] in [[Zambales]] in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Branigin|first=William|date=November 24, 1992|title=U.S. MILITARY ENDS ROLE IN PHILIPPINES|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/11/24/us-military-ends-role-in-philippines/a1be8c14-0681-44ab-b869-a6ee439727b7/}}</ref>

=== Administration of Fidel V. Ramos (1992–1998) ===
{{Main|Presidency of Fidel V. Ramos}}
[[File:Ramos Pentagon.jpg|thumb|207x207px|Ramos inaugurated as president in 1992]]
In the [[1992 Philippine general election|1992 elections]], Defense Secretary [[Fidel V. Ramos]], endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 23.6% of the vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in his administration, Ramos declared "national reconciliation" his highest priority and worked at building a coalition to overcome the divisiveness of the Aquino years.<ref name="usdos" />

He legalized the [[Communist Party of the Philippines|Communist Party]] and laid the groundwork for talks with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and military rebels, attempting to convince them to cease their armed activities against the government. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law a general conditional [[amnesty]] covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Nwankwo|first=Peter O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=avck0wa3wz8C&q=fidel+ramos+signed+general+conditional+amnesty&pg=PA392|title=Criminology and Criminal Justice Systems of the World: A Comparative Perspective|publisher=Trafford Publishing|year=2011|pages=392|isbn=9781426967405}}</ref>

In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end. A peace agreement with the [[Moro National Liberation Front]] (MNLF), a major separatist group fighting for an independent homeland in [[Mindanao]], was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year-old struggle.<ref name=":9" /> However, an MNLF splinter group, the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]], continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state.

Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests, leading Ramos to declare he would not seek re-election.<ref name="asiaweek">{{cite magazine|title=Showdown in Manila |url=http://www.pathfinder.com/asiaweek/97/1003/nat1.html |magazine=Asiaweek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061110215216/http://www.pathfinder.com/asiaweek/97/1003/nat1.html|archive-date=November 10, 2006 |access-date=December 20, 2007}}</ref>

On his presidency the [[Capital punishment in the Philippines|death penalty]] was revived in the light of the rape-slay case of UPLB students [[Murders of Eileen Sarmenta and Allan Gomez|Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez]] in 1993 and the first person to be executed was [[Leo Echegaray]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pcij.org/blog/2006/04/18/a-timeline-of-death-penalty-in-the-philippines |title=A timeline of death penalty in the Philippines |publisher=Philippine Center for Investigated Journalist |date=April 18, 2006 |access-date=April 18, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217004917/http://pcij.org/blog/2006/04/18/a-timeline-of-death-penalty-in-the-philippines |archive-date=February 17, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Administration of Joseph Estrada (1998–2001) ===
{{Main|Presidency of Joseph Estrada}}
[[File:Joseph estrada 2000.jpg|thumb|upright|President Estrada in 2000]]

[[Joseph Estrada]], a former movie actor who had served as Ramos' vice president, was elected president by a landslide victory [[1998 Philippine presidential election|in 1998]]. His election campaign pledged to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector. He enjoyed widespread popularity, particularly among the poor.<ref name="bbc-erap">{{cite news|title=Profile: Joseph Estrada|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1063976.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=August 16, 2006 |date=October 26, 2007}}</ref> Estrada assumed office amid the [[Asian Financial Crisis]]. The economy did, however, recover from a low −0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999.<ref>Multiple sources:
*Antonio C. Abaya, [http://www.manilastandardtoday.com/?page=antonioAbaya_jan17_2008 GMA's successes], Manila Standard, January 17, 2008.
*[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDP/is_2000_Jan_31/ai_59226376/ Philippines' GDP grows 3.2 pc in 1999, GNP up 3.6 pc]* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117164203/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDP/is_2000_Jan_31/ai_59226376/ |date=November 17, 2011 }}, Asian Economic News, January 31, 2000.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230518102747/http://www.iro.ph/downloads/Presentations/June%202008%20NY/BSP.pdf Philippines' GDP up 4.5% in 2nd qtr], Asian Economic News, September 4, 2000.
*, Governor Amando M. Tetangco, Jr., Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, June 27, 2008. 
*Speech: ''[http://www.bsp.gov.ph/publications/speeches.asp?id=195&yr=2000 THE PHILIPPINES: CONSOLIDATING ECONOMIC GROWTH]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118082622/http://www.bsp.gov.ph/publications/speeches.asp?id=195&yr=2000 |date=January 18, 2015 }}, Governor [[Rafael Buenaventura]], [[Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas]], March 13, 2000.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110607081312/http://www.adb.org/documents/books/ADO/2001/phi.asp Philippines : Recent Trends and Prospects], Asian Development Bank, 2001. (archived from [http://www.adb.org/documents/books/ADO/2001/phi.asp the original] on June 7, 2011)</ref>

Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However, it was not successful in amending the constitution.<ref>{{Cite news|date=May 21, 2013|title=What Went Before: Past Charter-change attempts|work=Inquirer.net|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/412607/what-went-before-past-charter-change-attempts}}</ref>

