Editing Hmong language

{{short description|West Hmongic dialect continuum}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Cleanup lang|article|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Hmong
| altname          = Mong
| nativename       = {{Lang|mww|lus Hmoob}} / {{Lang|hnj|lug Moob}} / {{Lang|hmz|lol Hmongb}} / {{Lang|hmn|lus Hmôngz}} (Vietnam) / {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬰𖬞 𖬌𖬣𖬵}} / {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|Hmn|m̥ɔ̃́|}}
| script           = [[Hmong writing]]: incl. [[Pahawh Hmong]], [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong]], multiple [[Latin script|Latin]] standards
| states           = [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Thailand]]
| speakers         = 4.5 million{{ref label|PopulationEthnologue|a}}
| date             = 2015
| ref              = {{sfn | Jarkey | 2015 | p=11}}
| map              = Hmong_Mien_lang.png
| mapcaption       = Map of Hmong-Mien languages, West Hmongic language in purple
| ethnicity        = [[Hmong people|Hmong]]
| familycolor      = Hmong-Mien
| fam2             = [[Hmongic languages|Hmongic]]
| fam3             = [[Hmongic languages|Core Hmongic]]
| fam4             = [[West Hmongic languages|West Hmongic]]
| fam5             = [[Hmongic languages|Chuanqiandian cluster]]
| minority         = {{hlist|China|Laos|Myanmar|Vietnam|Thailand}}
| iso2             = hmn
| iso2comment      = Hmong, Mong (China, Laos)
| iso3             = hmn
| iso3comment      = for the Hmong/Mong macrolanguage (China, Laos), including all Core Hmongic languages, except <code>hmf</code> and <code>hmv</code>
| lc1              = cqd
| ld1              = Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China)
| lc2              = hea
| ld2              = Northern Qiandong Miao
| lc3              = hma
| ld3              = Southern Mashan Hmong
| lc4              = hmc
| ld4              = Central Huishui Hmong
| lc5              = hmd
| ld5              = Large Flowery Miao
| lc6              = hme
| ld6              = Eastern Huishui Hmong
| lc7              = hmf
| ld7              = Hmong Don (Vietnam)
| lc8              = hmg
| ld8              = Southwestern Guiyang Hmong
| lc9              = hmh
| ld9              = Southwestern Huishui Hmong
| lc10             = hmi
| ld10             = Northern Huishui Hmong
| lc11             = hmj
| ld11             = Ge
| lc12             = hml
| ld12             = Luopohe Hmong
| lc13             = hmm
| ld13             = Central Mashan Hmong
| lc14             = hmp
| ld14             = Northern Mashan Hmong
| lc15             = hmq
| ld15             = Eastern Qiandong Miao
| lc16             = hms
| ld16             = Southern Qiandong Miao
| lc17             = hmv
| ld17             = Hmong Dô (Vietnam)
| lc18             = hmw
| ld18             = Western Mashan Hmong
| lc19             = hmy
| ld19             = Southern Guiyang Hmong
| lc20             = hmz
| ld20             = Hmong Shua (Sinicized Miao)
| lc21             = hnj
| ld21             = Mong Njua/Mong Leng (China, Laos), Blue/Green Hmong (United States)
| lc22             = hrm
| ld22             = A-Hmo, Horned Miao (China)
| lc23             = huj
| ld23             = Northern Guiyang Hmong
| lc24             = mmr
| ld24             = Western Xiangxi Miao
| lc25             = muq
| ld25             = Eastern Xiangxi Miao
| lc26             = mww
| ld26             = Hmong Daw (China, Laos), White Hmong (United States)
| lc27             = sfm
| ld27             = Small Flowery Miao
| glotto           = firs1234
| glottorefname    = First Vernacular Hmong
| lingua           = 48-AAA-a
| notice           = IPA
}}
{{Contains special characters
| special    = Pahawh Hmong [[Unicode]] characters
| fix        = Help:Multilingual support
| error      = [[Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character|question marks, boxes, or other symbols]]
| characters = the [[Pahawh Hmong]] characters
| image      = PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KEEB.svg
| link       = Specials (Unicode block)#Replacement character
}}
'''Hmong''' or '''Mong''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ʌ|ŋ|}} {{respell|MUNG}}; [[Romanized Popular Alphabet|RPA]]: {{Lang|mww|Hmoob}}, [[Chữ Hmông Việt|CHV]]: ''Hmôngz'', [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong|Nyiakeng Puachue]]: {{lang|hmn-Hmnp|𞄀𞄩𞄰}}, [[Pahawh]]: {{lang|hmn-Hmng|𖬌𖬣𖬵}}, {{IPA|Hmn|m̥ɔ̃́|}}) is a [[dialect continuum]] of the [[West Hmongic]] branch of the [[Hmongic languages]] spoken by the [[Hmong people]] of [[Southwestern China]], northern [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], and [[Laos]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ratliff |first=Martha |year=1992 |title=Meaningful Tone: A Study of Tonal Morphology in Compounds, Form Classes, and Expressive Phrases in White Hmong |location=Dekalb, Illinois |publisher=Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University}}</ref> There are an estimated 4.5 million speakers of varieties that are largely mutually intelligible, including over 280,000 [[Hmong Americans]] as of 2013.<ref name="Jarkey_2015">{{cite book |last1=Jarkey |first1=Nerida |title=Serial Verbs in White Hmong |year=2015 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-29239-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glTFCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf |title=The Asian Population: 2010 |first=Elizabeth M. |last=Hoeffel |first2=Sonya |last2=Rastogi |first3=Myoung Ouk |last3=Kim |first4=Hasan |last4=Shahid |date=March 2012 |work=2010 Census Briefs |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=20 March 2013}}</ref> Over half of all Hmong speakers speak the various dialects in China, where the [[Dananshan]] dialect forms the basis of the standard language.<ref>Not of Chinese Miao as a whole for which the standard language is based on [[Hmu language|Hmu]]</ref> However, Hmong Daw and Mong Leng are widely known only in Laos and the United States; Dananshan is more widely known in the native region of Hmong.

==Varieties==
Mong Leng ({{lang|hnj|Moob Leeg}}) and Hmong Daw ({{lang|mww|Hmoob Dawb}}) are part of a dialect cluster known in China as {{Transliteration|zh|Chuanqiandian Miao}} ({{Lang-zh|c=川黔滇苗|l=Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao}}), called the "Chuanqiandian ''cluster''" in English (or "Miao cluster" in other languages) since West Hmongic is also called {{Transliteration|zh|Chuanqiandian Miao}}. The variety spoken from Sichuan in China to Thailand and Laos is referred to in China as the "First Local Variety" ({{lang|zh-cn|第一土语}}) of the cluster. Mong Leng and Hmong Daw are just those varieties of the cluster that migrated to Laos. The names ''Mong Leng'', ''Hmong Dleu/Der'', and ''Hmong Daw'' are also used in China for various dialects of the cluster.

''[[Ethnologue]]'' once distinguished only the Laotian varieties (Hmong Daw, Mong Leng), Sinicized Miao (Hmong Shua), and the Vietnamese varieties (Hmong Dô, Hmong Don). The Vietnamese varieties are very poorly known; population estimates are not even available. In 2007, Horned Miao, [[Small Flowery Miao]], and the Chuanqiandian cluster of China were split off from Mong Leng [blu].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/chg_detail.asp?id=2007-188|title=2007-188 - ISO 639-3|website=www.sil.org}}</ref>

These varieties are as follows, along with some alternative names.
* Hmong/Mong/Chuanqiandian Miao macrolanguage (China, Laos, also spoken by minorities in Thailand and the United States), including:
** Hmong Daw (''Hmong Der'', {{lang|mww|Hmoob Dawb}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmong Dleu}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmongb Dleub}}, 'White Hmong'; Chinese: {{Lang|zh|白苗}}, {{Transliteration|zh|Bái Miáo}}, 'White Miao'),
** Mong Leng ({{lang|hnj|Moob Leeg}}, {{lang|hnj|Moob Ntsuab}}, {{lang|cqd|Mongb Nzhuab}}, 'Blue/Green Hmong'; Chinese: {{Lang|zh|青苗}}, {{Transliteration|zh|Qīng Miáo}}, 'Blue-Green Miao'),
** Hmong Shua ({{lang|hmz|Hmongb Shuat}}; 'Sinicized Miao'),
** Hmo or A-Hmo (Chinese: {{Lang|zh|角苗}}, {{Transliteration|zh|Jiǎo Miáo}}, 'Horned Miao'),
** [[Small Flowery Miao]],
** and the rest of the Chuanqiandian Miao cluster located in China.
* Hmong languages of Vietnam, not considered part of the China/Laos macrolanguage and possibly forming their own distinct macrolanguage — they are still not very well classified even if they are described by ''Ethnologue'' as having vigorous use (in Vietnam) but without population estimates; they have most probably been influenced by [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], as well as by [[French language|French]] (in the former [[French Indochina|Indochina colonies]]) and later [[American English]], and they may be confused with varieties spoken by minorities living today in the United States, Europe or elsewhere in Asia (where their varieties may have been assimilated locally, but separately in each area, with other Hmong varieties imported from Laos and China):
** Hmong Dô (Vietnam),
** Hmong Don (Vietnam, assumed).

The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) stated that the White and Leng dialects "are said to be mutually intelligible to a well-trained ear, with pronunciation and vocabulary differences analogous to the differences between [[British English|British]] and [[American English]]."<ref name=Chap2Overview>"[https://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/guidestoolkits/ethnographicguides/hmong/chapters/chapter2.pdf Chapter 2. Overview of Lao Hmong Culture]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20130418014450/http://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/guidestoolkits/ethnographicguides/hmong/chapters/chapter2.pdf Archive]) ''Promoting Cultural Sensitivity: Hmong Guide''. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]. p. 14. Retrieved on 5 May 2013.</ref>

Several Chinese varieties may overlap with or be more distinct than the varieties listed above:
* Dananshan Miao ({{lang|cqd|Hmong Drout Raol}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmong Hout Lab}}; called {{lang|cqd|Hmong Dou}} in Northern Hmong), the basis of the Chinese standard of the Chuanqiandian cluster
* Black Miao (subgroups: {{lang|cqd|Hmong Dlob}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmong Buak}}/{{lang|mww|Hmoob Puas}}; Chinese: {{Lang|zh|黑苗}}, {{Transliteration|zh|Hēi Miáo}})<ref>Note however that "Black Miao" is more commonly used for [[Hmu language|Hmu]].</ref>
* Southern Hmong (subgroups: {{lang|cqd|Hmongb Shib}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmongb Lens}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmongb Dlex Nchab}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmongb Sad}}; includes Mong Leng)
* Northern Hmong (subgroups: {{lang|cqd|Hmongb Soud}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmong Be}}/{{lang|cqd|Hmongb Bes}}, {{lang|cqd|Hmongb Ndrous}})
* Western Sichuan Miao (Chinese: {{Lang|zh|川苗}}, {{Transliteration|zh|Chuān Miáo}})

In the 2007 request to establish an ISO code for the Chuanqiandian cluster, corresponding to the "first local dialect" ({{lang|zh-cn|第一土语}}) of the Chuanqiandian cluster in Chinese, the proposer made the following statement on mutual intelligibility:
{{blockquote|A colleague has talked with speakers of a number of these {{sic|hide=y|closely|-}}related lects in the US, in Thailand and in China, and has had many discussions with Chinese linguists and foreign researchers or community development workers who have had extensive contact with speakers of these lects. As a result of these conversations this colleague believes that many of these lects are likely to have high inherent mutual intelligibility within the cluster. Culturally, while each sub-group prides itself on its own distinctives, they also recognize that other sub-groups within this category are culturally similar to themselves and accept the others as members of the same general ethnic group. However, this category of lects is internally varied and geographically scattered and mixed over a broad land area, and comprehensive intelligibility testing would be required to confirm reports of mutual intelligibility throughout the cluster.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/cr_files/2007-188_cqd.pdf |title=ISO 639-3 New Code Request |access-date=2018-09-30}}</ref>}}

