Editing Howitzer

{{short description|Type of artillery piece}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox weapon
|name= Howitzer
|image= [[File:155mm-howitzer-korea.jpg|300px]]
|caption= Firing of a 155 mm howitzer by the 90th Field Artillery Battalion, US 24th Infantry Division, during the Korean War
|type= Artillery
|is_ranged= yes
|is_artillery= yes
|barrels= 1
|range= Varies by model
|max_range= Typically several kilometers to tens of kilometers
}}
The '''howitzer''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aʊ|.|ɪ|t|s|ər}}) is an [[artillery]] weapon that falls between a [[cannon]] (or [[field gun]]) and a [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]]. It is capable of both low angle fire like a field gun and high angle fire like a mortar, given the distinction between low and high angle fire breaks at 45 degrees or 800 mils (NATO). With their long-range capabilities, howitzers can be used to great effect in a [[Artillery battery|battery]] formation with other artillery pieces, such as long-barreled guns, mortars, and [[rocket artillery|rocket artillery.]]  Howitzers were valued for their ability to fire [[explosive]] shells and [[incendiary device|incendiary materials]] into fortifications. Unlike mortars, which had fixed firing angles, howitzers could be fired at various angles, providing greater flexibility in combat.

Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, howitzers evolved to become more mobile and versatile. The introduction of [[rifling]] in the mid-19th century led to significant changes in howitzer design and usage. By the early 20th century, howitzers were classified into different categories based on their size and role, including field howitzers, siege howitzers, super-heavy siege howitzers, and defence howitzers.

During [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], howitzers played significant roles in combat, particularly in [[trench warfare]] and artillery-heavy strategies such as the [[Soviet deep battle]] doctrine. In modern times, the distinctions between guns and howitzers have become less pronounced, with many artillery pieces combining characteristics of both. Contemporary howitzers are often [[self-propelled artillery|self-propelled]], mounted on tracked or wheeled vehicles, and capable of firing at high angles with adjustable propellant charges for increased range and accuracy.

== Etymology ==
{{Cannon}}
The English word ''howitzer'' comes from the Czech word {{lang|cs|houfnice}},<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=howitzer&searchmode=none |title= Online Etymology Dictionary |work= etymonline.com |access-date= 2010-05-28 |archive-date= 2013-12-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233841/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=howitzer&searchmode=none |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>''The Concise Oxford English Dictionary'', 4th edition reprinted, 1956: "Howitzer".</ref><ref>{{cite book |language=de |last=Paul |first=Hermann |year=1960 |title=Deutsches Wörterbuch |chapter=Haubitze}}</ref> from {{lang|cs|houf}}, 'crowd',<ref>[[Stephen Turnbull (historian)|Stephen Turnbull]]: ''The Hussite Wars, 1419–36''. p.&nbsp;46</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UGfHSCQnYewC&pg=PA16 |title= German Medieval Armies 1300–1500 |page= 16 |isbn= 9780850456141 |date= 1985-11-28 |publisher= Bloomsbury USA }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>"houfnice" in [[Václav Machek (linguist)|Václav Machek]], ''Etymologický slovník jazyka českého'', second edition, Academia, 1968.</ref> and {{lang|cs|houf}} is in turn a borrowing from the Middle High German word {{lang|gmh|Hūfe}} or {{lang|gmh|Houfe}} (modern German {{lang|de|Haufen}}), meaning 'crowd, throng',<ref>{{cite web |title=Wörterbuchnetz |work=Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm |language=de |url=https://woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=DWB&lemma=haufe |access-date=2022-05-09 |archive-date=2022-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509125454/https://woerterbuchnetz.de/?sigle=DWB&lemma=haufe |url-status=live }}</ref> plus the Czech nominal suffix {{lang|cs|-nice}}. {{lang|de|Haufen}}, sometimes in the compound {{lang|de|Gewalthaufen}}, also designated a [[pike square]] formation in German.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Christ |first1=Georg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIuWEAAAQBAJ&dq=Gewalthaufen+pike+square&pg=PT449 |title=Military Diasporas: Building of Empire in the Middle East and Europe (550 BCE-1500 CE) |last2=Sänger |first2=Patrick |last3=Carr |first3=Mike |date=2022-11-30 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-77407-8 |language=en}}</ref><!--Did it designate it at the time? Does any source mention this fact in this connection, or is it OR?-->

