Editing Hoof

{{Short description|Tip of a toe of an ungulate mammal, strengthened by a thick and horny keratin covering}}
{{Redirect|Cow toe|prostration in East Asian cultures|kowtow}}
[[Image:Capreolus capreolus cloven hoof.jpg|right|thumb|The feet of the [[roe deer]] (''Capreolus capreolus'') have cloven hooves with prominent dewclaws.]]

The '''hoof''' ({{plural form}}: '''hooves''') is the tip of a [[toe]] of an [[ungulate]] [[mammal]], which is covered and strengthened with a thick and horny [[keratin]] covering.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/hoof|title=the definition of hoof|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=2016-11-30}}</ref> [[Artiodactyl]]s are even-toed ungulates, species whose feet have an even number of digits; the ruminants with two digits are the most numerous, e.g. [[giraffe]], [[deer]], [[bison]], [[cattle]], [[goats]], [[gazelles]], [[pigs]], and [[sheep]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Keller|first1=Anna|last2=Clauss|first2=Marcus|last3=Muggli|first3=Evelyne|last4=Nuss|first4=Karl|date=2009-07-15|title=Even-toed but uneven in length: the digits of artiodactyls|journal=Zoology|volume=112|issue=4|pages=270–278|doi=10.1016/j.zool.2008.11.001|pmid=19386479|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/18798/4/Even-toed_returned.pdf|access-date=2019-12-14|archive-date=2021-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303191239/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/18798/4/Even-toed_returned.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The feet of [[perissodactyl]] mammals have an odd number of toes, e.g. the [[horse]], the [[rhinoceros]], and the [[tapir]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Holbrook|first=Luke T.|date=1999-09-01|title=The Phylogeny and Classification of Tapiromorph Perissodactyls (Mammalia)|journal=Cladistics|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=331–350|doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1999.tb00270.x|pmid=34902952 |s2cid=221584511|issn=1096-0031|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although hooves are limb structures primarily found in [[placenta]]l mammals, hadrosaurs such as ''[[Edmontosaurus]]'' possessed hoofed forelimbs. The [[marsupial]] ''[[Chaeropus]]'' also had hooves.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sánchez-Villagra|first1=Marcelo R.|title=Why are There Fewer Marsupials than Placentals? On the Relevance of Geography and Physiology to Evolutionary Patterns of Mammalian Diversity and Disparity|journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution|date=22 December 2012|volume=20|issue=4|pages=279–290|doi=10.1007/s10914-012-9220-3|s2cid=18789008|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/71489/10/ZORA_NL_71489.pdf}}</ref>

== Description ==
[[File:Horse hoof wild bare sagittal.jpg|thumb|Sagittal section of a wild [[horse hoof]]. <br>Pink: soft tissues; <br>light gray: bone; <br>cyan: tendons; <br>red: [[Dermis|corium]];<br>yellow: digital cushion; <br>dark gray: frog; <br>orange: sole; <br>brown: walls]]
The hoof surrounds the distal end of the [[Phalanx bone|second phalanx]], the [[distal phalanx]], and the [[navicular bone]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|title=Basic Farriery for the Performance Horse|doi=10.1016/j.cveq.2007.12.002|pmid=18314044|volume=24|issue=1|journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice|pages=203–218|year=2008|last1=O'Grady|first1=Stephen E.}}</ref> The hoof consists of the [[Nail (anatomy)|hoof wall]], the bars of the hoof, the sole and [[frog (horse anatomy)|frog]] and soft tissue shock absorption structures.<ref name=":5"/> The weight of the animal is normally borne by both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall. Hooves perform many functions, including supporting the weight of the animal, dissipating the energy impact as the hooves strike the ground or surface, protecting the tissues and bone within the hoof capsule, and providing traction for the animal. Numerous factors can affect hoof structure and health, including genetics, hoof conformation, environmental influences, and athletic performance of the animal. The ideal hoof has a parallel hoof-pastern axis, a thick hoof wall, adequate sole depth, a solid heel base and growth rings of equal size under the coronary band.<ref name=":5" />