===Varieties in Laos===
According to the CDC, "although there is no official preference for one dialect over the other, White Hmong seems to be favored in many ways":<ref name=Chap2Overview/> the [[Romanized Popular Alphabet]] (RPA) most closely reflects that of White Hmong (''Hmong Daw''); most educated Hmong speak White Hmong because White Hmong people lack the ability to understand Mong Leng; and most Hmong dictionaries only include the White Hmong dialect. Furthermore, younger generations of Hmong are more likely to speak White Hmong, and speakers of Mong Leng are more likely to understand White Hmong than speakers of White Hmong are.<ref name=Chap2Overview/>

===Varieties in the United States===
Most Hmong in the United States speak White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) and Mong Leng (Moob Leeg), with around 60% speaking White Hmong and 40% Mong Leng. The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] states that "though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, Mong Leng seem to do better when understanding both dialects."<ref name=Chap2Overview/>

==Phonology==
The three dialects described here are Hmong Daw (also called White Miao or Hmong Der),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Golston |first=Chris |title=Proceedings of HILP 5 |author2=Phong Yang |publisher=University of Potsdam |year=2001 |isbn=3-935024-27-4 |editor=C. Féry |edition=Linguistics in Potsdam 12 |location=Potsdam |pages=40–57 |chapter=Hmong loanword phonology |editor2=A. D. Green |editor3=R. van de Vijver}} [http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~chrisg/index_files/Golston%26Yang.pdf]</ref> Mong Leeg (also called Blue/Green Miao or Mong Leng),<ref>Smalley, William et al. Mother of Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. p. 48-51. See also: Mortensen, David. [http://www.pitt.edu/~drm31/mong_leng_phonology.pdf “Preliminaries to Mong Leng (Mong Njua) Phonology”] Unpublished, UC Berkeley. 2004. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029161008/http://www.pitt.edu/~drm31/mong_leng_phonology.pdf |date=29 October 2012}}</ref> and Dananshan (Standard Chinese Miao).<ref>王辅世主编，《苗语简志》，民族出版社，1985年。</ref> Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are the two major dialects spoken by [[Hmong Americans]]. Although mutually intelligible, the dialects differ in both lexicon and certain aspects of phonology. For instance, Mong Leeg lacks the voiceless/aspirated {{IPA|/m̥/}} of Hmong Daw (as exemplified by their names) and has a third nasalized vowel, {{IPA|/ã/}}; Dananshan has a couple of extra diphthongs in native words, numerous Chinese loans, and an eighth tone.

===Vowels===
The vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are as shown in the following charts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hmongdictionary.com/vowel.php |title = Hmong Dictionary - Dictionary Hmong}}</ref> (Phonemes particular to <span style="background:#EEE8AA">Hmong Daw</span>{{dagger|alt=dagger}} and <span style="background:#CAFF70">Mong Leeg</span>{{double-dagger|alt=double dagger}} are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)

# 1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
# 2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
# 3rd Row: Pahawh
{|class="wikitable"
|+[[Monophthong]]s
! rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | [[File:I_-_Hmong_word.wav|113x113px]]
{{IPA link|i}} ⟨i⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬂, 𖬃}}</big>
|
| align=center | [[File:W_-_Hmong_word.wav|113x113px]]
{{IPA link|ɨ}} ⟨w⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬘, 𖬙}}</big>
|
| align=center | [[File:U_-_Hmong_word.wav|113x113px]]
{{IPA link|u}} ⟨u⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬆, 𖬇}}</big>
|
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| align=center | [[File:E_-_Hmong_word.wav|114x114px]]
{{IPA link|e}} ⟨e⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬈, 𖬉}}</big>
| align="center" |[[File:Ee_-_Hmong_word.wav|111x111px]]
{{IPA link|ẽ}}~{{IPA|eŋ}} ⟨ee⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬀, 𖬁}}</big>
| ||
| [[File:O_-_Hmong_word.wav|112x112px]]
{{IPA link|ɔ}} ⟨o⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬒, 𖬓}}</big>
|[[File:Oo_-_Hmong_word.wav|110x110px]]
{{IPA link|ɔ̃}}~{{IPA|ɔŋ}} ⟨oo⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬌, 𖬍}}</big>
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| ||
| align=center | [[File:A_-_Hmong_word.wav|114x114px]]
{{IPA link|a}} ⟨a⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬖, 𖬗}}</big>
| style="background:#caff70; text-align:center;" |[[File:Aa_-_Green_Hmong_word.wav|110x110px]]
{{IPA link|ã}}~{{IPA|aŋ}} ⟨aa⟩ <br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬚, 𖬛}}</big>{{double-dagger|alt=Mong Leeg}}
| align=center | || align="center" |
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Diphthongs
!
! Closing
! Centering
|-
| '''Close component is front'''
| align=center | [[File:Ai_-_Hmong_word.wav|109x109px]]
{{IPA|ai}} ⟨ai⟩ <br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄤𞄦, 𞄣}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬊, 𖬋}}</big>
|  style="background:#eee8aa; text-align:center;"| [[File:Ia_-_Hmong_word.wav|114x114px]]
{{IPA|iə}} ⟨ia⟩ <br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄦𞄤, 𞄞}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬔, 𖬕}}</big>{{dagger|alt=Hmong Daw}}
|-
| '''Close component is central'''
| align=center | [[File:Aw_-_Hmong_word.wav|109x109px]]
{{IPA|aɨ}} ⟨aw⟩ <br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄤𞄬, 𞄢}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬎, 𖬏}}</big>
|
|-
| '''Close component is back'''
| align=center | [[File:Au_-_Hmong_word.wav|106x106px]]
{{IPA|au}} ⟨au⟩ <br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄤𞄨, 𞄠}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬄, 𖬅}}</big>
| align=center | [[File:Ua_-_Hmong_word.wav|104x104px]]
{{IPA|uə}} ⟨ua⟩ <br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄧𞄤, 𞄜}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬐, 𖬑}}</big>
|}

The Dananshan standard of China is similar. Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are <span style="background:#EECCE8">color-coded</span> and marked as absent or added.
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Dananshan Miao vowels
! rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2|[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan=2|[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan=2|[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
!<small>oral</small>
!<small>nasal</small>
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|i}} ||
|  style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;"| ({{IPA link|ɨ}}) (added)||
| align=center | {{IPA link|u}} ||
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|e}} || align=center | {{IPA|en}}
| ||
| align=center | {{IPA link|o}} || align=center | {{IPA|oŋ}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| ||
| align=center | {{IPA link|a}} || {{IPA|aŋ}}
| ||
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Diphthongs
!
! Closing
! Centering
|-
| '''Close component is front'''
| align=center | {{IPA|aj}} {{angbr|ai}}
|  style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;"|(absent)
|-
| rowspan=2| '''Close component is back'''
| align=center | {{IPA|aw}} {{angbr|au}}
| align=center | {{IPA|wɒ}} {{angbr|ua}}
|-
|  style="text-align:center; background:#eecce8;"| {{IPA|əw}} {{angbr|ou}}<br/>{{IPA|eβ}} {{angbr|eu}} <br/>(added)
| align=center |
|}
Dananshan {{IPA|[ɨ]}} occurs only after non-palatal affricates, and is written {{angbr|i}}, much like Mandarin Chinese.<!-- not just in Chinese loans --> {{IPA|/u/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[y]}} after palatal consonants. There is also a triphthong {{IPA|/jeβ/}} {{angbr|ieu}}, as well as other i- and u-initial sequences in Chinese borrowings, such as {{IPA|/waj/}}.

===Consonants===
Hmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, and most also distinguish [[prenasalization]] independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to <span style="background:#EEE8AA">Hmong Daw</span>{{dagger|alt=dagger}} and <span style="background:#CAFF70">Mong Leeg</span>{{double-dagger|alt=double dagger}} are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)

#1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
#2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
#3rd Row: Pahawh
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg consonants
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>[[lateral release (phonetics)|lateral]]</small>{{ref|l|*}}
! <small>plain</small>
!<small>[[sibilant]]</small>
! <small>[[lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>{{ref|l|*}}
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>[[sibilant]]</small>
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| style="background:#EEE8AA" | {{IPA link|m̥}} {{angbr|hm}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬣𖬵}}</big>{{dagger|alt=Hmong Daw}}
| style="background:#EEE8AA" | ({{IPA link|m̥ˡ}}) {{angbr|hml}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄠𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬠𖬰}}</big>{{dagger|alt=Hmong Daw}}
| style="background:#EEE8AA" | {{IPA link|n̥}} {{angbr|hn}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬩}}</big>{{dagger|alt=Hmong Daw}}
|
|
| 
|
| style="background:#EEE8AA" | {{IPA link|ɲ̥}} {{angbr|hny}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄐𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬣𖬰 }}</big>{{dagger|alt=Hmong Daw}}
| 
| 
|
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|m}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄀}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬦}}</big>
| ({{IPA link|mˡ}}) {{angbr|ml}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄠}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬠}}</big>
| {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|n}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄅}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬬}}</big>
|
|
| 
|
| {{IPA link|ɲ}} {{angbr|ny}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄐}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬮𖬵}}</big>
| ({{IPA link|ŋ}} {{angbr|g}}<br />marginal{{sfn | White | 2020 | p=216}})
| {{IPA|[[Voiced uvular nasal|⟨ɴ⟩]]}} <br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄢}}
|
|-
! rowspan="6" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>tenuis</small>
| {{IPA link|p}} {{angbr|p}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄚}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬪𖬵}}</big>
| ({{IPA link|pˡ}}) {{angbr|pl}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄡}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬟𖬵}}</big>
| {{IPA link|t}} {{angbr|t}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄃}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬧𖬵}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ts}} {{angbr|tx}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄔}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬯𖬵}}</big>
| style="background:#CAFF70" | ({{IPA link|tˡ}}) {{angbr|dl}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄏}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬭𖬰}}</big>{{double-dagger|alt=Mong Leeg}}
| {{IPA link|ʈ}} {{angbr|r}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄖}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬡}}</big>
| {{IPA link|tʂ}} {{angbr|ts}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄁}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬝𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|c}} {{angbr|c}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄈}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬯}}</big>
| {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|k}}{{ref|k|***}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄎}}
| {{IPA link|q}} {{angbr|q}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄗}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬦𖬵}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{angbr|au}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄠}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬮𖬰}}</big>
|-
! <small>[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} {{angbr|ph}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬝𖬵}}</big>
| ({{IPA link|pˡʰ}}) {{angbr|plh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄡𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬪}}</big>
| {{IPA link|tʰ}} {{angbr|th}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬟𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|tsʰ}} {{angbr|txh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄔𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬦𖬰}}</big>
| style="background:#CAFF70" |({{IPA link|tˡʰ}}) {{angbr|dlh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄏𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬭𖬵}}</big>{{double-dagger|alt=Mong Leeg}}
| {{IPA link|ʈʰ}} {{angbr|rh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄖𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬢𖬵}}</big>
| {{IPA link|tʂʰ}} {{angbr|tsh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬪𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|cʰ}} {{angbr|ch}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄈𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬧}}</big>
| {{IPA link|kʰ}} {{angbr|kh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬩𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|qʰ}} {{angbr|qh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄗𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬣}}</big>
| 
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| 
| 
| style="background:#EEE8AA" | {{IPA link|d}} {{angbr|d}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄏}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬞𖬰}}</big>{{dagger|alt=Hmong Daw}}
|
|
| 
|
|
| 
| 
|
|-
! <small>[[Breathy voice|murmured]]</small>
| 
| 
| style="background:#EEE8AA" | {{IPA link|dʱ}} {{angbr|dh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄏𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬞𖬵}}</big>{{dagger|alt=Hmong Daw}}
|
|
| 
|
|
| 
| 
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[prenasalization|prenasalized]]</small>{{ref|nd|**}}
| {{IPA link|ᵐb}} {{angbr|np}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄜}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬨𖬵}}</big>
| ({{IPA link|ᵐbˡ}}) {{angbr|npl}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄞}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬫𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ⁿd}} {{angbr|nt}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄂}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬩𖬵}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ⁿdz}} {{angbr|ntx}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄓}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬢𖬰}}</big>
| style="background:#CAFF70" | ({{IPA link|ⁿdˡ}}) {{angbr|ndl}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄝}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬭}}</big>{{double-dagger|alt=Mong Leeg}}
| {{IPA link|ᶯɖ}} {{angbr|nr}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄑}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬜𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᶯdʐ}} {{angbr|nts}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄍}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬝}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᶮɟ}} {{angbr|nc}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄌}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬤𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᵑɡ}} {{angbr|nk}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄇}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬢}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᶰɢ}} {{angbr|nq}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄙}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬬𖬰}}</big>
|
|-
| {{IPA link|ᵐpʰ}} {{angbr|nph}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄜𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬡𖬰}}</big>
| ({{IPA link|ᵐpˡʰ}}) {{angbr|nplh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄞𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬡𖬵}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ⁿtʰ}} {{angbr|nth}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄂𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬫}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ⁿtsʰ}} {{angbr|ntxh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄓𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬥𖬵}}</big>
| style="background:#CAFF70" | ({{IPA link|ⁿtˡʰ}}) {{angbr|ndlh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄝𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬭𖬴}}</big>{{double-dagger|alt=Mong Leeg}}
| {{IPA link|ᶯʈʰ}} {{angbr|nrh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄑𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬨𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᶯtʂʰ}} {{angbr|ntsh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄍𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬯𖬰}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᶮcʰ}} {{angbr|nch}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄌𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬨}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᵑkʰ}} {{angbr|nkh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄇𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬫𖬵}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ᶰqʰ}} {{angbr|nqh}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄙𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬬𖬵}}</big>
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Continuant]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|f}} {{angbr|f}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄕}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬜𖬵}}</big>
|
| {{IPA link|s}} {{angbr|x}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄆}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬮}}</big>
|
| {{IPA link|l̥}} {{angbr|hl}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄄𞄉}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬥}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ʂ}} {{angbr|s}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄊}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬤𖬵}}</big>
|
| {{IPA link|ɕ}} ~ {{IPA link|ç}} {{angbr|xy}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄛}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬧𖬰}}</big>
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}} {{angbr|h}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄄}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬟}}</big>
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|v}} {{angbr|v}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄒}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬜}}</big>
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|l}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄉}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬞}}</big>
| {{IPA link|ʐ}} {{angbr|z}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄋}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬥𖬰}}</big>
|
| {{IPA link|ʑ}} ~ {{IPA link|ʝ}} {{angbr|y}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄘}}<br /><big>{{Script|Hmng|𖬤}}</big>
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]]
|
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA|[[Voiced retroflex approximant|⟨ɻ⟩]]}}<br />{{Script|Hmnp|𞄣}}
|
|
|
|
|
|}

