Editing Hubert Walter

{{Short description|Archbishop of Canterbury (1193–1205) and Lord Chancellor (1199–1205)}}
{{For|the German anthropologist|Hubert Walter (anthropologist)}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
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{{Infobox Christian leader
| honorific-prefix = 
| type=Archbishop
| name = Hubert Walter
| title = [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
| image = Hubert Walter statue, Canterbury Cathedral (cropped).jpg
| imagesize = 
| alt = Stone statue of a robed man set in a niche. The top half of the head of the statue is missing.
| caption = Statue of Hubert Walter from the exterior of [[Canterbury Cathedral]]
| elected = 29 May 1193
| enthroned = 7 November 1193
| ended = 13 July 1205
| predecessor = [[Reginald Fitz Jocelin|Reginald fitzJocelin]]<br />(elected but died before consecration)
| successor = [[Reginald (sub-prior)|Reginald]]
| consecration = 22 October 1189
| other_post = [[Bishop of Salisbury]]
| birth_date = c. 1160
| death_date = 13 July 1205
| death_place = 
| buried = Trinity Chapel in [[Canterbury Cathedral]]
|parents= Hervey Walter<br />Maud de Valoignes
| module = {{Infobox officeholder | embed = yes
| office              = [[Justiciar|Chief Justiciar of England]]
| term_start          =1193
| term_end            =1198
| monarch             = [[Richard I of England|Richard I]]
| predecessor         = [[Walter de Coutances]]
| successor           = [[Geoffrey Fitz Peter, 1st Earl of Essex|Geoffrey fitzPeter]]
| order2               = 24th
| office2              = Lord Chancellor
| term_start2          =1199
| term_end2            =1205
| monarch2             =[[John of England|John]]
| predecessor2         =[[Eustace, Dean of Salisbury|Eustace]]
| successor2           = [[Walter de Gray]]
| office3              = [[Exchequer|Baron of the Exchequer]]
| term_start3          =1184
| term_end3            =1185
| monarch3             = [[Henry II of England|Henry II]]
}}
}}

'''Hubert Walter''' ({{circa|1160|lk=yes}}&nbsp;– 13 July 1205) was an influential royal adviser in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries in the positions of Chief [[Justiciar]] of England, [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], and [[Lord Chancellor]]. As chancellor, Walter began the keeping of the [[Charter Roll]], a record of all charters issued by the chancery. Walter was not noted for his holiness in life or learning, but historians have judged him one of the most outstanding government ministers in [[History of England|English history]].

Walter owed his early advancement to his uncle [[Ranulf de Glanvill]], who helped him become a clerk of the [[Exchequer]]. Walter served King [[Henry II of England]] in many ways, not just in financial administration, but also including diplomatic and judicial efforts.  After an unsuccessful candidacy to the [[Archbishop of York|see of York]], Walter was elected [[Bishop of Salisbury]] shortly after the accession of Henry's son {{nowrap|[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]}}.

Walter accompanied Richard on the [[Third Crusade]], and was one of the principals involved in raising Richard's ransom after the king was captured in Germany on his return from the Holy Land. As a reward for his faithful service, Walter was selected to become Archbishop of Canterbury in 1193. He also served as Richard's justiciar until 1198, in which role he was responsible for raising the money Richard needed to prosecute his wars in France. Walter set up a system that was the precursor for the modern [[Justice of the Peace|justices of the peace]], based on selecting four knights in each [[Hundred (administrative division)|hundred]] to administer justice. He also revived his predecessor's dispute over setting up a church to rival [[Canterbury Cathedral|Christ Church Priory]] in Canterbury, which was only settled when the pope ordered him to abandon the plan. Following Richard's death in 1199, Walter helped assure the elevation of Richard's brother [[John of England|John]] to the throne. Walter also served John as a diplomat, undertaking several missions to France.