After the worsening secessionist movement in Mindanao in April 2000, Estrada declared an "[[2000 Philippine campaign against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front|all-out-war]]" against the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] (MILF).<ref name=Erap2008-09-18>[http://hdn.org.ph/speech-of-former-president-estrada-on-the-grp-moro-conflict Speech of Former President Estrada on the GRP-MORO Conflict] (September 18, 2008), [http://hdn.org.ph/ Human development Network].</ref><ref>[http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/moro.cfm In the Spotlight : Moro Islamic Liberation Front] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120909040310/http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/moro.cfm |date=September 9, 2012}}, Center for Defense Information Terrorism Project, February 15, 2002.</ref> The government later captured 46 MILF camps [[Battle of Camp Abubakar|including the MILF's headquarters]], [[Camp Abubakar]].<ref name=Erap2008-09-18 /><ref>[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200007/10/eng20000710_45067.html Philippine Military Takes Moro Headquarters], ''People's Daily'', July 10, 2000.</ref><ref>[http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/8068 AFP-MILF 2000 War in Mindanao Remembered] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308031038/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/8068 |date=March 8, 2012}} (April 13, 2006), ''American Chronicle'', May 13, 2009.</ref>

In October 2000, however, Estrada was accused of having accepted millions of pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling businesses.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Paddock|first=Richard C.|date=October 20, 2000|title=Kickback Scandal Bedevils Estrada's Presidency|work=Los Angeles Times|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-oct-20-mn-39458-story.html}}</ref> He was [[impeachment|impeached]] by the House of Representatives<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fuller |first1=Thomas |title=The Impeachment of Estrada : Day of Political Tumult in Manila |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/14/news/the-impeachment-of-estrada-day-of-political-tumult-in-manila.html |work=The New York Times |date=November 14, 2000 }}</ref> but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke down when the senate voted to block examination of the president's bank records. In response, [[EDSA Revolution of 2001|massive street protests]] erupted demanding Estrada's resignation. Faced with street protests, cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of support from the armed forces, Estrada resigned from office on January 20, 2001.<ref>{{Cite news|first=|first2=|date=January 17, 2001|title=Estrada Impeachment Trial Thrown Into Chaos|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/01/17/estrada-impeachment-trial-thrown-into-chaos/4f8f0b07-028b-4b15-a10c-fc0e51bcba41/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=January 20, 2001|title=Estrada Resigns as Philippine President; Vice President Is Immediately Sworn In|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB979883883866943832}}</ref>

=== Administration of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010) ===
{{Main|Presidency of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo}}
[[File:President Arroyo with the King and Queen of Spain (2006).jpg|left|thumb|215x215px|President Arroyo between the monarchs of Spain in 2006]]
Vice President [[Gloria Macapagal Arroyo]] (the daughter of President [[Diosdado Macapagal]]) was sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local elections held four months later, when her coalition won an overwhelming victory.<ref name="uslc-pro">{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Philippines, March 2006|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=August 22, 2006}}</ref>

Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion.<ref name="uslc-pro" /> Later on in December 2002 she said would not run in the May 10, 2004, presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to join the race anyway.<ref name="uslc-pro" />

She was elected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory could be maintained.<ref name="cnn-trans">{{cite web|title=Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Talkasia Transcript|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/08/10/talkasia.arroyo.script/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=July 29, 2006}}</ref> The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's resignation.<ref name="cnn-trans" /> Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down.<ref name="cnn-trans" /> Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year.

Halfway through her second term, Arroyo unsuccessfully attempted to push for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present presidential-bicameral republic into a federal parliamentary-unicameral form of government, which critics describe would be a move that would allow her to stay in power as Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Lira|last1=Dalangin-Fernandez|url=http://newsinfo.inq7.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=12106|title=People's support for Charter change 'nowhere to go but up'|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=July 20, 2006|access-date=July 27, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060727190950/http://newsinfo.inq7.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=12106 |archive-date=July 27, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Her term saw the completion of infrastructure projects like [[Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 2|Line 2]] in 2004.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2013/07/19/987621/timeline-lrt-mrt-construction |title=Timeline: LRT, MRT construction |newspaper=[[The Philippine Star]] |date=July 19, 2013|access-date=September 21, 2014}}</ref>

Numerous other scandals (such as the [[Maguindanao massacre]], wherein 58 people were killed, and the unsuccessful [[NBN–ZTE deal corruption scandal|NBN-ZTE broadband deal]]) took place in the dawn of her administration. She formally ended her term as president in 2010 (wherein she was succeeded by Senator Benigno Aquino III) and ran for a seat in congress the same year (becoming the second president after Jose P. Laurel to run for lower office following the presidency).

=== Administration of Benigno Aquino III (2010–2016) ===
{{Main|Presidency of Benigno Aquino III}}
{{Cleanup rewrite|paragraphs contains several short sentences; needs copyediting for better flow|section=yes|date=May 2023}}
[[File:President Aquino with Obama.jpg|thumb|President Aquino with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] in 2011]]

[[Benigno Aquino III]], the son of president [[Corazon C. Aquino]], began his presidency on June 30, 2010. His administration claimed to be focused on major reforms that would bring greater transparency, reduced poverty, reduced corruption, and a booming market which will give birth to a newly industrialized nation.

The 2010 [[Manila hostage crisis]] caused deeply strained relations between [[Manila]] and Hong Kong for a time.