The Dananshan standard of China is similar. (Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are <span style="background:#EECCE8">color-coded</span> and marked as absent or added. Minor differences, such as the voicing of prenasalized stops, or whether {{IPA|/c/}} is an affricate or {{IPA|/h/}} is velar, may be a matter of transcription.) Aspirates, voiceless fricatives, voiceless nasals, and glottal stop only occur with ''yin'' tones (1, 3, 5, 7). Standard orthography is added in [[brackets#Angled bracket|angled brackets]]. The glottal stop is not written; it is not distinct from a zero initial. There is also a {{IPA|/w/}}, which occurs only in foreign words.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Dananshan Miao consonants
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[dental consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>[[lateral release (phonetics)|lateral]]</small>{{ref|l|*}}
! <small>plain</small>
!<small>sibilant</small>
! <small>[[lateral release (phonetics)|lateral]]</small>{{ref|l|*}}
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>sibilant</small>
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|m̥}} {{angbr|hm}}
| style="background:#EECCE8" | (absent)
| {{IPA link|n̥}} {{angbr|hn}}
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɲ̥}} {{angbr|hni}}
|
|
|
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|m}}
| style="background:#EECCE8" | (absent)
| {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|n}}
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɲ}} {{angbr|ni}}
| style="background:#EECCE8" | {{IPA link|ŋ}} {{angbr|ngg}} (added)
|
|
|-
! rowspan="5" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]/ [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>tenuis</small>
| {{IPA link|p}} {{angbr|b}}
| ({{IPA link|pˡ}}) {{angbr|bl}}
| {{IPA link|t}} {{angbr|d}}
| {{IPA link|ts}} {{angbr|z}}
| ({{IPA link|tˡ}}) {{angbr|dl}}
| {{IPA link|ʈ}} {{angbr|dr}}
| {{IPA link|tʂ}} {{angbr|zh}}
| {{IPA link|tɕ}} {{angbr|j}}
| {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|g}}
| {{IPA link|q}} {{angbr|gh}}
| ({{IPA link|ʔ}})
|-
! <small>[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} {{angbr|p}}
| ({{IPA link|pˡʰ}}) {{angbr|pl}}
| {{IPA link|tʰ}} {{angbr|t}}
| {{IPA link|tsʰ}} {{angbr|c}}
| ({{IPA link|tˡʰ}}) {{angbr|tl}}
| {{IPA link|ʈʰ}} {{angbr|tr}}
| {{IPA link|tʂʰ}} {{angbr|ch}}
| {{IPA link|tɕʰ}} {{angbr|q}}
| {{IPA link|kʰ}} {{angbr|k}}
| {{IPA link|qʰ}} {{angbr|kh}}
|
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
|
| style="background:#EECCE8" | (absent) 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |<small>[[prenasalization|prenasalized]]</small>{{ref|nd|**}}
| {{IPA link|ᵐp}} {{angbr|nb}}
| ({{IPA link|ᵐpˡ}}) {{angbr|nbl}}
| {{IPA link|ⁿt}} {{angbr|nd}}
| {{IPA link|ⁿts}} {{angbr|nz}}
| style="background:#EECCE8" | (absent)
| {{IPA link|ᶯʈ}} {{angbr|ndr}}
| {{IPA link|ᶯtʂ}} {{angbr|nzh}}
| {{IPA link|ⁿtɕ}} {{angbr|nj}}
| {{IPA link|ᵑk}} {{angbr|ng}}
| {{IPA link|ᶰq}} {{angbr|ngh}}
|
|-
| {{IPA link|ᵐpʰ}} {{angbr|np}}
| ({{IPA link|ᵐpˡʰ}}) {{angbr|npl}}
| {{IPA link|ⁿtʰ}} {{angbr|nt}}
| {{IPA link|ⁿtsʰ}} {{angbr|nc}}
| style="background:#EECCE8" | (absent)
| {{IPA link|ᶯʈʰ}} {{angbr|ntr}}
| {{IPA link|ᶯtʂʰ}} {{angbr|nch}}
| {{IPA link|ⁿtɕʰ}} {{angbr|nq}}
| {{IPA link|ᵑkʰ}} {{angbr|nk}}
| {{IPA link|ᶰqʰ}} {{angbr|nkh}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Continuant]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|f}} {{angbr|f}}
|
| {{IPA link|s}} {{angbr|s}}
|
| {{IPA link|l̥}} {{angbr|hl}}
| {{IPA link|ʂ}} {{angbr|sh}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɕ}} {{angbr|x}}
| {{IPA link|x}} {{angbr|h}}
|
|
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|v}} {{angbr|v}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|l}}
| {{IPA link|ʐ}} {{angbr|r}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʑ}} ~ {{IPA link|ʝ}} {{angbr|y}}
| ({{IPA link|w}})
|
|
|}

{{note|l|*}} The status of the consonants described here as single phonemes with [[lateral release (phonetics)|lateral release]] is controversial.  A number of scholars instead analyze them as biphonemic clusters with {{IPA|/l/}} as the second element.  The difference in analysis (e.g., between {{IPA|/pˡ/}} and {{IPA|/pl/}}) is not based on any disagreement in the sound or pronunciation of the consonants in question, but on differing theoretical grounds.  Those in favor of a unit-phoneme analysis generally argue for this based on distributional evidence (i.e., if clusters, these would be the only clusters in the language, although see below) and dialect evidence (the laterally released dentals in Mong Leeg, e.g. {{IPA|/tˡʰ/}}, correspond to the voiced dentals of White Hmong), whereas those in favor of a cluster analysis tend to argue on the basis of general phonetic principles (other examples of labial phonemes with lateral release appear extremely rare or nonexistent<ref>Even the landmark book [[The Sounds of the World's Languages]] specifically describes lateral release as involving a [[homorganic]] consonant.</ref>).

{{note|nd|**}} Some linguists prefer to analyze the prenasalized consonants as clusters whose first element is {{IPA|/n/}}.  However, this cluster analysis is not as common as the above one involving {{IPA|/l/}}.

{{note|k|***}} Only used in [[Hmong RPA]] and not in [[Pahawh Hmong]], since Hmong RPA uses [[Latin script]] and Pahawh Hmong does not. For example, in Hmong RPA, to write {{Lang|hmn|keeb}}, the order Consonant + Vowel + Tone (CVT) must be followed, so it is ''k'' + ''ee'' + ''b'' = {{Lang|hmn|keeb}}, but in Pahawh Hmong, it is just {{Lang|hmn|Keeb}} "{{script|Hmng|𖬀}}" (3rd-Stage Version).

===Syllable structure===
Hmong [[syllable]]s have simple structure: all syllables have an [[syllable onset|onset]] consonant (except in a few particles{{sfn | White | 2020 | p=220}}), [[syllable nucleus|nuclei]] may consist of a monophthong or diphthong, and the only [[syllable coda|coda]] consonants that occur are nasals. In Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, nasal codas have become nasalized vowels, though they may be accompanied by weakly articulated {{IPA|[ŋ]}}.{{sfn | White | 2020 | p=214}} Similarly, a short {{IPA|[ʔ]}} may accompany the low-falling [[creaky voice|creaky]] tone.

Dananshan has a syllabic {{IPA|/l̩/}} (written {{angbr|l}}) in Chinese loans, such as {{lang|cqd|lf}} 'two' and {{lang|cqd|lx}} 'child'.

===Tones===
Hmong is a [[tonal language]] and makes use of seven (Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg) or eight (Dananshan) distinct [[tone (linguistics)|tones]].
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tone
! Hmong Daw example<ref>Examples taken from: Heimbach, Ernest H. White Hmong–English Dictionary [White Meo-English Dictionary]. 2003 ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications, 1969. Note that many of these words have multiple meanings.</ref>
! [[Romanized Popular Alphabet|Hmong/Mong RPA spelling]]
!Vietnamese Hmong spelling
! [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong|Nyiakeng Puachue]]
! [[Pahawh Hmong]]
!Hmong Pronunciation
|-
| High {{IPA|˥}}
| {{IPA|/pɔ́/}} 'ball'
| po'''b'''
|po'''z'''
| {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄨𞄰}}
|{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬰𖬪𖬵}}
|[[File:Pob_-_Hmong_word.wav|119x119px]]
|-
| Mid {{IPA|˧}}
| {{IPA|/pɔ/}} 'spleen'
| po
|po
| {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄨}}
|{{script|Hmng|𖬓𖬰𖬪𖬵}}
|[[File:Po_-_Hmong_word.wav|119x119px]]
|-
| Low {{IPA|˩}}
| {{IPA|/pɔ̀/}} 'thorn'
| po'''s'''
|po'''s'''
| {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄨𞄴}}
|{{script|Hmng|𖬓𖬲𖬪𖬵}}
|[[File:Pos_-_Hmong_word.wav|119x119px]]
|-
| High-falling {{IPA|˥˧}}
| {{IPA|/pɔ̂/}} 'female'
| po'''j'''
|po'''x'''
| {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄨𞄲}}
|{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬲𖬪𖬵}}
|[[File:Poj_-_Hmong_word.wav|119x119px]]
|-
| Mid-rising {{IPA|˧˦}}
| {{IPA|/pɔ̌/}} 'to throw'
| po'''v'''
|po'''r'''
| {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄨𞄳}}
|{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬶𖬪𖬵}}
|[[File:Pov_-_Hmong_word.wav|119x119px]]
|-
| Low checked ([[creaky voice|creaky]]) tone {{IPA|˩}} <br/>(phrase final: long low rising {{IPA|˨˩˧}})
| {{IPA|/pɔ̰̀/}} 'to see'
| po'''m'''
|po'''v'''
| {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄨𞄱}}
|{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬪𖬵}}
|[[File:Pom_-_Hmong_word.wav|119x119px]]
|-
| Mid-falling [[breathy voice|breathy]] tone  {{IPA|˧˩}}
| {{IPA|/pɔ̤̂/}} 'grandmother'
| po'''g'''
|po'''l'''
| {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄨𞄵}}
|{{script|Hmng|𖬓𖬪𖬵}}
|[[File:Pog_-_Hmong_word.wav|119x119px]]
|}

The Dananshan tones are transcribed as pure tone. However, given how similar several of them are, it is likely that there are also phonational differences as in Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg. Tones 4 and 6, for example, are said to make [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]] plosives [[breathy voiced]] ({{lang|zh|浊送气}}), suggesting they may be breathy/murmured like the Hmong ''g''-tone. Tones 7 and 8 are used in early Chinese loans with [[entering tone]], suggesting they may once have marked checked syllables.