There are four layers within the exterior wall of the hoof. From the outside, a hoof is made up of the stratum externum, the stratum medium, the stratum internum and the dermis parietis. The stratum externum and the stratum medium are difficult to distinguish, the stratum externum is thin and the stratum medium is what makes up the bulk of the hoof wall.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Goulet|first1=Catherine|last2=Olive|first2=Julien|last3=Rossier|first3=Yves|last4=Beauchamp|first4=Guy|date=2015-11-01|title=RADIOGRAPHIC AND ANATOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DORSAL HOOF WALL LAYERS IN NONlAMINITIC HORSES|journal=Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound|language=en|volume=56|issue=6|pages=589–594|doi=10.1111/vru.12280|pmid=26226838|issn=1740-8261}}</ref> Inside the hoof wall is a [[laminae (horse hoof)|laminar junction]], a soft tissue structure that allows the hoof to withstand the demands of force transmission it undergoes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |title=Shape, Orientation and Spacing of the Primary Epidermal Laminae in the Hooves of Neonatal and Adult Horses ''(Equus caballus)'' |journal=Cells Tissues Organs|volume=166 |issue=3 |pages=304–318 |doi=10.1159/000016744 |pmid=10765026 |year=2000 |last1=Douglas |first1=Janet E. |last2=Thomason |first2=Jeffrey J. |s2cid=36816180}}</ref> This tissue structure binds the inner surface of the hoof wall, the dermis parietis and the outer surface of the third phalanx.<ref name=":1" />

Most [[even-toed ungulate]]s (such as [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[deer]], [[cattle]], [[bison]] and [[pig]]s) have two main hooves on each foot, together called a [[cloven hoof]].<ref group=Note>The term "cloven hoof" therefore being a technical misnomer as nothing is actually "cloven".</ref> Most of these cloven-hooved animals also have two smaller hooves called [[dewclaw]]s a little further up the leg &ndash; these are not normally used for walking, but in some species with larger dewclaws (such as deer and pigs) they may touch the ground when running or jumping, or if the ground is soft. In the mountain goat, the dewclaw serves to provide extra traction when descending rocky slopes as well as additional drag on loose or slippery surfaces made of ice, dirt, or snow.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Beast the Color of Winter: The Mountain Goat Observed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMnXTHE5iWMC&pg=PA52|date=1 February 2002|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-6421-2|page=52}}</ref> Other cloven-hooved animals (such as [[giraffe]]s and [[pronghorn]]s) have no dewclaws.

In some so-called "cloven-hooved" animals, such as [[camel]]s, the "hoof" is not properly a hoof &ndash; it is not a hard or rubbery sole with a hard wall formed by a thick nail &ndash; instead it is a soft toe with little more than a nail merely having an appearance of a hoof.

Some [[odd-toed ungulate]]s ([[Equidae|equid]]s) have one hoof on each foot; others have (or had) three distinct hooved or heavily nailed toes, or one hoof and two dewclaws. The [[tapir]] is a special case, having three toes on each hind foot and four toes on each front foot.

==Management==
[[File:Naal on bull hooves 1.jpg| An [[ox#Shoeing|oxshoe]] is being nailed on the hooves of a bull used for [[working animal#Roles and specializations|draft]] at [[Chinawal]], India, to prevent them from wearing out too much.|thumb]]
Hooves grow continuously. In nature, wild animals are capable of wearing down the hoof as it continuously grows, but captive domesticated species often must undergo specific hoof care for a healthy, functional hoof. Proper care improves biomechanical efficiency and prevents lameness.<ref name=":5"/> If not worn down enough by use, such as in the dairy industry, hooves may need to be trimmed. However, too much wear can result in damage of the hooves, and for this reason, [[horseshoe]]s and [[ox#Shoeing|oxshoe]]s are used by animals that routinely walk on hard surfaces and carry heavy weight.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wideopenpets.com/why-do-only-some-horses-wear-shoes/amp/|title=Why Do Only Some Horses Wear Shoes?|website=wideopenpets.com|date=2016-04-21}}</ref>