In the [[Hussite Wars]] of the 1420s and 1430s, the Hussites used short-barreled {{lang|cs|houfnice}} cannons<ref name=turnbull>{{cite book |author=[[Stephen Turnbull (historian)|Stephen Turnbull]] |title=The Hussite Wars, 1419–36 |date=25 May 2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntLB8W-cVQC&dq=houfnice&pg=PA37 |page=37 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=9781841766652 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> to fire at short distances into crowds of [[infantry]], or into charging [[heavy cavalry]], to make horses shy away.<ref>''The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary'', (Oxford: The [[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]], 1973), I, p. 992</ref> The word was rendered into German as {{lang|de|aufeniz}} in the earliest attested use in a document dating from 1440; later German renderings include {{lang|de|haussnitz}} and, eventually {{lang|de|haubitze}}, from which derive the Scandinavian {{lang|sv|haubits}}, Polish and Croatian {{lang|pl|haubica}}, Estonian {{lang|et|haubits}}, Finnish {{lang|fi|haupitsi}}, Russian {{lang|bg-Latn|gaubitsa}} ({{lang|ru|гаубица}}), Serbian {{lang|sr-Latn|haubica}} ({{lang|uk|xаубицa}}), Ukrainian ({{lang|uk|гаубиця}}), Italian {{lang|it|obice}}, Spanish {{lang|es|obús}}, Portuguese {{lang|pt|obus}}, French {{lang|fr|obusier}}, Romanian {{lang|ro|obuzier}} and the Dutch word {{lang|nl|houwitser}}, which led to the English word ''howitzer''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Howitzer |work=[[Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster Online]] |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/howitzer |access-date=8 October 2021 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008184656/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/howitzer |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since [[World War I]], the word ''howitzer'' has been changing to describe artillery pieces that previously would have belonged to the category of [[gun-howitzer]]s – relatively long barrels and high muzzle velocities combined with multiple propelling charges and high maximum elevations. This is particularly true in the [[United States Armed Forces|armed forces of the United States]], where gun-howitzers have been officially described as howitzers since [[World War II]]. Because of this practice, the word howitzer is used in some armies as a generic term for any kind of artillery piece that is designed to attack targets using [[indirect fire]]. Thus, artillery pieces that bear little resemblance to howitzers of earlier eras are now described as howitzers, although the British call them guns.

The British had a further method of nomenclature. In the 18th century, they adopted projectile weight for guns replacing an older naming system (such as ''culverin'', ''saker'', etc.)<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ug-6DgAAQBAJ&q=Current+U.S.+military+doctrine+defines+howitzers+as+any+cannon+artillery+capable+of+high-angle+%2845%C2%B0+to+90%C2%B0+elevation%29+and+low-angle+%2845%C2%B0+to+0%C2%B0+elevation%29+fire%3B+guns+are+defined+as+being+only+capable+of+low-angle+fire%2C+and+mortars+only+capable+of+high-angle+fire&pg=PT112 |title=The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces |last=Chandar |first=Y. Udaya |date=2017-04-24 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=9781946983794}}</ref> that had developed in the late 15th century. Mortars had been categorized by calibre in inches in the 17th century, and this was duplicated with howitzers.<ref>''Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline'', Brigadier OFG Hogg, London, C Hurst and Company,1970</ref>

U.S. military doctrine defines howitzers as any cannon artillery capable of both high-angle fire (45° to 90° elevation) and low-angle fire (0° to 45° elevation); guns are defined as being only capable of low-angle fire (0° to 45° elevation); and mortars are defined as being only capable of high-angle fire (45° to 90° elevation).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces|last=Chandar|first=Col y Udaya|publisher=Notion Press, Inc.|year=2017|isbn=9781946983787}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Early modern period ===

The first artillery identified as howitzers developed in the late 16th century as a medium-[[Projectile motion|trajectory]] weapon between the low trajectory ([[direct fire]]) of cannons and the high trajectory ([[indirect fire]]) of mortars.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer |title=Instruments of war : weapons and technologies that have changed history |date=2015 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-4408-3654-1 |page=62}}</ref> Originally intended for use in [[Siege|siege warfare]], they were particularly useful for delivering [[cast iron]] shells filled with gunpowder or incendiary materials into the interior of fortifications. In contrast to contemporaneous mortars, which were fired at a fixed angle and were entirely dependent on adjustments to the size of propellant charges to vary range, howitzers could be fired at a wide variety of angles. Thus, while howitzer gunnery was more complicated than the technique of employing mortars, the howitzer was an inherently more flexible weapon that could fire its projectiles along a wide range of trajectories.<ref>OFG Hogg ''Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline'' (London: C Hurst & Co, 1970), p. 94</ref>[[File:Keegan's howitzer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Mountain howitzer firing]]