Because voiceless consonants apart from tenuis plosives are restricted to appearing before certain tones (1, 3, 5, 7), those are placed first in the table:
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Dananshan Miao tone
|-
! Tone
! IPA
! Orthography
|-
| 1 high falling
| {{IPA|˦˧}} 43
| '''b'''
|-
| 3 top
| {{IPA|˥}} 5
| '''d'''
|-
| 5 high
| {{IPA|˦}} 4
| '''t'''
|-
| 7 mid
| {{IPA|˧}} 3
| '''k'''
|-
| 2 mid falling
| {{IPA|˧˩}} 31
| '''x'''
|-
| 4 low falling (breathy)
| {{IPA|˨˩̤}} 21
| '''l'''
|-
| 6 low rising (breathy)
| {{IPA|˩˧̤}} 13
| '''s'''
|-
| 8 mid rising
| {{IPA|˨˦}} 24
| '''f'''
|}

So much information is conveyed by the tones that it is possible to speak intelligibly using musical tunes only; there is a tradition of young lovers communicating covertly playing a [[Jew's harp]] to convey vowel sounds.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Robson |first1=David |title=The beautiful languages of the people who talk like birds |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170525-the-people-who-speak-in-whistles |website=BBC Future |access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref>

==Orthography==
{{main|Hmong writing}}
Robert Cooper, an anthropologist, collected a Hmong folktale saying that the Hmong used to have a written language, and important information was written down in a treasured book. The folktale explains that cows and rats ate the book, so, in the words of [[Anne Fadiman]], author of ''[[The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down]]'', "no text was equal to the task of representing a culture as rich as that of the Hmong." Therefore, the folktale states that the Hmong language was exclusively oral from that point onwards.<ref name="Fadiman291">{{Cite book |last=Fadiman |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Fadiman |title=The spirit catches you and you fall down: a Hmong child, her American doctors, and the collision of two cultures |date=1998 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-52564-4 |location=New York |pages=292}}</ref>

Natalie Jill Smith, author of "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)", wrote that the [[Qing Dynasty]] had caused a previous Hmong writing system to die out when it stated that the death penalty would be imposed on those who wrote it down.<ref name=SmithNJp44>Smith, Natalie Jill. "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)" (PhD dissertation). [[University of California, Los Angeles]], 2001. p. 225. UMI Number: 3024065. Cites: Hamilton-Merritt, 1993 and Faderman{{sic}}, 1998</ref>

Since the end of the 19th century, linguists created over two dozen Hmong writing systems, including systems using [[Chinese characters]], the [[Lao alphabet]], the [[Cyrillic script]], the [[Thai alphabet]], and the [[Vietnamese alphabet]]. In addition, in 1959 [[Shong Lue Yang]], a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created an 81 symbol writing system called [[Pahawh Hmong|Pahawh]]. Yang was not previously literate in any language. Chao Fa, an anti-Laotian government Hmong group, uses this writing system.<ref name="Fadiman291" />

In the 1980s, [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong]] script was created by a Hmong Minister, Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was mainly used by [[United Christians Liberty Evangelical]] Church, a church also founded by Vang, although the script have been found to be in use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17002r3-n4780r3-nyiakeng-puachue-hmong.pdf|title=L2/17-002R3: Proposal to encode the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script in the UCS|last=Everson|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Everson|date=2017-02-15}}</ref>

Other experiments by Hmong and non-Hmong orthographers have been undertaken using invented letters.<ref>http://www.hmonglanguage.net Hmong Language online encyclopedia.</ref>

The [[Romanized Popular Alphabet]] (RPA), the most widely used script for Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, was developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953 by three Western missionaries.<ref name="Fadiman291" /> In the United States Hmong do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns, because they want their names to be easily pronounced by people unfamiliar with RPA. For instance Hmong in the U.S. spell ''Hmoob'' as "Hmong," and ''Liab Lis'' is spelled as [[Lia Lee]].<ref name="Fadiman291" />

The Dananshan standard in China is written in a pinyin-based alphabet, with tone letters similar to those used in RPA.

===Correspondence between orthographies===
The following is a list of pairs of RPA and Dananshan segments having the same sound (or very similar sounds). Note however that RPA and the standard in China not only differ in orthographic rules, but are also used to write different languages. The list is ordered alphabetically by the RPA, apart from prenasalized stops and voiceless sonorants, which come after their oral and voiced homologues. There are three overriding patterns to the correspondences: RPA doubles a vowel for nasalization, whereas pinyin uses {{angle bracket|ng}}; RPA uses {{angle bracket|h}} for aspiration, whereas pinyin uses the voicing distinction of the Latin script; pinyin uses {{angle bracket|h}} (and {{angle bracket|r}}) to derive the retroflex and uvular series from the dental and velar, whereas RPA uses sequences based on {{angle bracket|t, x, k}} vs. {{angle bracket|r, s, q}} for the same.

====Vowels====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!RPA !!Pinyin
!Vietnamese
!Pahawh
|-
| colspan="3" |a
|{{script|Hmng|𖬖, 𖬗}}
|-
|aa || colspan="2" | ang
|{{script|Hmng|𖬚, 𖬛}}
|-
| colspan="3" |ai
|{{script|Hmng|𖬊, 𖬋}}
|-
|colspan=2|au
|âu
|{{script|Hmng|𖬄, 𖬅}}
|-
|aw || –
|ơư
|{{script|Hmng|𖬎, 𖬏}}
|-
|colspan=2|e
|ê
|{{script|Hmng|𖬈, 𖬉}}
|-
|ee || eng
|ênh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬀, 𖬁}}
|-
|– || eu
|–
|–
|-
| colspan="3" |i
|{{script|Hmng|𖬂, 𖬃}}
|-
|ia || –
|iê
|{{script|Hmng|𖬔, 𖬕}}
|-
| colspan="3" |o
|{{script|Hmng|𖬒, 𖬓}}
|-
|oo || ong
|ông
|{{script|Hmng|𖬌, 𖬍}}
|-
|– || ou
|–
|–
|-
|colspan=2|u
|u
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆, 𖬇}}
|-
|colspan=2|ua
|uô
|{{script|Hmng|𖬐, 𖬑}}
|-
|w || i
|ư
|{{script|Hmng|𖬘, 𖬙}}
|}

====Consonants====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!RPA !!Dananshan
!Vietnamese
!Pahawh
|-
|c || j
|ch
|{{script|Hmng|𖬯}}
|-
|ch || colspan="2" | q
|{{script|Hmng|𖬧}}
|-
|nc || nj
|nd
|{{script|Hmng|𖬤𖬰}}
|-
|nch || colspan="2" | nq
|{{script|Hmng|𖬨}}
|-
|d || –
|đ
|{{script|Hmng|𖬞𖬰}}
|-
|dh || –
|đh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬞𖬵}}
|-
|colspan=2| dl
|đr
|{{script|Hmng|𖬭𖬰}}
|-
|dlh || tl
|đl
|{{script|Hmng|𖬭𖬵}}
|-
|ndl || –
|nđr
|{{script|Hmng|𖬭}}
|-
|ndlh || –
|nđl
|{{script|Hmng|𖬭𖬴}}
|-
|colspan=2|f
|ph
|{{script|Hmng|𖬜𖬵}}
|-
| colspan="3" |h
|{{script|Hmng|𖬟}}
|-
|k || g
|c
|–
|-
|kh || k
|kh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬩𖬰}}
|-
|nk || ng
|g
|{{script|Hmng|𖬢}}
|-
|nkh || nk
|nkh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬫𖬵}}
|-
| colspan="3" |l
|{{script|Hmng|𖬞}}
|-
| colspan="3" |hl
|{{script|Hmng|𖬥}}
|-
| colspan="3" |m
|{{script|Hmng|𖬦}}
|-
| colspan="3" |hm
|{{script|Hmng|𖬣𖬵}}
|-
|ml || –
|mn
|{{script|Hmng|𖬠}}
|-
|hml || –
|hmn
|{{script|Hmng|𖬠𖬰}}
|-
| colspan="3" |n
|{{script|Hmng|𖬬}}
|-
|colspan=2|hn
|hn
|{{script|Hmng|𖬩}}
|-
| – ||ngg
|–
|–
|-
|ny || ni
|nh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬮𖬵}}
|-
|hny || hni
|hnh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬣𖬰}}
|-
|p || b
|p
|{{script|Hmng|𖬪𖬵}}
|-
|ph || p
|ph
|{{script|Hmng|𖬝𖬵}}
|-
|np || nb
|b
|{{script|Hmng|𖬨𖬵}}
|-
|nph || np
|mf
|{{script|Hmng|𖬡𖬰}}
|-
|pl || bl
|pl
|{{script|Hmng|𖬟𖬵}}
|-
|plh || pl
|fl
|{{script|Hmng|𖬪}}
|-
|npl || nbl
|bl
|{{script|Hmng|𖬫𖬰}}
|-
|nplh || npl
|mfl
|{{script|Hmng|𖬡𖬵}}
|-
|q || gh
|k
|{{script|Hmng|𖬦𖬵}}
|-
|qh || kh
|qh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬣}}
|-
|nq || ngh
|ng
|{{script|Hmng|𖬬𖬰}}
|-
|nqh || nkh
|nkr
|{{script|Hmng|𖬬𖬵}}
|-
|r || dr
|tr
|{{script|Hmng|𖬡}}
|-
|rh || tr
|rh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬢𖬵}}
|-
|nr || ndr
|r
|{{script|Hmng|𖬜𖬰}}
|-
|nrh || ntr
|nr
|{{script|Hmng|𖬨𖬰}}
|-
|s || sh
|s
|{{script|Hmng|𖬤𖬵}}
|-
|t || d
|t
|{{script|Hmng|𖬧𖬵}}
|-
|th || t
|th
|{{script|Hmng|𖬟𖬰}}
|-
|nt || nd
|nt
|{{script|Hmng|𖬩𖬵}}
|-
|nth || nt
|nth
|{{script|Hmng|𖬫}}
|-
|ts || zh
|ts
|{{script|Hmng|𖬝𖬰}}
|-
|tsh || ch
|tsh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬪𖬰}}
|-
|nts || nzh
|nts
|{{script|Hmng|𖬝}}
|-
|ntsh || nch
|ntsh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬯𖬰}}
|-
|tx || z
|tx
|{{script|Hmng|𖬯𖬵}}
|-
|txh || c
|cx
|{{script|Hmng|𖬦𖬰}}
|-
|ntx || nz
|nz
|{{script|Hmng|𖬢𖬰}}
|-
|ntxh || nc
|nx
|{{script|Hmng|𖬥𖬵}}
|-
| colspan="3" |v
|{{script|Hmng|𖬜}}
|-
| – ||  w
|–
|–
|-
|x || s
|x
|{{script|Hmng|𖬮}}
|-
|xy || x
|sh
|{{script|Hmng|𖬧𖬰}}
|-
|colspan=2|y
|z
|{{script|Hmng|𖬤}}
|-
|z || r
|j
|{{script|Hmng|𖬥𖬰}}
|}

There is no simple correspondence between the tone letters. The historical connection between the tones is as follows. The Chinese names reflect the tones given to early Chinese loan words with those tones in Chinese.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! rowspan=2|Tone<br/>class
! rowspan=2|Tone<br/>number
! rowspan=2|Dananshan<br/>orthog.
! colspan="2" |RPA
! rowspan="2" |Vietnamese<br />Hmong
|-
! Hmoob
! Moob
|-
| rowspan=2|平 or A
| 1 || b {{IPA|˦˧}}
| colspan=2|b {{IPA|˥}}
|z
|-
| 2 || x  {{IPA|˧˩}}
| colspan=2|j {{IPA|˥˧}}
|x
|-
|rowspan=2|上 or B
| 3 || d {{IPA|˥}}
|colspan=2|v {{IPA|˧˦}}
|r
|-
|4 || l {{IPA|˨˩̤}} || s || g
|s
|-
|rowspan=2| 去 or C
|5 || t {{IPA|˦}}
| colspan="3" | (unmarked) {{IPA|˧}}
|-
| 6 || s {{IPA|˩˧̤}}
| colspan=2|g {{IPA|˧˩̤}}
|l
|-
| rowspan=2|入 or D
| 7 || k {{IPA|˧}}
|colspan=2| s {{IPA|˩}}
|s
|-
|8 || f {{IPA|˨˦}}
|colspan=2| m {{IPA|˩̰}} ~ d {{IPA|˨˩˧}}
|v ~ k
|}
Tones 4 and 7 merged in Hmoob Dawb, whereas tones 4 and 6 merged in Mong Leeg.<ref>Mortensen (2004)</ref>

Example: ''lus Hmoob'' /̤ lṳ˧˩ m̥̥õ˦ / {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄧𞄴𞄀𞄄𞄰𞄩}} / (White Hmong) / ''lug Moob'' / {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰}} / (Mong Leng) / ''lol Hmongb'' (Dananshan) / ''lus Hmôngz'' (Vietnamese) "Hmong language".