The Sultanate of [[Panay]], the newset of 21 in the country, was formally established covering 10 000 Muslims in the island.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Burgos|first=Nestor P. Jr.|date=June 3, 2012|title=Royal decree creates Sultanate of Panay in Capiz|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/206007/royal-decree-creates-sultanate-of-panay-in-capiz|access-date=July 8, 2021|website=INQUIRER.net|language=en}}</ref>

Tensions regarding [[Sabah]] due to the [[Sultanate of Sulu]]'s claim gradually rose during the early years of his administration. [[2013 Lahad Datu standoff|Standoffs]] in [[Sabah]] between The [[Sultanate of Sulu]]'s Royal Army and the Malaysian forces struck in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cruz|first=Arlyn dela|date=February 16, 2013|title=Heirs of Sultan of Sulu pursue Sabah claim on their own|url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/64577/heirs-of-sultan-of-sulu-pursue-sabah-claim-on-their-own|access-date=July 8, 2021|website=INQUIRER.net|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Najib|first=Najiah|date=December 30, 2013|title=Lahad Datu invasion: A painful memory of 2013|url=https://www.astroawani.com/berita-malaysia/lahad-datu-invasion-painful-memory-2013-27579|access-date=|website=Astro Awani}}</ref> A surprise incursion by the supporters of the Sultanate of Sulu on Sabah resulted in the killing of civilians and members of the Malaysian armed forces<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-06 |title=Malaysia’s Sulu Problem: Logical Flaws in the Arbitration Process |url=https://fulcrum.sg/malaysias-sulu-problem-logical-flaws-in-the-arbitration-process/ |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=FULCRUM |language=en-US}}</ref>. Following this attack, Malaysia ceased the annual cession of approximately $1,000 to the Sultan’s heirs, which it had honored as part of an 1878 [[North Borneo dispute|agreement]] with a British trading company over the use of the Sultanate's territory. In response to Malaysia's suspension of the annual payments, the Sulu claimants sought international arbitration, demanding US$32 billion. In January 2022, Spanish arbitrator Gonzalo Stampa ruled in their favor, awarding a historic US$14.9 billion. However, on 27 June 2023, the French Court of Appeals annulled the award, delivering a landmark victory for Malaysia<ref>{{Cite web |title=Malaysia Wins Court Battle Over $15 Billion Sulu Heirs Award |url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/06/malaysia-wins-court-battle-over-15-billion-sulu-heirs-award/ |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref>. Recently, Stampa was convicted of contempt of court for defying rulings from the Madrid High Court and sentenced to six months in prison<ref>{{Cite news |title=Arbitrator's Guilty Verdict Puts UK Funder's Investment at Risk |url=https://news.bloomberglaw.com/business-and-practice/arbitrators-guilty-verdict-puts-uk-funders-investment-at-risk |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241206173727/https://news.bloomberglaw.com/business-and-practice/arbitrators-guilty-verdict-puts-uk-funders-investment-at-risk |archive-date=2024-12-06 |access-date=2025-05-30 |language=en}}</ref>.

In 2012, the [[Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro]] was signed to create the Bangsamoro Government in [[Mindanao]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=October 15, 2012|title=Road map for peace: Highlights of the Bangsamoro framework agreement|work=GMA News|url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/278325/road-map-for-peace-highlights-of-the-bangsamoro-framework-agreement/story/}}</ref> In response, the [[Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters]] (BIFF) was assembled by religious extremists with the goal of seceding from the Philippines.

The economy performed well at 7.2% GDP growth, the second fastest in Asia.

[[File:Tacloban Typhoon Haiyan 2013-11-14.jpg|thumb|Aftermath of [[Typhoon Haiyan]] in [[Tacloban]], [[Leyte]]]]

In May 2013, the Philippines implemented the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, commonly known as [[K–12 (education)|K–12 program]]. It added two more years to the country's ten-year schooling system for primary and secondary education.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rappler.com/nation/29249-aquino-signs-k-12-bill-into-law|title=Aquino signs K–12 bill into law|work=[[Rappler]]|date=May 15, 2013|access-date=September 20, 2014}}</ref> The country was then hit by [[Typhoon Haiyan|Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan)]] on November 8, 2013, which heavily devastated the [[Visayas]].<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-25051606|title=Typhoon Haiyan death toll rises over 5,000|publisher=BBC|date=November 22, 2013|access-date=November 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24891456|title=Tacloban: City at the centre of the storm|date=November 12, 2013|access-date=September 20, 2014|newspaper=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Massive rehabilitation efforts by foreign world powers sending aid, devolved into chaos following the revelations that the administration and that the government had not been properly handing out the aid packages and preference for political maneuvering over the safety of the people, leading to mass deterioration of food and medical supplies.

In 2014, the [[Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro]] was signed after 17 years of negotiation with the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] (MILF), a move which sought to bring peace in [[Mindanao]] and the [[Sulu]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Landingin|first=Roel|date=March 27, 2014|title=Philippines signs deal with Muslim rebels|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/c1961906-b5a2-11e3-81cb-00144feabdc0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/c1961906-b5a2-11e3-81cb-00144feabdc0 |archive-date=December 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}</ref> When US President [[Barack Obama]] visited the Philippines on April 28, 2014, Aquino signed the [[Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement]], facilitating the return of [[United States Armed Forces]] bases into the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rappler.com/nation/54387-malacanang-obama-philippines-visit |title=Obama to stay overnight in PH |work=[[Rappler]] |date=April 1, 2014 |access-date=April 1, 2014 |archive-date=June 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608180900/https://www.rappler.com/nation/54387-malacanang-obama-philippines-visit |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/04/27/14/us-ph-reach-new-defense-deal |title=US, PH reach new defense deal |publisher=[[ABS-CBN News]] |date=April 27, 2014 |access-date=April 27, 2014 |archive-date=December 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228001641/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/04/27/14/us-ph-reach-new-defense-deal |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/04/28/14/philippines-us-sign-defence-pact-0 |title=Philippines, US sign defense pact |publisher=[[ABS-CBN News]] |website=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=April 28, 2014 |access-date=April 29, 2014 |archive-date=December 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228004658/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/04/28/14/philippines-us-sign-defence-pact-0 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Postrado|first1=Leonard|title=EDCA prevails|url=http://www.mb.com.ph/edca-prevails/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305211340/http://www.mb.com.ph/edca-prevails/|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 5, 2016|access-date=January 14, 2016|work=[[Manila Bulletin]]|date=January 13, 2016}}</ref>