In the middle of the 18th century, a number of European armies began to introduce howitzers that were mobile enough to accompany armies in the field. Though usually fired at the relatively high angles of fire used by contemporary siege howitzers, these field howitzers were rarely defined by this capability. Rather, as the field guns of the day were usually restricted to inert projectiles (which relied entirely on momentum for their destructive effects), the field howitzers of the 18th century were chiefly valued for their ability to fire explosive shells. Many, for the sake of simplicity and rapidity of fire, dispensed with adjustable propellant charges.<ref>Heinrich Rohne, "Zur Geschichte der schweren Feldhaubitze", ''Jahrbücher für die deutsche Armee und Marine'', No. 423, pp. 567–68</ref>

The [[Abus gun]] was an early form of howitzer in the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="Dragoman">{{cite web|url=http://magweb.com/sample/sdra/sdr12gun.htm |title=William Johnson, "The Sultan's Big Guns." ''Dragoman'', vol.1, no.2 |access-date=2017-04-05 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710015533/http://magweb.com/sample/sdra/sdr12gun.htm |archive-date=July 10, 2007 }}</ref> In 1758, the [[Russian Empire]] introduced a specific type of howitzer (or rather gun-howitzer), with a conical chamber, called a [[licorne]], which remained in service for the next 100 years.<ref name="angus">{{cite book|last=Konstam|first=Angus |title=Russian Army of the Seven Years War (2)|publisher=Osprey Publishing|place=Londyn|year=1996|series=Men-at-Arms|pages=41|isbn=978-1-85532-587-6}}</ref> In the mid-19th century, some armies attempted to simplify their artillery parks by introducing [[smoothbore]] artillery pieces that were designed to fire both explosive projectiles and cannonballs, thereby replacing both field howitzers and field guns. The most famous of these "gun-howitzers" was the [[Canon obusier de 12|Napoleon 12-pounder]], a weapon of French design that was extensively used in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>Ildefonse Favé, “Résumé des progrès de l’artillerie depuis l’année 1800 jusqu’a l’année 1853”, in [[Louis Bonaparte|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]] and Ildefonse Favé, ''Études sur le passé et l'avenir de de l'artillerie'', (Paris: J. Dumaine, 1846–71), V, pp. 223–25</ref>

[[File:Oldhowitzer.jpg|thumb|upright=1|12-pound Napoleon at the [[Colorado State Capitol]]]]
[[File:12 pounder mountain howitzer on display at Fort Laramie in eastern Wyoming.jpg|thumb|Nineteenth-century 12-pounder (5&nbsp;kg) mountain howitzer displayed by the [[National Park Service]] at [[Fort Laramie]] in [[Wyoming]], United States]]

In 1859, the armies of Europe (including those that had recently adopted gun-howitzers) began to rearm field batteries with [[Rifling|rifled]] field guns. These field pieces used cylindrical projectiles that, while smaller in caliber than the spherical shells of smoothbore field howitzers, could carry a comparable charge of gunpowder. Moreover, their greater range let them create many of the same effects (such as firing over low walls) that previously required the sharply curved trajectories of smoothbore field howitzers. Because of this, military authorities saw no point in obtaining rifled field howitzers to replace their smoothbore counterparts but instead used rifled field guns to replace both guns and howitzers.<ref>Charles Thoumas, ''Les transformations de l'Armée française: essais d'histoire et de critique sur l'état militaire de la France'', (Paris : Berger-Levrault, 1887), II, pp. 123–26</ref>

In siege warfare, the introduction of rifling had the opposite effect. In the 1860s, artillery officers discovered that rifled siege howitzers (substantially larger than field howitzers) were a more efficient means of destroying walls (particularly walls protected by certain kinds of intervening obstacles) than smoothbore siege guns or siege mortars. Thus, at the same time armies were taking howitzers of one sort out of their field batteries, they were introducing howitzers of another sort into their siege trains and fortresses. The lightest of these weapons (later known as "light siege howitzers") had calibers around {{convert|150|mm|abbr=on}} and fired shells that weighed between {{convert|40|and|50|kg|abbr=on}}. The heaviest (later called "medium siege howitzers") had calibers between {{convert|200|and|220|mm|abbr=on}} and fired shells that weighed about {{convert|100|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref>Hermann von Müller, ''Die Entwickelung der deutschen Festungs und Belagerungstrains'', (Berlin: E. S. Mittler, 1896), pp. 328–35</ref>