==Grammar==
Hmong is an [[Analytic language|analytic]] [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]] language in which [[adjectives]] and [[demonstrative]]s follow the [[noun]].

===Nouns===
Noun phrases can contain the following elements (parentheses indicate optional elements):<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Hmong–Mien demonstratives and pattern persistence |journal=[[Mon-Khmer Studies]] |year=1997 |first=Martha |last=Ratliff |volume=27 |pages=317–328 |url=http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/27%3A317-328.pdf |access-date=2007-06-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218232210/http://www.sealang.net/archives/mks/pdf/27:317-328.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-18 }} ()</ref>

(possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative)

The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three [[grammatical person]]s and three numbers – singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the [[personal pronoun]]s of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg:

#1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
#2nd Row: Vietnamese Hmong
#3rd Row: Pahawh Hmong
#4th Row: Nyiakeng Puachue

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+White Hmong Pronouns
|-
! Number: !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! First
| kuv
cur<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}}
 
| wb
ưz<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬰𖬮𖬰}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄬𞄰}}
 
| peb
pêz<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄪𞄰}}

|-
! Second
| koj
cox<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬲}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄨𞄲}}
 
| neb
nêz<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬬}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄪𞄰}}
 
| nej
nêx<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬲𖬬}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄪𞄲}}

|-
! Third
| nws
nưs<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬙𖬲𖬬}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄬𞄴}}
 
| nkawd
gơưk<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬱𖬢}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄇𞄤𞄶𞄬}}
 
| lawv
lơưr<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬶𖬞}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬}}

|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Green Hmong Pronouns
|-
! Number: !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
! First
| kuv
cur<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}}
 
| ib
iz<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄦𞄰}}
 
| peb
pêz<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄪𞄰}}

|-
! Second
| koj
cox<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬲}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄨𞄲}}
 
| meb
mêz<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬦}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄪𞄰}}
 
| mej
mêx<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬲𖬦}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄪𞄲}}

|-
! Third
| nwg
nưs<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬙𖬶𖬬}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄬𞄵}}
 
| ob tug
oz tus<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄨𞄰𞄃𞄧𞄵}}
 
| puab
puôz<br />{{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵}}

{{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤}}

|}

====Classifiers====
[[Classifier (linguistics)|Classifier]]s are one of the features recurrently found in [[Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area|languages of Southeast Asia]].{{sfn | Enfield | 2018 | p=17}} In Hmong, the noun does not directly follow a [[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral]], and a classifier or an adjective is required to count objects. Here are examples from Mong Leeg (Green Hmong):{{sfn | Mortensen | 2019 | pp=624-625}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing3=yes
|ob tug dlev
|{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬉𖬭𖬰}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄨𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄶}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄝𞄪𞄳}}
|two CLF dog
|'two dogs'}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes
|ob (tug) nyuas dlev
|{{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|(𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵)}} {{script|Hmng|𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬉𖬭𖬰}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄨𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|(𞄃𞄧𞄶)}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄐𞄧𞄤𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄝𞄪𞄳}}
|two CLF little dog
|'two little dogs'}}

Also, classifiers may occur with a noun without any numerals for [[Definiteness|definite]] and/or [[Specificity (linguistics)|specific]] reference in Hmong.{{sfn | Bisang | 1993 | pp=22–26}}{{sfn | Simpson|Soh|Nomoto | 2011 | p=175}} The following examples are again from Green Hmong:{{sfn | Mortensen | 2019 | pp=625-626}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing3=yes
|kuv pum dlev
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬪𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬉𖬭𖬰}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄧𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄝𞄪𞄳}}
|1SG see dog
|'I saw dogs/a dog.' (indefinite and non-specific)
}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes
|kuv pum tug dlev
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬪𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬉𖬭𖬰}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄧𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄶}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄝𞄪𞄳}}
|1SG see CLF dog
|'I saw the dog.' (definite and specific) 
}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing5=yes
|kuv pum ib tug dlev
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬪𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬉𖬭𖬰}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄧𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄦𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄶}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄝𞄪𞄳}}
|1SG see one CLF dog
||'I saw a (specific) dog.' (indefinite and specific)
}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing6=yes
|kuv pum ob tug dlev hov
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬪𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬉𖬭𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬶𖬟}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄧𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄨𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄶}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄝𞄪𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄄𞄨𞄳}}
|1SG see two CLF dog DEM:3
||'I saw those two dogs.' (definite and specific)
}}

Moreover, nominal possessive phrases are expressed with a classifier;{{sfn | Mortensen | 2019 | pp=622-624}} however, it may be omitted when the referent of the possessed noun is [[inalienable possession|inalienable]] from the possessor as shown in the following Hmong Daw (White Hmong) phrases:{{sfn | Bisang | 1993 | p=27}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing3=yes
|nws rab ntaj
|{{script|Hmng|𖬙𖬲𖬬}} {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬲𖬡}} {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬰𖬩𖬵}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄬𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄖𞄤𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄂𞄤𞄲}}
|3SG CLF sword
|'his sword'
}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing2=yes
|kuv txiv
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬶𖬯𖬵}}
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄔𞄦𞄳}}
|1SG father
|'my father'
}}

[[Relative clause|Relativization]] is also expressed with classifiers.{{sfn | Bisang | 1993 | p=27}}{{sfn | Mortensen | 2019 | p=623}}

Although absent in [[Mandarin Chinese]], definite reference by bare classifier constructions are found in [[Cantonese]] ([[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]) and [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]] ([[Kra-Dai languages|Kra-dai]]), which is the case for possessive classifier constructions as well.{{sfn | Matthews | 2007 | pp=230-231}}

===Verbs===
Hmong is an [[isolating language]] in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly [[inflection|inflected]]. [[Grammatical tense|Tense]], [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], and [[grammatical case|case]] are indicated lexically.<ref>Strecker, David and Lopao Vang. White Hmong Grammar. 1986.</ref>

====Serial verb construction====
Hmong verbs can be [[serial verb|serialized]], with two or more verbs combined in one clause. It is common for as many as five verbs to be strung together, sharing the same subject.

Here is an example from White Hmong:

{{interlinear|lang=hmn|indent=3
|Yam zoo tshaj plaws, nej yuav tsum '''mus''', '''nrhiav''', '''nug''', '''xyuas''', '''saib''' luag muaj kev pab hom dab_tsi nyob ncig ib cheeb_tsam ntawm nej.
|Zav jông tshax plơưs, nêx zuôr tsuv '''mus''', '''nriêz''', '''nuv''', '''shuôs''', '''saiz''' luôv muôj cêr paz hov đaz_tsi nhoz ndil ib qênhz_tsav ntơưv nêx.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬤}} {{script|Hmng|𖬍𖬥𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵}}, {{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬲𖬬}} {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬲𖬤}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬝𖬰}} '''{{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬰𖬦}}''', '''{{script|Hmng|𖬔𖬲𖬨𖬰}}''', '''{{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬲𖬬}}''', '''{{script|Hmng|𖬑𖬲𖬧𖬰}}''', '''{{script|Hmng|𖬊𖬰𖬤𖬵}}''' {{script|Hmng|𖬑𖬶𖬞}} {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬰𖬦}} {{script|Hmng|𖬉}} {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬟}} {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬲𖬞𖬰}}_{{script|Hmng|𖬃𖬝𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬃𖬲𖬤𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬀𖬶𖬧}}_{{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬝𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬲𖬬}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄘𞄤𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄋𞄩}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄲}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄡𞄤𞄬𞄴}}, {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄪𞄲}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄘𞄧𞄤𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄧𞄱}} '''{{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄧𞄴}}''', '''{{script|Hmnp|𞄑𞄄𞄦𞄤𞄳}}''', '''{{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄧𞄶}}''', '''{{script|Hmnp|𞄛𞄧𞄤𞄴}}''', '''{{script|Hmnp|𞄊𞄤𞄦𞄰}}''' {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄧𞄤𞄶}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄧𞄤𞄲}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄪𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄤𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄄𞄨𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄏𞄤𞄰}}_{{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄦}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄐𞄨𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄌𞄦𞄶}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄦𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄈𞄄𞄫𞄰}}_{{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄤𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄂𞄤𞄬𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄪𞄲}}.
|Thing best very full, 2PL IRR must '''go''', '''seek''', '''ask''', '''examine''', '''look''' others have services variations type what be.at around one area at 2PL
|'The best thing you can do is to explore your neighborhood and find out what services are available.'}}

====Tense====
Because the verb form in Hmong does not change to indicate tense, the simplest way to indicate the time of an event is to use temporal adverb phrases like "last year," "today," or "next week."

Here is an example from White Hmong:

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing5=yes
|{Nag hmo} kuv mus tom khw.
|{Nav hmo} cur mus tov khư.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬶𖬬 𖬓𖬰𖬣𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬰𖬦}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬙𖬰𖬩𖬰}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄤𞄵 𞄀𞄄𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄧𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄨𞄱}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄄𞄬}}.
|yesterday I go LOC market
|'I went to the market yesterday.'}}

====Aspect====
Aspectual differences are indicated by a number of verbal modifiers. Here are the most common ones:

'''Progressive''': (Mong Leeg) ''taab tom'' + verb, (White Hmong) ''tab tom'' + verb = situation in progress

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing5=yes|c1=(Mong Leeg)
|Puab {taab tom} haus dlej.
|Puôz {tangz tov} hâus đrêx
|{{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵}} {{{script|Hmng|𖬚𖬲𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬧𖬵}}} {{script|Hmng|𖬅𖬰𖬟}} {{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬲𖬭}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤}} {{{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄥𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄨𞄱}}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄏𞄪𞄲}}.
|they PROG drink water
|'They are drinking water.'}}

''Taab/tab tom'' + verb can also be used to indicate a situation that is about to start. That is clearest when ''taab/tab'' tom occurs in conjunction with the irrealis marker ''yuav''. Note that the ''taab tom'' construction is not used if it is clear from the context that a situation is ongoing or about to begin.

'''Perfective''': sentence/clause + ''lawm'' = completed situation

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing5=yes|c1=(Leeg and White Hmong)
|Kuv noj mov lawm.
|Cur nox mor lơưv
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬲𖬬}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬶𖬦}} {{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬰𖬞}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄨𞄲}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄨𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬}}.
|I eat rice PERF
|'I am finished/I am done eating rice.' / 'I have already eaten "rice".'}}

''Lawm'' at the end of a sentence can also indicate that an action is underway:

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes|c1=(White Hmong)
|Tus tub tau rab hneev, nws thiaj mus {ua si} lawm.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬲𖬡}} {{script|Hmng|𖬀𖬲𖬩}}, {{script|Hmng|𖬙𖬲𖬬}} {{script|Hmng|𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬰𖬦}} {{script|Hmng|𖬑𖬮𖬰 𖬃𖬤𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬰𖬞}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄤𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄖𞄤𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄫}}, {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄬𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄧𞄴}} {{{script|Hmnp|𞄧𞄤}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄊𞄦}}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬}}.
|CLF boy get CLF crossbow he then go play PFV
|'The boy got the crossbow and went off to play.' / 'The boy went off to play because he got the bow.'}}

Another common way to indicate the accomplishment of an action or attainment is by using ''tau'', which, as a main verb, means 'to get/obtain.' It takes on different connotations when it is combined with other verbs. When it occurs before the main verb (i.e. ''tau'' + verb), it conveys the attainment or fulfillment of a situation. Whether the situation took place in the past, the present, or the future is indicated at the discourse level rather than the sentence level. If the event took place in the past, ''tau'' + verb translates to the past tense in English.