From January 15 to 19, 2015, [[Pope Francis]] [[Pope Francis's visit to the Philippines|stayed in]] the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of [[Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda)|Typhoon Haiyan]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=January 15, 2015|title=Pope Francis greeted by ecstatic Philippines crowds|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30809472|access-date=September 14, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Pope Francis in the Philippines|url=https://www.cnn.com/2015/01/14/asia/gallery/pope-philippines/index.html|access-date=September 14, 2021|website=CNN|date=January 15, 2015 }}</ref> On January 25, 2015, 44 members of the [[Philippine National Police]]-[[Special Action Force]] (PNP-SAF) were killed during [[Mamasapano clash|an encounter]] between [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front|MILF]] and [[Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters|BIFF]] in [[Mamasapano, Maguindanao]], leading to a delay in the passage of the [[Bangsamoro Basic Law]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Fonbuena|first1=Carmela|last2=Cupin|first2=Bea|last3=Gloria|first3=Glenda M.|date=February 7, 2015|title=TIMELINE: Mamasapano clash|work=Rappler|url=https://www.rappler.com/nation/timeline-mamasapano-clash|access-date=September 14, 2021|archive-date=August 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801012112/https://www.rappler.com/nation/timeline-mamasapano-clash|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Cupin|first=Bea|date=February 25, 2016|title=MILF: Don't scrap Bangsamoro law because of Mamasapano|work=Rappler|url=https://www.rappler.com/nation/milf-bangsamoro-law-mamasapano|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914185917/https://www.rappler.com/nation/milf-bangsamoro-law-mamasapano|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 14, 2021}}</ref>

Under Aquino's presidency, the Philippines has had controversial clashes with the People's Republic of China on a number of issues (such as the standoff in [[Scarborough Shoal]] in the [[South China Sea]] and the dispute over the [[Spratly islands]]). This resulted in the proceedings of the Philippines to file a sovereignty case against China in a global arbitration tribunal. Later on in 2014, the Aquino Administration then [[Philippines v. China|filed a case]] to the Arbitration Tribunal in [[The Hague]] which challenged Beijing's claim in the [[South China Sea]] after Chinese ships were accused of harassing a small Philippine vessel carrying goods for stationed military personnel in the [[South Thomas Shoal]] where an old Philippine ship had been stationed for many years.<ref>{{Cite news|date=March 31, 2014|title=Philippines files case to UN in South China Sea dispute|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26781682|access-date=September 14, 2021}}</ref>

On January 12, 2016, the [[Supreme Court of the Philippines|Philippine Supreme Court]] upheld the [[Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement]] paving the way for the return of [[United States Armed Forces]] bases into the country.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Torres-Tupas|first=Tetch|date=January 12, 2016|title=Supreme Court upholds legality of Edca|work=Inquirer.net|url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/134880/supreme-court-upholds-legality-of-edca}}</ref> On March 23, 2016, [[Diwata-1]] was launched to the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), becoming the country's first micro-satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Panela|first=Shaira|date=March 23, 2016|title=PH microsatellite Diwata-1 heads to Int'l Space Station|work=Rappler|url=https://www.rappler.com/science/earth-space/diwata-microsatellite-launch}}</ref>

=== Administration of Rodrigo Duterte (2016–2022) ===
{{Main|Presidency of Rodrigo Duterte}}
[[File:Duterte SONA 2016.jpg|thumb|[[Rodrigo Duterte]] delivering his first State of the Nation Address.]]