During the 1880s, a third type of siege howitzer was added to inventories of a number of European armies. With calibers that ranged between {{convert|240|and|270|mm|abbr=on}} and shells that weighed more than {{convert|150|kg|abbr=on}}, these soon came to be known as "heavy siege howitzers". A good example of a weapon of this class is provided by the [[24 cm Mörser M 98|9.45-inch (240&nbsp;mm) weapon]] that the [[British Army]] purchased from the [[Škoda Works|Skoda works]] in 1899.<ref>Ortner, M. Christian. The Austro-Hungarian Artillery From 1867 to 1918: Technology, Organization, and Tactics. Vienna, Verlag Militaria, 2007 {{ISBN|978-3-902526-13-7}}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
In the early 20th century, the introduction of howitzers that were significantly larger than the heavy siege howitzers of the day made necessary the creation of a fourth category, that of "super-heavy siege howitzers". Weapons of this category include the famous [[Big Bertha (Howitzer)|Big Bertha]] of the German Army and the [[BL 15 inch Howitzer|15-inch (381&nbsp;mm) howitzer]] of the British [[Royal Marines|Royal Marine Artillery]]. These large howitzers were transported mechanically rather than by teams of horses. They were transported as several loads and had to be assembled at their firing position.<ref>Romanych, Marc; Rupp, Martin (2013). ''42 cm "Big Bertha" and German Siege Artillery of World War I''. Illustrated by Henry Morshead. Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-78096-017-3}}</ref>

Field howitzers introduced at the end of the 19th century could fire shells with high trajectories giving a steep angle of descent and, as a result, could strike targets that were protected by intervening obstacles. They could also fire shells that were about twice as large as shells fired by guns of the same size. Thus, while a {{convert|75|mm|abbr=on}} field gun that weighed one ton or so was limited to shells that weigh around {{convert|8|kg|abbr=on}}, a {{convert|105|mm|abbr=on}} howitzer of the same weight could fire {{convert|15|kg|abbr=on}} shells. This is a matter of fundamental mechanics affecting the stability and hence the weight of the carriage.

As heavy field howitzers and light siege howitzers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries used ammunition of the same size and type, there was a marked tendency for the two types to merge. At first, this was largely a matter of the same basic weapon being employed on two different mountings. Later, as on-carriage recoil-absorbing systems eliminated many of the advantages that siege platforms had enjoyed over field carriages, the same combination of barrel assembly, recoil mechanism and carriage was used in both roles.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}

By the early 20th century, the differences between guns and howitzers were relative, not absolute, and generally recognized<ref>H. A. Bethell, ''Modern Guns and Gunnery'', (Woolwich: F. J. Cattermole, 1905, 1907, 1910)</ref> as follows:
* Guns – higher velocity and longer range, single charge propellant, maximum elevation generally less than 45 degrees.
* Howitzers – lower velocity and shorter range, multi-charge propellant, maximum elevation typically more than 45 degrees.

The onset of [[trench warfare]] after the first few months of [[World War I]] greatly increased the demand for howitzers that gave a steep angle of descent, which were better suited than guns to the task of striking targets in a vertical plane (such as trenches), with large amounts of explosive and considerably less barrel wear. The German army was well equipped with howitzers, having far more at the beginning of the war than France.<ref>{{cite book|first=Bruce I.|last=Gudmundsson|title=On Artillery|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-0-275-94047-8|year=1993}}</ref>

Many howitzers introduced in the course of World War I had longer barrels than pre-war howitzers. The standard German light field howitzer at the start of the war (the [[10.5 cm Feldhaubitze 98/09|10.5&nbsp;cm leichte Feldhaubitze 98/09]]) had a barrel that was 16 [[Caliber (artillery)|calibers]] long, but the light field howitzer adopted by the German Army in 1916 ([[10.5 cm leFH 16|105&nbsp;mm leichte Feldhaubitze 16]]) had a barrel that was 22 calibers long. At the same time, new models of field gun introduced during that conflict, such as the {{convert|77|mm|abbr=on}} field gun adopted by the German Army in 1916 ([[7.7 cm FK 16|7.7 cm Feldkanone 16]]) were often provided with carriages that allowed firing at comparatively high angles, and adjustable propellant cartridges.<ref>Hans Linnenkohl, {{lang|de|Vom Einzelschuss zur Feuerwalze}} (Koblenz: Bernard und Graefe, 1990), pp. 86 and 219–220</ref>