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes|c1=(White Hmong)
|Lawv tau noj nqaij nyug.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬶𖬞}} {{script|Hmng|𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬲𖬬}} {{script|Hmng|𖬊𖬶𖬬𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬲𖬮𖬵}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄤𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄨𞄲}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄙𞄤𞄲𞄦}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄐𞄧𞄵}}.
|they attain eat meat beef
|'They ate beef.'}}

''Tau'' is optional if an explicit past time marker is present (e.g. ''nag hmo'', last night). ''Tau'' can also mark the fulfillment of a situation in the future:

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes|c1=(White Hmong)
|Thaum txog peb caug lawm {sawv daws} thiaj tau hnav {khaub ncaws} tshiab.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬄𖬟𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬓𖬯𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬅𖬲𖬯}} {{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬰𖬞}} {{{script|Hmng|𖬎𖬶𖬤𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬏𖬰𖬞𖬰}}} {{script|Hmng|𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬩}} {{{script|Hmng|𖬄𖬰𖬩𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬏𖬰𖬤𖬰}}} {{script|Hmng|𖬔𖬪𖬰}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄱𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄔𞄨𞄵}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄪𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄈𞄤𞄵𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬}} {{{script|Hmnp|𞄊𞄤𞄳𞄬}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄏𞄤𞄴𞄬}}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄤𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄤}} {{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄌𞄤𞄴𞄬}}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤}}.
|when arrive New Year PFV everybody then attain wear clothes new
|'So when the New Year arrives, everybody gets to wear new clothes.'}}

When ''tau'' follows the main verb (i.e. verb + ''tau''), it indicates the accomplishment of the purpose of an action.

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes|c1=(Mong Leeg)
|Kuv xaav xaav {ib plag}, kuv xaav tau {tswv yim}.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲 }} {{script|Hmng|𖬛𖬮}} {{script|Hmng|𖬛𖬮}} {{{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 }} {{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬶𖬟𖬵}}}, {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬛𖬮}} {{script|Hmng|𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬙𖬝𖬰 𖬂𖬤}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄆𞄥𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄆𞄥𞄳}} {{{script|Hmnp|𞄦𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄡𞄤𞄵}}}, {{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄆𞄥𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄤𞄨}} {{{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄬𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄘𞄦𞄱}}}.
|I think think awhile, I think get idea
|'I thought it over and got an idea.'}}

''Tau'' is also common in serial verb constructions that are made up of a verb, followed by an accomplishment: (White Hmong) ''nrhiav tau'', to look for; ''caum tau'', to chase; ''yug tau'', to give birth.

====Mood====
The grammatical marker {{lang|mww|yuav}} is analyzed by some scholars as a future tense marker{{sfn | Mottin | 1978}}{{sfn | Jaisser | 1984}} when it appears preceding a verb:

[[File:Kuv yuav moog.wav|thumb|Kuv yuav moog.]]
{{interlinear|indent=2|c1=(Mong Leeg)
|Kuv yuav moog.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬲𖬤}} {{script|Hmng|𖬍𖬶𖬦}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄀𞄩𞄵}}.
|'I will be going.'}}

{{lang|mww|Yuav}} can also be analyzed as a marker of [[irrealis mood]], for situations that are unfulfilled or unrealized.{{sfn | White | 2014 | pp=80-81}} That includes hypothetical or non-occurring situations with past, present, or future time references:

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes|c1=(from a White Hmong folk tale)
|Tus Tsov {hais tias}, "Kuv tshaib tshaib plab li kuv yuav noj koj".
|{{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬶𖬝𖬰}} {{{script|Hmng|𖬋𖬰𖬟}} {{script|Hmng|𖬕𖬰𖬧𖬵}}}, "{{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬲𖬟𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬃𖬞}} {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬲}} {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬲𖬤}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬲𖬬}} {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬲}}."
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄨𞄳}} {{{script|Hmnp|𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄦}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄦𞄴𞄤}}}, "{{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄡𞄤𞄰}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄦}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄧𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄅𞄨𞄲}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄎𞄨𞄲}}".
|CLF Tiger say, I hungry hungry stomach INT I IRR eat you
|'The Tiger said, "I'm very hungry and I'm going to eat you.'}}

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing4=yes
|Tus Qav tsis paub yuav ua li cas li.
|{{script|Hmng|𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬦𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬃𖬰𖬝𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬄𖬰𖬪𖬵}} {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬲𖬤}} {{script|Hmng|𖬑𖬮𖬰}} {{script|Hmng|𖬃𖬞}} {{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬲𖬯}} {{script|Hmng|𖬃𖬞}}.
|{{script|Hmnp|𞄃𞄧𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄗𞄤𞄳}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄁𞄦𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄚𞄤𞄰𞄨}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄧𞄤}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄦}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄈𞄤𞄴}} {{script|Hmnp|𞄉𞄦}}.
|CLF Frog NEG know IRR do {} what INT
|'The frog didn't know what to do.'}}

==Vocabulary==
=== Overview ===
Hmong vocabulary comes from several sources: native Hmongic words, Chinese borrowings, and Tibeto-Burman borrowings,{{sfn | Ratliff | 2010 | p=242}} as well as additional borrowings from the national languages where Hmong communities live outside China, including borrowings from Thai/Lao and English.{{sfn | White | 2021 | p=164}}

=== Domains ===
==== Colors ====
Many Hmong and non-Hmong people who are learning the Hmong language tend to use the word {{lang|mww|xim}} (a borrowing from Thai/Lao) as the word for 'color', while the native Hmong word for 'color' is {{lang|mww|kob}}. For example, {{lang|mww|xim}} appears in the sentence {{lang|mww|Liab yog xim ntawm kev phom sij}} with the meaning "Red is the color of danger / The red color is of danger".

'''List of colors:'''

The following color terms are given as in Hmong Daw (HD; White Hmong) and Mong Leeg (ML; Green Hmong).
{{gallery items
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(255,0,0)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬔𖬞}}
 {{lang|mww|liab}} (HD); {{Script|Hmng|𖬖𖬲𖬞}} {{lang|mww|lab}} (ML) 'red'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(0,128,0)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬐𖬶𖬝}} 
{{lang|mww|ntsuab}} 'green'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(159,0,197)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬖𖬝𖬰 𖬈𖬮}}
{{lang|mww|tsam xem}} 'purple'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(0,0,0)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬆𖬰𖬞𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|dub}} (HD); {{Script|Hmng|𖬆𖬰𖬭𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|dlub}} (ML) 'black'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(0,0,255)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬔𖬲𖬮}}
{{lang|mww|xiav}} (HD); {{Script|Hmng|𖬗𖬮}}
{{lang|mww|xav}} (ML) 'blue'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(255,255,255)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬎𖬞𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|dawb}} (HD); {{Script|Hmng|𖬎𖬭𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|dlawb}} (ML) 'white'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(150,75,0)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬗𖬮𖬰 / 𖬗𖬲 𖬉𖬲𖬜𖬵}}
{{lang|mww|av}} / {{lang|mww|kas fes}} 'brown'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(255,227,2)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬖𖬰𖬞𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|daj}} (HD); {{lang|mww|dlaaj}} (ML) 'yellow'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(190,190,190)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬓𖬰𖬦𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|txho}}  'grey'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(255,165,0)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬖𖬲 𖬙𖬢𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|kab ntxwv}} (HD); {{Script|Hmng|𖬚𖬲 𖬙𖬢𖬰}}
{{lang|mww|kaab ntxwv}} (ML) 'orange'
|{{color sample|w=10|rgb(255,192,203)}}
|{{Script|Hmng|𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬶𖬤}}
{{lang|mww|paj yeeb}} (HD); {{Script|Hmng|𖬚𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬤}}
{{lang|mww|paaj yeeb}} (ML) 'pink'
}}

Several of the Hmong terms for colors are native roots that date back to at least the Proto-Hmongic period, such as {{lang|mww|dub}} 'black', {{lang|mww|dawb}} 'white', and {{lang|mww|liab}} 'red', while {{lang|mww|daj}} 'yellow' was a very early borrowing from Chinese.{{sfn | Ratliff | 2010 | p=243}} Several other terms are more recent innovations.

==== Numbers ====
{|class="wikitable"
! Numeral !! Hmong Numeral !! Pahawh Hmong !! Hmong RPA !! Hmong Loanwords !! Pahawh Symbols
|-align="center"
|0 ||  {{script|Hmng|𖭐 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬊𖬲𖬢𖬰}} || Ntxaiv  || Xoom (term from Thai/Lao){{sfn | White | 2021 | p=166}} || {{script|Hmng|𖭐}} (Ones)
|-align="center"
|1 ||{{script|Hmng|𖭑}}  || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|2 || {{script|Hmng|𖭒}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰}} || Ob ||  || 
|-align="center"
|3 || {{script|Hmng|𖭓}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵}} || Peb ||  || 
|-align="center"
|4 || {{script|Hmng|𖭔 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵}} || Plaub ||  || 
|-align="center"
|5 || {{script|Hmng|𖭕}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰}} || Tsib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|6 || {{script|Hmng|𖭖 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬡}} || Rau ||  || 
|-align="center"
|7 || {{script|Hmng|𖭗}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰}} || Xya ||  || 
|-align="center"
|8 || {{script|Hmng|𖭘}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬤}} || Yim ||  || 
|-align="center"
|9 || {{script|Hmng|𖭙}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬰𖬯}} || Cuaj ||  || 
|-align="center"
|10 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬄}} || Kaum ||  || {{script|Hmng|𖭛}} (Tens)
|-align="center"
|11 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬄 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Kaum ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|20 || {{script|Hmng|𖭒𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬁𖬰𖬬 𖬄𖬢}} || Nees nkaum ||  || 
|-align="center"
|21 || {{script|Hmng|𖭒𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬁𖬰𖬬 𖬄𖬢 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Nees nkaum ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|30 || {{script|Hmng|𖭓𖭐 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯}} || Peb caug ||  || 
|-align="center"
|31 || {{script|Hmng|𖭓𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Peb caug ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|40 ||{{script|Hmng|𖭔𖭐}}  || {{script|Hmng|𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯}} || Plaub caug ||  || 
|-align="center"
|41 || {{script|Hmng|𖭔𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Plaub caug ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|50 || {{script|Hmng|𖭕𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰 𖬅𖬲𖬯}} || Tsib caug ||  || 
|-align="center"
|51 || {{script|Hmng|𖭕𖭑 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Tsib caug ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|60 || {{script|Hmng|𖭖𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬡 𖬄𖬯}} || Rau caum ||  || 
|-align="center"
|61 || {{script|Hmng|𖭖𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬡 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Rau caum ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|70 || {{script|Hmng|𖭗𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰 𖬄𖬯}} || Xya caum ||  || 
|-align="center"
|71 || {{script|Hmng|𖭗𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Xya caum ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|80 || {{script|Hmng|𖭘𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬤 𖬄𖬯}} || Yim caum ||  || 
|-align="center"
|81 || {{script|Hmng|𖭘𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬤 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Yim caum ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|90 || {{script|Hmng|𖭙𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬰𖬯 𖬄𖬯}} || Cuaj caum ||  || 
|-align="center"
|91 || {{script|Hmng|𖭙𖭑}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬰𖬯 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰}} || Cuaj caum ib ||  || 
|-align="center"
|100 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 }}|| Ib puas ||  || {{script|Hmng|𖭜}} (Hundreds)
|-align="center"
|1,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬔𖬦𖬰}} || Ib txhiab || Ib phav (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭜𖭐}} (Thousands)
|-align="center"
|10,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬄 𖬔𖬦𖬰}} || Kaum txhiab || Kaum phav (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭝}} (Ten thousand)
|-align="center"
|100,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬔𖬦𖬰}} || Ib puas txhiab || Ib puas phav (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭝𖭐}} (Hundred Thousands)
|-align="center"
|1,000,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬌𖬡}} || Ib roob || Ib lab (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭞}} (Millions)
|-align="center"
|10,000,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬄 𖬌𖬡}} || Kaum roob || Kaum lab (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭞𖭐}} (Ten Millions)
|-align="center"
|100,000,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬌𖬡}} || Ib puas roob || Ib puas lab (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭟}} (Hundred Millions)
|-align="center"
|1,000,000,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 }}|| {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬈}} || Ib kem || Ib phav lab (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭟𖭐}} (Billions)
|-align="center"
|10,000,000,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬄 𖬈 }}|| Kaum kem || Kaum phav lab (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭠}} (Ten Billions)
|-align="center"
|100,000,000,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬈}} || Ib puas kem || Ib puas phav lab (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭠𖭐}} (Hundred Billions)
|-align="center"
|1,000,000,000,000 || {{script|Hmng|𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐}} || {{script|Hmng|𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬧𖬵}} || Ib tas || Ib lab lab (Thai/Lao word) || {{script|Hmng|𖭡}} (Trillions)
|-align="center"
|}
The number 57023 would be written as {{script|Hmng|𖭕𖭗𖭐𖭒𖭓}}.