[[Davao City]] mayor [[Rodrigo Duterte]] [[2016 Philippine presidential election|succeeded Aquino]] and became the first president from [[Mindanao]]. Under [[First 100 days of Rodrigo Duterte's presidency|Duterte's first 100 days]], the government launched a 24-hour complaint office accessible to the public through a nationwide hotline, [[8888 (Philippines)|8888]], and changed the nationwide [[emergency telephone number]] from 117 to [[9-1-1 (Philippines)|911]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Corrales|first1=Nestor|title=Duterte administration to launch 24-hour hotline in August|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/794875/duterte-administration-to-launch-24-hour-hotline-on-august|access-date=July 9, 2016|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=July 7, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/news/08/01/16/dial-8888-911-govt-opens-complaints-emergency-hotlines |title=Dial 8888, 911: Gov't opens complaints, emergency hotlines |publisher=[[ABS CBN News]] |date=August 1, 2016 |access-date=August 1, 2016}}</ref> Duterte launched an [[Philippine Drug War|intensified anti-drug campaign]] to fulfill a campaign promise of wiping out criminality in six months;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/video/2016/06/30/duterte-sworn-in-as-philippines-presiden?videoId=369120035 |title=Duterte sworn in as Philippines president |work=[[Reuters]] |date=June 30, 2016 |access-date=August 24, 2016}}</ref> by August 2019, the death toll for the war on drugs was 5,779.<ref>{{cite news|title=Between Duterte and a death squad, a Philippine mayor fights drug-war violence |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-drugs-mayor-idUSKBN16N33I |work=Reuters|date=March 16, 2017}}</ref><ref name="pnareal">{{cite web|url=http://pia.gov.ph/realnumbers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517001511/http://pia.gov.ph/realnumbers|archive-date=May 17, 2017|title=#RealNumbersPH |work=[[Philippine Information Agency]] |access-date=May 22, 2017}}</ref><ref name="CayetanoWarOnDrugsUPR">{{cite web|url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/news/05/05/17/cayetano-ph-war-on-drugs-exaggerated-by-fake-news|title=Cayetano: PH war on drugs exaggerated by fake news|publisher=ABS-CBN |date=May 5, 2017 |access-date=May 22, 2017}}</ref> On July 12, 2016, the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] ruled in favor of the Philippines in its [[Philippines v. China|case against China's claims]] in the South China Sea; the ruling deprived surface features in the contested area of territorial-generating status, effectively deflating China's [[nine-dash line]] territorial claims.<ref name="theguardian2016">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/12/philippines-wins-south-china-sea-case-against-china |title=Philippines wins South China Sea case against China |newspaper=The Guardian |author1=Philips, T. |author2=Holmes, O. |author3=Bowcott, O. |date=July 12, 2016 |access-date=July 12, 2016}}</ref> Later that November, president [[Ferdinand Marcos]]' remains were buried at the ''[[Libingan ng mga Bayani]]'' (the country's official cemetery for heroes) after the [[Supreme Court of the Philippines]] ruled in favor of the burial, provoking protests from various groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manilatimes.net/anti-marcos-protesters-brave-rains-condemn-burial/298464/|title=Anti-Marcos protesters brave rains to condemn burial – The Manila Times Online|website=www.manilatimes.net|date=November 26, 2016|access-date=June 10, 2017|archive-date=May 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519011549/https://www.manilatimes.net/anti-marcos-protesters-brave-rains-condemn-burial/298464/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Following [[Marawi crisis|clashes between government forces and the Maute group in Marawi]], Duterte, on May 23, 2017, signed [[Proclamation No. 216]] declaring a 60-day [[martial law]] in Mindanao.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Esguerra|first1=Anthony|last2=Salaverria|first2=Leila|title=Duterte declares martial law in Mindanao|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/898913/duterte-declares-martial-law-in-mindanao|access-date=May 23, 2017|newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=May 23, 2017}}</ref> To attain inclusive economic growth and improve quality of life in the country, in 2017, the Duterte administration launched its socioeconomic policy, [[DuterteNomics]], in which infrastructure development and industrialization were a significant part of.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.build.gov.ph/|title=Home|website=Build!|access-date=June 28, 2017|archive-date=June 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622171117/http://www.build.gov.ph/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The policy included the [[Build! Build! Build! Infrastructure Plan]], which aimed to sustain the country's economic growth and accelerate poverty reduction<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dof.gov.ph/index.php/infra-spending-to-sustain-high-growth-generate-economic-multipliers/ |title=Infra spending to sustain high growth, generate economic multipliers |publisher=[[Department of Finance (Philippines)|Department of Finance]] |date=August 28, 2017 |access-date=December 27, 2017 |archive-date=August 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804173449/https://www.dof.gov.ph/index.php/infra-spending-to-sustain-high-growth-generate-economic-multipliers/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> by developing transport infrastructure such as railways, roads, airports, and seaports, irrigation, and flood control projects.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://pcoo.gov.ph/dutertenomics-unveiled/|title=DuterteNomics unveiled|date=April 19, 2017|access-date=June 28, 2017|publisher=Presidential Communications Operations Office}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://business.inquirer.net/244404/34-75-flagship-infra-projects-start-18|title=34 of 75 flagship infra projects to start in '18|last1=Vera|first1=Ben O. de|access-date=May 30, 2018|language=en}}</ref> Duterte signed the [[Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act]], providing free tuition and exemption from other fees in public universities and colleges, as well as subsidies for those enrolled in private higher education institutions. Duterte also signed into law the Universal Health Care Act, the creation of the [[Department of Human Settlements and Urban Development]], establishing a national cancer control program, and allowing subscribers to keep their mobile numbers for life.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.mb.com.ph/2019/02/19/we-can-keep-our-mobile-numbers-for-life-duterte-signs-19-other-laws/ |title=We can keep our mobile numbers for life; Duterte signs 19 other laws |newspaper=[[Manila Bulletin]] |first1=Genalyn |last1=Kabiling |date=February 19, 2019 |access-date=February 20, 2019 |archive-date=February 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219164448/https://news.mb.com.ph/2019/02/19/we-can-keep-our-mobile-numbers-for-life-duterte-signs-19-other-laws/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2018, the [[Bangsamoro Organic Law]] was legislated into law<ref name="willitlast">{{cite news|url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/01/27/1888489/plebiscite-mindanao-will-it-be-last|title=Plebiscite in Mindanao: Will it be the last?|last1=Unson|first1=John|date=January 27, 2019|work=The Philippine Star|access-date=January 27, 2019}}</ref> and was ratified following [[2019 Bangsamoro autonomy plebiscite|a successful plebiscite]] a year later. The [[Bangsamoro transition period]] began, paving the way for the formal creation of the [[Bangsamoro|Bangsamoro ARMM]].<ref name="CarolynArguillas20190126">{{cite news|url=https://www.mindanews.com/peace-process/2019/01/bangsamoro-law-ratified-how-soon-can-transition-from-armm-to-barmm-begin1/|title=Bangsamoro law ratified; how soon can transition from ARMM to BARMM begin?|last1=Arguillas|first1=Carolyn|work=MindaNews|access-date=January 26, 2019}}</ref>