In the years after World War I, the tendency of guns and howitzers to acquire each other's characteristics led to the renaissance of the concept of the [[gun-howitzer]]. This was a product of technical advances such as the French invention of [[autofrettage]] just before World War I, which led to stronger and lighter barrels, the use of cut-off gear to control recoil length depending on firing elevation angle, and the invention of [[muzzle brake]]s to reduce [[recoil]] forces. Like the gun-howitzers of the 19th century, those of the 20th century replaced both guns and howitzers. Thus, the [[Ordnance QF 25 pounder|25-pounder "gun-howitzer"]] of the British Army replaced both the [[Ordnance QF 18 pounder|18-pounder]] field gun and the [[QF 4.5 inch Howitzer|4.5-inch howitzer]].<ref>[[25 pounder#Design]]</ref>

During [[World War II]], the military doctrine of [[Soviet deep battle]] called for extensive use of heavy artillery to hold the formal line of front. Soviet doctrine was remarkably different from the German doctrine of [[Blitzkrieg]] and called for a far more extensive use of artillery. As a result, howitzers saw most of the action on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern front]]. Most of the howitzers produced by the [[USSR]] at the time were not self-propelled. Notable examples of Soviet howitzers include the [[152 mm howitzer M1938 (M-10)|M-10]], [[122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30)|M-30]] and [[152 mm howitzer M1943 (D-1)|D-1]].

Since World War II, most of the artillery pieces adopted by armies for attacking targets on land have combined the traditional characteristics of guns and howitzers&nbsp;– high muzzle velocity, long barrels, long range, multiple charges and maximum elevation angles greater than 45 degrees. The term "gun-howitzer" is sometimes used for these (e.g., in Russia); many nations use "howitzer", while the UK (and most members of [[The Commonwealth of Nations]]) calls them "guns", for example [[L118 Light Gun|Gun, 105&nbsp;mm, Field, L118]].

== Types ==
{{Also|Infantry support gun}}
* A [[Self-propelled artillery|self-propelled]] howitzer is mounted on a tracked or wheeled [[motor vehicle]]. In many cases, it is protected by some sort of [[vehicle armour|armor]] so that it superficially resembles a [[tank]]. This armor is designed primarily to protect the crew from shrapnel and small arms fire, not anti-armor weapons.
* A [[Mountain gun|pack howitzer]] is a relatively light howitzer that is designed to be easily broken down into several pieces, each of which is small enough to be carried by [[mule]] or [[packhorse|pack-horse]].
* A mountain howitzer is a relatively light howitzer designed for use in mountainous terrain. Most, but not all, mountain howitzers are also pack howitzers.
* A [[siege howitzer]] is a howitzer that is designed to be fired from a mounting on a fixed platform of some sort.
* A field howitzer is a howitzer that is mobile enough to accompany a [[Army|field army]] on campaign. It is invariably provided with a wheeled carriage of some sort.

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
Museu da FEB em Belo Horizonte - Foto antiga.jpg|[[M114 155 mm howitzer]], Brazil
File:38 cm siege howitzer, HGM, 2017-03-08.jpg|38 cm siege howitzer, Austria Hungary 1916, in the [[Heeresgeschichtliches Museum]], Vienna
155fire.jpg|U.S. [[M198 howitzer|M198]] gun-howitzer
Dutch Panzerhaubitz fires in Afghanistan.jpg|Dutch [[Panzerhaubitze 2000]] firing
105mm-Kroop-HowitzerBG-WWI.jpg|German [[10.5 cm leFH 18/40]] howitzer, monument at the [[Battle of Turtucaia]]
25 pounder firing a blank.ogv|Demonstration of a [[Ordnance QF 25 pounder|British 25-pounder]] firing
M109BREECH.JPG|Breech of a U.S. [[M109 howitzer|M109]] self-propelled gun-howitzer
</gallery>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|12-inch coast defense mortar}}
* {{annotated link|2B9 Vasilek}}
* {{annotated link|List of howitzers}}
* {{annotated link|Plunging fire}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Howitzers}}
* [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/artillery_Napoleon.html French Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614084624/http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/artillery_Napoleon.html |date=2020-06-14 }}

{{Military and war}}
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[[Category:Howitzers| ]]
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