==== Days of the week ====
{|class="wikitable"
|-align="center"
! Days !! Pahawh Hmong !! Hmong RPA !! Hmong Loanwords (from Thai/Lao)
|-align="center"
| Sunday || {{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬩}} ||  Zwj hnub || Vas thiv
|-align="center"
| Monday || {{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬃𖬥}} || Zwj hli || Vas cas
|-align="center"
| Tuesday ||  {{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬑𖬶𖬦𖬵}} ||  Zwj quag || Vas as qhas
|-align="center"
| Wednesday || {{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬜𖬵}} || Zwj feeb || Vas phuv
|-align="center"
| Thursday || {{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬧𖬵}} || Zwj teeb || Vas phab hav
|-align="center"
| Friday || {{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬐𖬶}} || Zwj kuab || Vas xuv
|-align="center"
| Saturday || {{script|Hmng|𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬗𖬶𖬯}} || Zwj cag || Vas xom ~ Vas xaum<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wold.clld.org/word/76151732559039432|title=WOLD -|website=wold.clld.org|accessdate=22 January 2025}}</ref>
|-align="center"
|}
A sentence like "Today is Monday", using only non-borrowed, non-calqued terms, would be said {{lang|mww|Hnub no yog zwj hli}}, rather than {{lang|mww|Hnub no yog hnub ib/Monday}} in Hmong. However, Hmong speakers in English-speaking countries sometimes use Thai/Lao loanwords or English terms for the days of the week instead, as in Mong Leng {{lang|hnj|ua ntej nub Saturday}} 'before Saturday'.{{sfn | White | 2021 | p=167}}

==== Months of the year ====
{|class="wikitable"
|-align="center"
! Months !! Pahawh Hmong (Formal) !! Hmong RPA !! Informal 
|-align="center"
| January || {{script|Hmng|𖬀𖬰𖬤 𖬀𖬶𖬯 }}||  Yeej ceeb || [Lub] Ib hlis
|-align="center"
| February || {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬮}} ||  Kub xeeb || [Lub] Ob hlis
|-align="center"
| March || {{script|Hmng|𖬖𖬰𖬤 𖬔𖬲}} || Yaj kiav  || [Lub] Peb hlis
|-align="center"
| April ||{{script|Hmng|𖬀 𖬒𖬯}}  ||  Keem com || [Lub] Plaub hlis
|-align="center"
| May || {{script|Hmng|𖬆𖬰 𖬆𖬶𖬬}} ||  Kub nuj || [Lub] Tsib hlis
|-align="center"
| June || {{script|Hmng|𖬒𖬶𖬧𖬵 𖬔𖬶𖬞}} || Tov liaj  || [Lub] Rau hlis
|-align="center"
| July || {{script|Hmng|𖬐𖬰𖬟 𖬀𖬶𖬮}} || Huaj xeeb  || [Lub] Xya hlis
|-align="center"
| August || {{script|Hmng|𖬀𖬶𖬯 𖬑𖬯}} ||  Ceeb cua || [Lub] Yim hlis
|-align="center"
| September || {{script|Hmng|𖬔𖬝𖬰 𖬆𖬰 𖬀𖬰𖬞}} ||  Tsiab kub leej || [Lub] Cuaj hlis
|-align="center"
| October ||{{script|Hmng|𖬀𖬪𖬵 𖬋𖬰𖬪𖬰}}  || Peem tshais  || [Lub] Kaum hlis
|-align="center"
| November ||{{script|Hmng|𖬌𖬲𖬞 𖬀𖬲 𖬀𖬦𖬰}} || Looj keev txheem  || [Lub] Kaum ib hlis
|-align="center"
| December || {{script|Hmng|𖬑𖬶𖬨𖬵 𖬎𖬯}} ||  Npuag cawb || [Lub] Kaum ob hlis
|-align="center"
|}

==Worldwide usage==
===Presence in community and education===
The Hmong language has found a significant presence in the [[United States]], particularly in [[Minnesota]]. The Hmong people first arrived in Minnesota in late 1975 following the communist seizure of power in Indochina. Many educated Hmong elites with leadership experience and English-language skills were among the first to be welcomed by Minnesotans. These elites worked to solidify the social services targeted to refugees, attracting others to migrate to the region. The first Hmong family arrived in Minnesota on 5 November 1975.<ref name="MNopedia a771">{{cite web | title=Hmong and Hmong Americans in Minnesota | website=MNopedia | date=2023-07-02 | url=https://www.mnopedia.org/hmong-and-hmong-americans-minnesota | access-date=2023-07-02}}</ref>

The Hmong language program in the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the [[University of Minnesota]] is one of the first programs in the United States to teach language-accredited Hmong classes.<ref name="College of Liberal Arts">{{cite web | title=Hmong | website=College of Liberal Arts | url=https://cla.umn.edu/asian-middle-eastern-studies/languages/hmong | access-date=2023-07-02}}</ref>

===Translation===
In February 2012, Microsoft released "Hmong Daw" as an option in [[Microsoft Translator|Bing Translator]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-02-21 |title=Microsoft Translator celebrates International Mother Language Day with the release of Hmong |url=https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/translator/blog/2012/02/21/microsoft-translator-celebrates-international-mother-language-day-with-the-release-of-hmong/ |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=Microsoft Translator Blog |language=en-US}}</ref> In May 2013, [[Google Translate]] introduced support for Hmong Daw (referred to only as ''Hmong'').<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2013/05/08/google-translate-gets-five-new-languages/ |title=Google Translate adds five more languages to its repertoire |author=Donald Melanson |date=8 May 2013 |publisher=Engadget |access-date=22 February 2018}}</ref>

Research in nursing shows that when translating from English to Hmong, the translator must take into account that Hmong comes from an [[oral tradition]] and equivalent concepts may not exist. For example, the word and concept for "prostate" does not exist.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lor |first=Maichou |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |title=Hmong and Chinese Qualitative Research Interview Questions: Assumptions and Implications of Applying the Survey Back Translation Method (Chapter 9) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |date=2020-04-30 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=181–202 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Sample texts ==
Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Hmong:<blockquote>[[Pahawh Hmong]]:<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.omniglot.com/udhr/hmong.htm|title=UDHR in Hmong-Mien languages|website=www.omniglot.com|accessdate=22 January 2025}}</ref><blockquote>{{script|Hmng|𖬑𖬦𖬰 𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬇𖬲𖬤 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬨𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬋𖬯. 𖬎𖬶𖬞 𖬖𖬰𖬮 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬖𖬞𖬰 𖬎𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬔𖬤𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬆𖬝𖬰 𖬒𖬲𖬯 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬰 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬙 𖬂𖬰𖬧𖬵.|size=125%}}</blockquote>[[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong|Nyiakeng Puachue]]:<ref name="auto"/><blockquote>{{script|Hmnp|𞄔𞄄𞄧𞄤𞄃𞄧𞄴𞄅𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄵𞄉𞄨𞄴 𞄀𞄧𞄲𞄤𞄎𞄪𞄳𞄘𞄬𞄲𞄚𞄄𞄲𞄫𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄜𞄤𞄵𞄨𞄋𞄨𞄴 𞄄𞄤𞄳𞄨𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄈𞄤𞄦. 𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬𞄆𞄤𞄲 𞄑𞄨𞄵𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄉𞄤𞄲𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄲𞄬 𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤𞄁𞄧𞄱𞄈𞄨𞄲 𞄧𞄤 𞄎𞄪𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄎𞄪𞄧𞄳 𞄧𞄤𞄎𞄬𞄳𞄃𞄦𞄲.|size=125%}}</blockquote>[[Romanized Popular Alphabet|Hmong RPA]]:<ref name="auto"/><blockquote>Txhua tus neeg yug los muaj kev ywj pheej thiab sib npaug zos hauv txoj cai. Lawv xaj nrog lub laj thawj thiab lub siab thiab ib leeg yuav tsum coj ua ke ntawm ib leeg ntawm txoj kev ua kwv tij.</blockquote>Vietnamese Hmong:<ref name="auto"/><blockquote>Cxuô tus nênhl zul los muôx cêr zưx fênhx thiêz siz npâul jôs hâur txox chai. Lơưr xax ndol luz lax thơưx thiêz luz siêz thiêz iz lênhl zuôr tsuv chox uô cê ntơưv iz lênhl ntơưv txôx cêr uô cưr tiz.</blockquote>[[Help:IPA/Hmong|Hmong IPA]]:<blockquote>tsʰuə˧ tu˩ neŋ˧˩̤ ʝu˧˩̤ lɒ˩ muə˥˧ ke˧˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ ᵐbau˧˩̤ ʐɒ˩ hau˧˦ tsɒ˥˧ cai˧. Laɨ˧˦ sa˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ lu˦ la˥˧ tʰaɨ˥˧ tʰiə˦ lu˦ ʂiə˦ tʰiə˦ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ʝuə˧˦ tʂu˩̰ cɒ˥˧ uə˧ ke˧ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˧˦ uə˧ kɨ˧˦ ti˥˧.</blockquote>English:<ref>{{cite news |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |newspaper=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213051510/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |archive-date= Dec 13, 2023 }}</ref><blockquote>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.</blockquote></blockquote>

Sample text in Hmong RPA, Pahawh Hmong, and Hmong IPA:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pahawh Hmong alphabet and pronunciation|url=https://omniglot.com/writing/pahawhhmong.htm|access-date=2020-12-28|website=omniglot.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Oppitz|first=Michael|date=|title=Die geschichte der verlorenen schrift|url=https://www.frobenius-institut.de/images/stories/News/P52-02Oppi-027-050.pdf|access-date=27 December 2020|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=세계의 문자들|url=http://podor.egloos.com/m/1477973|access-date=2020-12-28|website=podor.egloos.com|language=ko}}</ref><blockquote>Hmong RPA:<blockquote>Hmoob yog ib nywj keeb neeg uas yeej nrog ntiaj teb neeg tib txhij tshwm sim los. Niaj hnoob tam sim no tseem muaj nyob thoob plaws hauv ntiaj teb, xws: es xias, yus lauv, auv tas lias, thiab as mes lis kas. Hom neeg Hmoob no yog thooj li cov neeg nyob sab es xias. Tab sis nws muaj nws puav pheej teej tug, moj kuab, txuj ci, mooj kav moj coj, thiab txheeb meem mooj meej kheej ib yam nkaus li lwm haiv neeg. Hmoob yog ib hom neeg uas nyiam txoj kev ncaj ncees, nyiam kev ywj pheej, nyiam phooj ywg, muaj kev cam hwm, muaj txoj kev sib hlub, sib pab thiab sib tshua heev.</blockquote>Pahawh Hmong:<blockquote>{{Script|Hmng|𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬘𖬲𖬮𖬵 𖬀𖬶 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬀𖬰𖬤 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬂𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬰𖬦𖬰 𖬘𖬪𖬰 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬞. 𖬔𖬶𖬬 𖬌𖬩 𖬖𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬀𖬝𖬰 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬟𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵, 𖬙𖬲𖬮 𖬃𖬞: 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮, 𖬇𖬰𖬤 𖬄𖬲𖬞, 𖬄𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬕𖬰𖬞, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬲𖬦 𖬃𖬰𖬞 𖬗𖬲. 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬃𖬞 𖬒𖬶𖬯 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮. 𖬖𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬃𖬰𖬤𖬵 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵, 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬐𖬶, 𖬆𖬶𖬯𖬵 𖬃𖬯, 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬗 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬦𖬰 𖬀𖬦 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬩𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬖𖬤 𖬅𖬰𖬢 𖬃𖬞 𖬘𖬞 𖬊𖬲𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬. 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬖𖬰𖬤𖬰 𖬁𖬰𖬤𖬰, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬲𖬝𖬵 𖬙𖬶𖬤, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬖𖬯 𖬘𖬟, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬆𖬰𖬥, 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬑𖬪𖬰 𖬀𖬲𖬟.}}</blockquote> Hmong IPA:<blockquote>mɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ ɲɨ˥˧ keŋ˦ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ʝeŋ˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ti˦ tsʰi˥˧ tʂʰɨ˩̰ ʂi˩̰ lɒ˩. Niə˥˧ n̥ɒŋ˦ ta˩̰ ʂi˩̰ nɒ˧ tʂeŋ˩̰ muə˥˧ ɲɒ˦ tʰɒŋ˦ pˡaɨ˩ hau˧˦ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦, sɨ˩: e˩ siə˩, ʝu˩ lau˧˦, au˧˦ ta˩ li˧ə˩, tʰiə˦ a˩ me˩ li˧˩ ka˩. Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ M̥ɒŋ˦ nɒ˧ ʝɒ˧˩̤ tʰɒŋ˥˧ li˧ cɒ˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ɲɒ˦ ʂa˦ e˩ siə˩. Ta˦ ʂi˩ nɨ˩ muə˥˧ nɨ˩ puə˧˦ pʰeŋ˥˧ teŋ˥˧ tu˧˩̤, mɒ˥˧ kuə˦, tsu˥˧ ci˧, mɒŋ˥˧ ka˧˦ mɒ˥˧ cɒ˥˧, tʰiə˦ tsʰeŋ˦ meŋ˩̰ mɒŋ˥˧ meŋ˥˧ kʰeŋ˥˧ i˦ ʝa˩̰ ᵑɡau˩ li˧ lɨ˩̰ hai˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤. M̥ɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ɲiə˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ᶮɟa˥˧ ᶮɟeŋ˩, ɲiə˩̰ ke˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧, ɲiə˩̰ pʰɒŋ˥˧ ʝɨ˧˩̤, muə˥˧ ke˧˦ ca˩̰ hɨ˩̰, muə˥˧ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ʂi˦ l̥u˦, ʂi˦ pa˦ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ tʂʰuə˧ heŋ˧˦.</blockquote></blockquote>