=== Administration of Bongbong Marcos (2022–present) ===
{{Main|Presidency of Bongbong Marcos}}

[[File:20220725-SONAPBBM2.jpg|thumb|Marcos delivers his [[2022 State of the Nation Address (Philippines)|first State of the Nation Address]] on July 25, 2022, with Senate President [[Migz Zubiri]] (left) and House Speaker [[Martin Romualdez]].]]
In May 2022, [[Bongbong Marcos|Ferdinand Marcos Jr.]] (known by his nickname "Bongbong"), son of former president and dictator Ferdinand Marcos, won the [[2022 Philippine presidential election|presidential election]] by a landslide. His vice presidential candidate was [[Sara Duterte]], daughter of then-president Rodrigo Duterte.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ferdinand Marcos Jr wins landslide election victory in the Philippines |url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220509-ferdinand-marcos-jr-wins-landslide-election-victory-in-the-philippines |work=France 24 |date=May 9, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> On June 30, 2022, Marcos was sworn in as the Philippine president and Sara Duterte was sworn in as vice-president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ferdinand Marcos Jr sworn in as Philippines president, replacing Duterte |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61976940 |work=BBC News |date=June 30, 2022}}</ref> A few weeks after his inauguration as president, the [[2022 Luzon earthquake]] hit Northern Luzon, resulting in 11 casualties and 615 people injured.<ref>{{cite news |title=The 27 July 2022 Magnitude 7.0 Northwestern Luzon Earthquake (7 Aug 2022) - Philippines {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/philippines/27-july-2022-magnitude-70-northwestern-luzon-earthquake-7-aug-2022 |work=reliefweb.int |language=en}}</ref>

[[Bagong Pilipinas (campaign)|Bagong Pilipinas]] ({{translation|New Philippines}}), the administration's term for its brand of governance and leadership, was officially launched with a [[Kickoff meeting|kick-off rally]] on January 28, 2024, at the [[Quirino Grandstand]] in [[Manila]], the capital of the Philippines. It was attended by about 400,000 supporters with the participation of [[Vice President of the Philippines|Vice President]] [[Sara Duterte]], other key [[Malacañang Palace|Malacañang]] officials, and [[Mayor of Manila|Manila Mayor]] [[Honey Lacuna]].<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://mb.com.ph/2024/1/28/bagong-pilipinas-kick-off-rally-draws-10-k-supporters| title= Bagong Pilipinas kick-off rally draws 400K supporters|first=Diann|last=Calusin|website=[[Manila Bulletin]]|date=January 28, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1217434 |title=Filipinos urged to join 'Bagong Pilipinas' rally on Jan. 28 |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |date=January 23, 2024 |access-date=January 26, 2024 }}</ref> The rally was streamed online to engage a wider audience beyond Manila.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pia.gov.ph/features/2024/01/24/filipinos-to-ignite-hope-at-bagong-pilipinas-rally |title=Filipinos to ignite hope at 'Bagong Pilipinas' rally |work=[[Philippine Information Agency]] |last1=Paunan |first1=Jerome Carlo |date=January 24, 2024 |access-date=January 27, 2024 }}</ref>

As president, Marcos signed into law the creation of the [[Maharlika Investment Fund]], the first [[sovereign wealth fund]] of the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 18, 2023 |title=What is the Maharlika Investment Fund all about? |url=https://pia.gov.ph/features/2023/07/18/what-is-the-maharlika-investment-fund-all-about |access-date=July 24, 2023 |website=PIA}}</ref> Under his term, the Philippines ratified the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership|RCEP]] in February, and entered into force in June 2023.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1202684 |title=RCEP enters into force in PH |work=Philippine News Agency |last1=Crismundo |first1=Kris |date=June 2, 2023 |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://asean.org/rcep-agreement-enters-into-force-for-philippines/ |title=RCEP Agreement enters into force for Philippines |publisher=ASEAN.org |date=June 2, 2023 |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref> Marcos also went on many foreign trips in hopes to attract more foreign investments in the country.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Philippines}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Ancient Filipino diet and health]]
* [[Archaeology of the Philippines]]
* [[Battle of Manila (1570)|Battles of Manila]]
* [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|Battles of the Philippines]]
* [[Dambana]]
* [[Filipino nationalism]]
* [[Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935]]
* [[History of Asia]]
* [[History of Southeast Asia]]
* [[List of disasters in the Philippines]]
* [[List of Philippine historic sites]]
* [[List of presidents of the Philippines]]
* [[List of sovereign state leaders in the Philippines]]
* [[Military history of the Philippines]]
* [[National hero of the Philippines]]
* [[Politics of the Philippines]]
* [[Resident Commissioner of the Philippines]]
* [[Sovereignty of the Philippines]]
* [[Suyat]]
* [[Timeline of Philippine history]]
* [[Timeline of Philippine sovereignty]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
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{{Reflist|30em}}