=== Horses ===
Within the equine world, the expression, "no foot, no horse" emphasizes the importance of hoof health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aoki |first=Yasuhiro |year=2006 |title=Changes in walking parameters of milking cows after hoof trimming&#124;(Aoki, Y. et al., 2006). |quote=Lameness, behind infertility and mastitis, is the biggest cause of economic loss to a dairy farmer (Weaver, A., 2006). Many farmers and veterinarians have used a phase that distinguished that if the animal has bad hooves then it is of no use, the most common version of this phrase is used with equines, "No hoof no horse."|journal=Animal Science Journal|volume=77|pages=103–109|doi=10.1111/j.1740-0929.2006.00326.x}}</ref> Hoof care is important in the [[equine industry]].<ref name=":5" /> Problems that can arise with poor [[horse hoof]] care include hoof cracks, thrush, abscesses and [[laminitis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/horse/health/common-hoof-problems/|title=Common hoof problems : Horse : University of Minnesota Extension|website=www.extension.umn.edu|access-date=2016-11-30|archive-date=2016-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201015349/http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/horse/health/common-hoof-problems/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Cattle===
[[File:Klauenpflege Kuh 9783.jpg|thumb|right|Trimming the hoof of a cow with an [[angle grinder]]]]
A '''cow hoof''' is cloven, or divided, into two approximately equal parts, usually called claws.<ref name=shea>{{cite book|last=Shearer|first=Jan K.|title=Manual of foot care in cattle|year=2005|publisher=Hoard's Dairyman Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvFeo6pFnXUC|author2=Sarel Rens Van Amstel |author3=Adrian Gonzalez |isbn=9780932147424}}</ref> Approximately 95% of lameness in dairy cattle occurs in the feet.<ref name=shea /> Lameness in dairy cows can reduce [[milk]] production and fertility, and cause reproductive problems and suffering. For dairy farm profitability, lameness, behind only infertility and [[mastitis]], is the third most important cow health issue.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weaver|first=A. D.|date=1985-01-01|title=Lameness in cattle—Investigational and diagnostic check lists|journal=British Veterinary Journal|volume=141|issue=1|pages=27–33|doi=10.1016/0007-1935(85)90123-X|pmid=3995246}}</ref>

Hoof trimmers trim and care for bovine hooves, usually [[Dairy cattle|dairy cows]]. Hooves can be trimmed with a sharp knife while the cow is restrained and positioned with ropes. Professional hoof trimmers tend to use [[angle grinder]]s and some type of [[Cattle crush#Hoof trimming crush|hoof trimming crush]] to make the process quicker and less physically demanding on the hoof trimmer. A hoof trimmer using modern machinery may trim the hooves of more than 10,000 cows per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dolecheck |first1=K.A. |last2=Dwyer |first2=R.M. |last3=Overton |first3=M.W. |last4=Bewley |first4=J.M. |title=A survey of United States dairy hoof care professionals on costs associated with treatment of foot disorders |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |date=September 2018 |volume=101 |issue=9 |pages=8313–8326 |doi=10.3168/jds.2018-14718 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022030218306283 |access-date=29 May 2024|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=HOOF TRIMMING CHUTE ANKA PRO 2.0 (380V) |url=https://cowcare.eu/product/hoof-trimming-chute-anka-pro-2-0-380v/ |website=CowCare |access-date=29 May 2024}}</ref> The trimmer shapes the hooves to provide the optimal weight-bearing surface. A freshly trimmed hoof may be treated with [[Copper(II) sulfate|copper sulfate pentahydrate]] to prevent [[foot rot]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Masai Giraffe right-rear foot.jpg|Rear foot of a [[giraffe]] (no dewclaws)
Horse rear hooves.jpg|Rear hooves of a [[horse]]
Tapir hooves.jpg|[[Malayan tapir]] hooves: front with four toes, back with three toes
Pig cracked hooves.JPG|Cloven hooves of a [[pig]]
Schafbeine 01.jpg|[[Sheep]] hooves
Amneville Bison 27082010 4.jpg|Pointed hooves of a [[bison]]
Cameltoe - Flickr - loufi.jpg|Broad hooves of a [[camel]]
Deer Are The Hoofed Ruminant Mammals Forming The Family Cervidae.jpg|Cloven hooves of a deer
Blogcaribou8.jpg|Reindeer hooves
Winter horse hooves (5909760691).jpg|Horses' hooves in snow
Rind - Hufe - Zoopark Erfurt - 20120409.JPG|Cattle hooves
PSM V40 D380 Musk ox hooves.jpg|Muskoxen broad hooves
Carcassonne - Dama dama 11.jpg|Padded hooves of a deer
Giuseppe Arcimboldo - Study of a Goat's Deformed Hoof - WGA00854.jpg|Padded hooves of a domestic goat
Burg Meersburg April 2010 1010942.jpg|Alces alces hooves
</gallery>

==In culture==
Hooves have historical significance in ceremonies and games.  They have been used in burial ceremonies.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.zotero.org/samwalsh/items/7EBE4GDE|author=M. E. Robertson-Mackay |title=A head and hooves burial beneath a round barrow, with other Neolithic and Bronze Age sites on Hemp Knoll, near Avebury, Wiltshire |publisher=Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society|year= 1980}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Claw]]
*Hoof glue
*[[Horse hoof]]
*[[Nail (anatomy)]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}


== References ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2023-02-12|En-full-hoof-article.ogg}}

{{Commons category|Hooves}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mammal anatomy]]
[[Category:Ungulates]]