== In popular culture ==
The 2008 film ''[[Gran Torino]]'' by [[Clint Eastwood]] features a large [[Hmong American|American Hmong]] speaking cast.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ebert |first=Roger |title=Gran Torino movie review and film summary (2008) {{!}} Roger Ebert |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/gran-torino-2008 |access-date=2022-09-15 |website= |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hmong get a mixed debut in new Eastwood film |url=https://www.mprnews.org/story/2008/12/19/grantorino |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=MPR News |date=19 December 2008 |language=en}}</ref> The screenplay was written in English and the actors improvised the Hmong parts of the script. The decision to cast Hmong actors received a positive reception in Hmong communities.<ref name="OBrienSchein">O'Brien, Kathleen. "[http://www.nj.com/entertainment/tv/index.ssf/2009/01/rutgers_scholar_helps_eastwood.html Rutgers scholar sheds light on 'Gran Torino' ethnic stars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117015250/https://www.nj.com/entertainment/tv/2009/01/rutgers_scholar_helps_eastwood.html|date=17 November 2020}}." ''[[The Star-Ledger]]''. Thursday 15 January 2009. Retrieved on 16 March 2012.</ref> The film also gained recognition and collected awards such as the [[American Film Institute Awards 2008|Ten Best Films of 2008]] from the [[American Film Institute]] and a [[César Awards|César Award]] in France for [[César Award for Best Foreign Film|Best Foreign Film]].<ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 2010 |title=Prison drama A Prophet sweeps French Oscars |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8542601.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117015258/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8542601.stm |archive-date=17 November 2020 |access-date=28 April 2010 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=AFI Awards 2008 |url=http://www.afi.com/tvevents/afiawards08/default.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511212453/http://www.afi.com/tvevents/afiawards08/default.aspx |archive-date=11 May 2011 |access-date=16 December 2008 |work=afi.com |publisher=[[American Film Institute]]}}</ref>

== Films ==
The following films feature the Hmong language:
*2008 – "[[Gran Torino]]". Directed by Clint Eastwood; produced by Clint Eastwood, Bill Gerber, Robert Lorenz. The story follows Walt Kowalski, a recently widowed Korean War veteran alienated from his family and angry at the world. Walt's young neighbor, Thao Vang Lor, is pressured by his cousin into trying to steal Walt's prized 1972 [[Ford Torino]] for his initiation into a gang. Walt thwarts the theft and subsequently develops a relationship with the boy and his family.
*2011 – [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1986783/ "Bittersweet Tears (Kua Muag Iab)"]. Directors by Kelly Vang & Mandy Xiong; Writer: Kelly Vang. Bittersweet Tears is a romantic comedy about a vengeful and bittersweet love between Gaomao (Jenny Lor) and Vong (Beng Hang). Vong is the only son of Chong Yee (Billy Yang). Having lost everything Gaomao swears vengeance on Chong Yee, the man whom she claims to be responsible for her loss. Will Gaomao be able to overcome her own heart and take her revenge?
*2016 – [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5932546/  "1985"]. Director and writer by Kang Vang. When an adventurous Hmong teen discovers a secret map to a mythical dragon, he and his three best friends decide to go on a quest that leads them on a journey filled with danger, excitement, and self-discovery.

==See also==
{{Portal|Asia|Languages}}
* [[Hmong people]]
* [[Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong]]
* [[Pahawh Hmong]]
* [[Romanized Popular Alphabet]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{note label|PopulationEthnologue|a}}Ethnologue uses the term "Hmong" as a "macrolanguage", i.e., along the lines of the Chinese 苗语 ''Miáoyǔ'' "Miao language", to handle the fact that some mainland Chinese academic sources lump many individual languages together into single "language" categories, while international sources almost universally keep these languages distinct.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hmn/ |title=Hmong |access-date=2024-11-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Hmong-Mien Languages |journal=[[Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area]] |year=1987 |first=David |last=Strecker |volume=10:2 |pages=1-11 |url=https://dr.ntu.edu.sg/bitstream/10356/178915/2/01%20strecker1987hmong.pdf |access-date=2024-11-09  }}</ref> As the current article is focused on the Hmong language proper as found in international published sources, the population figure here reflects this. Ethnologue (17th edition) lists the population of the larger macrolanguage at 8.1 million.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite journal | last=Bisang | first=Walter | title=Classifiers, Quantifiers and Class Nouns in Hmong | journal=Studies in Language | publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company | volume=17 | issue=1 | year=1993| issn=0378-4177 | doi=10.1075/sl.17.1.02bis | pages=1–51}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Cooper |editor-first=Robert |title=The Hmong: A Guide to Traditional Lifestyles |location=Singapore |publisher=Times Editions |year=1998 |pages=35–41}}
*{{cite book | title=Mainland Southeast Asian Languages: A Concise Typological Introduction| surname=Enfield|given=N. J.|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press | publication-place=Cambridge |isbn=9781139019552|doi=10.1017/9781139019552| s2cid=133621227}}
* {{cite book |last=Finck |first=John |chapter=Clan Leadership in the Hmong Community of Providence, Rhode Island |title=The Hmong in the West |editor-first1=Bruce T. |editor-last1=Downing |editor-first2=Douglas P. |editor-last2=Olney |location=Minneapolis, MN |publisher=Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs, [[University of Minnesota]] |year=1982 |pages=22–25}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Jaisser |first=Annie |date=1984 |title=Complementation in Hmong |degree=MA |publisher=San Diego State University}}
*{{cite book | last=Matthews | first=Stephen | editor-last=Aikhenvald |editor-first=Alexandra Y. |editor2-last=Dixon |editor2-first=R. M. W. | title=Grammars in Contact: A Cross-Linguistic Typology | chapter=Cantonese Grammar in Areal Perspective | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Oxford | year=2007 | pages=220–236 | isbn=978-0-19-920783-1 | doi=10.1093/oso/9780199207831.003.0009}}
*{{cite book | last=Mortensen | first=David | title=The Mainland Southeast Asia Linguistic Area | chapter=Hmong (Mong Leng) |editor-last=Vittrant |editor-first=Alice |editor2-last=Watkins |editor2-first=Justin | publisher=De Gruyter Mouton| publication-place=Berlin and New York |year=2019 | pages=609–652 | isbn=978-3-11-040198-1 | doi=10.1515/9783110401981-014| s2cid=195399573 }}
* {{cite book |last=Mottin |first=Jean |title=Éléments de grammaire Hmong Blanc |publisher=Don Bosco Press |publication-place=Bangkok |year=1978}}
* {{cite book |last=Ratliff |first=Martha |title=Hmong-Mien Language History |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=2010 |publication-place=Canberra}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Simpson | first1=Andrew | last2=Soh | first2=Hooi Ling |last3=Nomoto |first3=Hiroki |title=Bare Classifiers and Definiteness: A Cross-linguistic Investigation |journal=Studies in Language |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |volume=35 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=168-193}}
* {{cite book |last=Thao |first=Paoze |title=Mong Education at the Crossroads |location=New York |publisher=[[University Press of America]] |year=1999 |pages=12–13}}
* {{cite thesis |last=White |first=Nathan |date=2014 |title=Non-spatial Setting in White Hmong |degree=MA |publisher=Trinity Western University}}
* {{cite book | last=White | first=Nathan | title=Phonological Word and Grammatical Word: A Cross-linguistic Typology | chapter=Word in Hmong |editor-last=Aikhenvald |editor-first=Alexandra Y. |editor2-last=Dixon |editor2-first=R. M. W. |editor3-last=White |editor3-first=Nathan |publisher=Oxford University Press |publication-place=Oxford |year=2020 |pages=213-259}}
* {{cite journal |last=White |first=Nathan |title=Language and variety mixing in diasporic Hmong |journal=Italian Journal of Linguistics |volume=33 |issue=1 |year=2021 |pages=157-180 |doi=10.26346/1120-2726-172}}
* {{cite book |last1=Xiong |first1=Yuyou |last2=Cohen |first2=Diana |year=2005 |title=Student's Practical Miao–Chinese–English Handbook / Npout Ndeud Xof Geuf Lol Hmongb Lol Shuad Lol Yenb |publisher=Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House |page=539 |isbn=7-5367-3287-2}}

==Further reading==
* Enwall, Joakim. ''Hmong Writing Systems in Vietnam: A Case Study of Vietnam's Minority Language Policy''. Stockholm, Sweden: Center for Pacific Asian Studies, 1995.
* Lyman, Thomas Amis ([[Chulalongkorn University]]). "[http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_078_1f_Lyman_MongGreenMiaoAndLanguage.pdf The Mong (Leeg Miao) and their Language: A Brief Compendium]" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20140903145653/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_078_1f_Lyman_MongGreenMiaoAndLanguage.pdf Archive]). p.&nbsp;63–66.
*[[Marc Miyake|Miyake, Marc]]. 2011. [http://www.amritas.com/110618.htm#06152359 Unicode 6.1: the Old Miao script].
*[[Marc Miyake|Miyake, Marc]]. 2012. [http://www.amritas.com/120721.htm Anglo-Hmong tonology].

==External links==
{{Incubator|mww|lang=Hmong Daw}}
* [http://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/25 White Hmong Vocabulary List] (from the World Loanword Database)
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:White_Hmong_Swadesh_list White Hmong Swadesh List on Wiktionary] (''see [[Swadesh list]]'')
* [http://hmong.lomation.com/reader/ Lomation's Hmong Text Reader] – free online program that can read Hmong words/text.
* [http://www.hmongdictionary.com Online Hmong dictionary] (including audio clips)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061214070244/http://www.moob.org/ Mong Literacy]: consonants, vowels, tones of Mong Njua and Hmong Daw
* [http://www.ferazelhosting.net/~bryce/hmong.html Hmong Resources]
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hmo\hmo&first=0 Hmong basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]
* [http://www.hmongdictionary.us/Hmong_spell_chk_mb.php/ Hmong text reader]
*[https://rpa.oneoffcoder.com/cvt.html 1. CVT — Romanized Popular Alphabet 0.0.1 documentation] Romanized Popular Alphabet
*[https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED203687 English-Hmong Phrasebook with Useful Wordlist (for Hmong Speakers)], Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC.

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[[Category:West Hmongic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
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[[Category:Languages of Laos]]
[[Category:Languages of Vietnam]]
[[Category:Hmong culture|Language]]