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* {{cite book |last=Hicks |first=Nigel |year=2007 |title=The Philippines |publisher=New Holland Publishers |isbn=978-1-84537-663-5}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Joaquin
|first1=Nick
|title=Culture and history: occasional notes on the process of Philippine becoming
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NS1vAAAAMAAJ
|year=1988
|publisher=Solar Pub. Corp.
|isbn=978-971-17-0633-3
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Kalaw
|first1=Maximo M.
|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;idno=AFJ2233.0001.001
|title=The development of Philippine politics
|chapter=Early Political Life in the Philippines
|chapter-url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=afj2233.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=21
|page=1
|publisher=Oriental commercial
|year=1927
|access-date=January 21, 2008
}}
* Karnow, Stanley. '' In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines'' (1990) [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Image-Americas-Empire-Philippines/dp/0345328167/ excerpt]
* {{cite book
|last1=Kurlansky
|first1=Mark
|title=The Basque history of the world
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uW5gQgAACAAJ
|year=1999
|publisher=Walker
|isbn=978-0-8027-1349-0
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Lacsamana
|first1=Leodivico Cruz
|title=Philippine History and Government
|edition=Second
|year=1990
|isbn=978-971-06-1894-1
|publisher=Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lea |first1=David |last2=Milward |first2=Colette |year=2001 |title=A Political Chronology of South-East Asia and Oceania |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-85743-117-9}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Linn
|first1=Brian McAllister
|author-link=Brian McAllister Linn
|title=The Philippine War, 1899–1902
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ
|year=2000
|publisher=University Press of Kansas
|isbn=978-0-7006-1225-3
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia
| first1 = Robert Day
| last1 = McAmis
| publisher = Eerdmans
| date = 2002
| isbn = 978-0802849458
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Munoz
|first1=Paul Michel
|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SSwuOAAACAAJ
|year=2006
|publisher=Editions Didier Millet
|isbn=978-981-4155-67-0
}}
* {{cite journal
| last=Nicholl
| first=Robert
| title=Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times
| journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
| volume=14
| issue=1
| year=1983
| pages=32–45
| doi=10.1017/S0022463400008973
| s2cid=161541098
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Norling
|first1=Bernard
|title=The Intrepid Guerrillas of North Luzon
|year=2005
|publisher=University Press of Kentucky
|isbn=978-0-8131-9134-8
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xL-JoQYiwykC
}}
* {{cite book 
| last=Park 
| first=P.C. 
| title=Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898-1964 
| publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press 
| series=Pitt Illuminations 
| year=2022 
| isbn=978-0-8229-8873-1 
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ 
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Rausa-Gomez
|first=Lourdes
|year=1967
|title=Sri Yijava and Madjapahit
|journal=Philippine Studies
|volume=15
|number=1
|pages=63–107
|doi=10.13185/2244-1638.2335
|url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/890/public/890-3805-1-PB.pdf
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Riggs
|first1=Fred W.
|chapter=Bureaucracy: A Profound Puzzle for Presidentialism
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8NBc_QT26ZoC&pg=PA97
|title=Handbook of Bureaucracy
|editor-last=Farazmand
|editor-first=Ali
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8NBc_QT26ZoC
|publisher=CRC Press
|year=1994
|isbn=978-0-8247-9182-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Saunders
| first1 = Graham
| title = A History of Brunei
| publisher = Routledge
| date = 2002
| isbn = 978-0700716982
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Schirmer
|first1=Daniel B.
|last2=Shalom
|first2=Stephen Rosskamm
|title=The Philippines Reader: A History of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance
|url=https://archive.org/details/philippinesreade00schi
|url-access=registration
|year=1987
|publisher=South End Press
|isbn=978-0-89608-275-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Scott
|first1=William Henry
|title=Prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ
|year=1984
|publisher=New Day Publishers
|isbn=978-971-10-0227-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Scott
|first1=William Henry
|title=Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKvtAAAAMAAJ
|year=1985
|publisher=New Day Publishers
|isbn=978-971-10-0073-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Shafer
|first1=Robert Jones
|title=The economic societies in the Spanish world, 1763–1821
|url=https://archive.org/details/economicsocietie0000shaf
|url-access=registration
|year=1958
|publisher=Syracuse University Press
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Taft
|first1=William
|title=Present Day Problems
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxqmVdt6hKgC
|year=1908
|publisher=Ayer Publishing
|isbn=978-0-8369-0922-7
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Tracy
|first1=Nicholas
|title=Manila Ransomed: The British Assault on Manila in the Seven Years War
|publisher=University of Exeter Press
|year=1995
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AoNxAAAAMAAJ
|isbn=978-0-85989-426-5
}}
* {{cite book |last=Welman |first=Frans |year=2013 |title=Borneo Trilogy Brunei: Vol 1 |publisher=Booksmango |isbn=978-616-222-235-1}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Wionzek
|first1=Karl-Heinz
|title=Germany, the Philippines, and the Spanish–American War: four accounts by officers of the Imperial German Navy
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-RxAAAAMAAJ
|year=2000
|publisher=National Historical Institute
|isbn=9789715381406
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Woods
|first1=Ayon kay Damon L.
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C
|title=The Philippines
|publisher=ABC-CLIO
|year=2005
|isbn=978-1-85109-675-6
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Zaide
|first1=Sonia M.
|title=The Philippines: A Unique Nation
|publisher=All-Nations Publishing Co.
|year=1994
|isbn=978-971-642-071-5
}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last1=Abinales|first1=Patricio N. |last2=Amoroso|first2=Donna J. |title=State and Society in the Philippines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTx7AAAAQBAJ|year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7425-6872-3}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Columbia University Press
|encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]
|title=Philippines, The
|url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/ph/PhilipRep.html
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080728061705/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ph/PhilipRep.html
|archive-date=July 28, 2008
|edition=6th
|year=2001
|publisher=[[Bartleby.com]]}}
*{{cite book|last1=Barrows|first1=David Prescott<!-- NOT SURE ABOUT THIS |authorlink=David Prescott Barrows-->|title=A History of the Philippines ..|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8MYAAAAYAAJ|year=1905|publisher=Amer. Bk. Company}}
*{{cite book
| editor1-last = Blair
| editor1-first = Emma Helen
| editor1-link = Emma Helen Blair
| editor2-last = Robertson
| editor2-first = James Alexander
| editor2-link = James Alexander Robertson
| others = Historical introduction and additional notes by [[Edward Gaylord Bourne]]
| work = The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803
| url = http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.005
| volume = 5
| title = 1582–1583
| year = 1903
| publisher = [[Arthur H. Clark Company]]
| location = Cleveland, Ohio
| quote = Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations.
| ref = {{harvid|Blair|Robertson|Vol 05}}
}}
* Blair and Robertson, ''The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898'' (1903)
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.007 vol 7 online]
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.008 vol 8 online]
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.009 vol 9 online]
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.013 vol 13 online]
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.024 vol 24 online]
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.025 vol 25 online]
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.036 vol 36 online]
** [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afk2830.0001.042 vol 42 online]
* {{cite book
|last1=Corpuz
|first1=O.D.
|title=Roots of the Filipino Nation
|publisher=University of the Philippines Press
|year=2005
|isbn=978-971-542-461-5}}
*{{cite book
|last1=Elliott
|first1=Charles Burke
|title=The Philippines : To the End of the Military Régime
|url=http://www.minnesotalegalhistoryproject.org/assets/Elliott%20end%20Philippines%20Military%20Reg%20(1916)..pdf
|year=1916
|publisher=The Bobbs-Merrill Company
}}
*{{cite book
|last1=Elliott
|first1=Charles Burke
|title=The Philippines: To the End of the Commission Government, a Study in Tropical Democracy
|url=https://archive.org/details/afj2336.0001.001.umich.edu
|publisher=The Bobbs-Merrill Company
|year=1917
|format=PDF}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Foreman
|first1=John
|title=The Philippine Islands, A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago
|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/22815/22815-h/22815-h.htm
|year=1906
|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons
}} ([https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22815 other formats available])
*{{cite book
|last1=Mijares
|first1=Primitivo
|title=The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos
|publisher=Union Square Publications
|year=1976
}} Republished as {{cite book|last1=Mijares|first1=Primitivo|title=The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4UwqtAEACAAJ|year=2017|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|isbn=978-971-550-781-3}}
* {{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dJkuAAAAIAAJ
|last1=Millis
|first1=Walter
|author-link=Walter Millis
|title=The Martial Spirit
|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company
|year=1931
|isbn=978-0-929587-07-3}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Nieva |first1=Gregorio |date=September 28, 1921 |title=Now Is The Time To Solve The Philippine Problem: The View Of A Representative Filipino |journal=[[The Outlook (New York)|The Outlook]] |volume=129 |pages=135–137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVroBrOJL64C&pg=PA135 |access-date=July 30, 2009 |publisher=Outlook Publishing Company, Inc.
}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ocay |first1=Jeffry |title=Domination and Resistance in the Philippines: From the Pre-hispanic to the Spanish and American Period |journal=LUMINA |date=2010 |volume=21 |issue=1 |url=https://www.ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7287 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Scott|first1=William Henry|title=Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino: And Other Essays in Philippine History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6ZwAAAAMAAJ|year=1992|publisher=New Day Publishers|isbn=978-971-10-0524-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=Worcester|first1=Dean Conant|title=The Philippines: Past and Present|location=New York|publisher=The Macmillan company|year=1913|author-link=Dean Conant Worcester|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12077}}
* {{cite book|last1=Worcester|first1=Dean Conant|title=The Philippine Islands and Their People |url=https://archive.org/details/philippineislan00goog|year=1898|publisher=Macmillan & co.}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|History of the Philippines}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930195314/http://www.gov.ph/ Official government portal of the Republic of the Philippines].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120224035104/http://www.nhi.gov.ph//index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=3 National Historical Institute].
* [http://www.hti.umich.edu/p/philamer/ The United States and its Territories 1870–1925: The Age of Imperialism].
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7001 History of the Philippine Islands by Morga, Antonio de] in 55 volumes, from [[Project Gutenberg]]. Translated into English, edited and annotated by E. H. Blair and J. A. Robertson. [http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/b#a2296 Volumes 1–14 and 15–25] indexed under Blair, Emma Helen.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101109070959/http://www.philippinerevolution.net/cgi-bin/cpp/pdocs.pl?id=lrp_e%3Bpage%3D01 Philippine Society and Revolution] (archived from [http://www.philippinerevolution.net/cgi-bin/cpp/pdocs.pl?id=lrp_e;page=01 the original] on 2010-01-10).
* [http://euroheritage.net/spanishphilippines2.shtml The European Heritage Library – Balancing Paradise and Pandemonium: Philippine Encounters with the rest of the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112103938/http://euroheritage.net/spanishphilippines2.shtml |date=November 12, 2011 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085143/http://filipiniana.net/ Filipiniana, The Premier Digital Library of the Philippines]
* [http://www.philippine-history.org/ Philippine History]

{{Philippines topics}}
{{History of Asia}}
{{Spanish Empire}}

[[Category:History of the Philippines| ]]