==Early life==
Hubert Walter was the son of Hervey Walter<ref name=BHOYork>Greenway "Deans" ''Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300'' Volume 6: York</ref> and his wife Maud de Valoignes, one of the daughters (and co-heiresses) of Theobald de Valoignes, who was lord of Parham in Suffolk.<ref name=CPII447/><ref name=Young4/> Walter was one of six brothers.<ref name=DNB/> The eldest brother, [[Theobald Walter, 1st Baron Butler|Theobald Walter]], and Walter himself, were helped in their careers by their uncle, Ranulf de Glanvill.<ref name=CPII447>Cokayne ''Complete Peerage: Volume Two'' p. 447</ref>{{efn|Although the ''[[Complete Peerage]]'' lists Theobald as the eldest brother, other historians are not so sure that he was eldest.<ref name=Mortimer9>Mortimer "Family of Rannulf de Glanville" ''Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research'' p. 9</ref>}} Glanvill was the chief justiciar for Henry II; and was married to Maud de Valoignes' sister, Bertha.<ref name=DNB/> Walter's father and paternal grandfather held lands in [[Suffolk]] and [[Norfolk]], which were inherited by Theobald.<ref name=Young4&5>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 4–5</ref> A younger brother, [[Osbert fitzHervey|Osbert]], became a royal justice and died in 1206. Roger, Hamo (or Hamon) and Bartholomew only appear as witnesses to charters.<ref name=Young4/><ref name=DNB>Stacey "Walter, Hubert" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref>

Walter's family was from [[West Dereham]] in Norfolk, which is probably where Walter was born.<ref name=Young5>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 5</ref> Walter first appears in Glanvill's household in a charter that has been dated to 1178, although as it is undated it may have been written as late as 1180.<ref name=Young>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 3 and footnote 1</ref> His brother Theobald also served in their uncle's household.<ref name=Young4>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 4</ref> Walter's gratitude towards his aunt and uncle is shown in the foundation charter of Walter's monastery in Dereham, where he asks the foundation to pray for the "souls of Ranulf Glanvill and Bertha his wife, who nourished us".<ref name=QYoung4>Quoted in Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 4</ref> Earlier historians asserted that Walter studied law at [[Bologna]], based on his name appearing in a list of those to be commemorated at a monastery in Bologna in which English students lodged. Modern historians have discounted this, as the list also includes benefactors, not just students; other evidence points to the fact that Walter had a poor grasp of Latin, and did not consider himself to be a learned man.<ref name=Young7>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 7–8</ref> However, this did not mean that he was illiterate, merely that he was not "book-learned", or educated at a university.<ref name=Clanchy229>Clanchy ''From Memory to Written Record'' p. 229</ref> His contemporary, the medieval writer [[Gerald of Wales]] said of Walter that the Exchequer was his school.<ref name=Clanchy68/>

==Early assignments==
[[Image:Gefangennahme.jpg|thumb|left|The capture of King Richard I from the ''Chronicle'' of [[Peter of Eboli|Petrus de Ebulo]], 1197|alt=Illuminated manuscript illustration of a man in armour on horseback being captured by two armoured men on foot.|250px]]
By 1184–1185 Walter had a position as a [[Exchequer|baron of the exchequer]]. The king employed him on several tasks, including as a negotiator, a justice, and as a royal secretary.<ref name=DNB/> He was appointed [[Dean of York]] by order of King Henry II about July 1186.<ref name=BHOYork/> The archbishopric had been vacant since 1181 and would remain so until 1189, so it was Walter's job as dean to administer the archbishopric of York.<ref name=Young19>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 19</ref> Walter was also an unsuccessful candidate to become [[Archbishop of York]] in September 1186.<ref name=BHOYork/>{{efn|The cathedral chapter at York presented five possible candidates to the king for his approval, but all five were rejected. It is not clear why all the names were rejected, but quite possibly it had nothing to do with the suitability of the candidates but rather stemmed from the king's desire to continue to keep the see vacant to keep receiving the income of York, which went to the king when a see was vacant.<ref name="Young19"/>}}  The medieval chronicler [[Gervase of Canterbury]] said that during Henry II's reign, Walter "ruled England because Glanvill sought his counsel".<ref name=QYoung15>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 15</ref> Documents also show that Walter was active in the administration of the [[diocese of York]].<ref name=Young20>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 20–21</ref>

At the same time he was administering York, Walter founded a [[Premonstratensian]] house of [[Canon (priest)|canon]]s on purchased property at West Dereham, Norfolk in 1188.<ref name=Monastic360>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 360</ref> His uncle and other family members had favoured the Premonstratensian Order, and this [[West Dereham Abbey]] was located near the family lands in Norfolk.<ref name=Young22>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 22</ref>

In 1187 Walter, along with Glanvill and King Henry II, attempted to mediate a dispute between the Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Baldwin of Forde]], and the monks of the [[cathedral chapter]]. Their efforts were fruitless, and Walter was later drawn back into the dispute, in early 1189 and again as archbishop. The dispute centred on the attempt by Baldwin to build a church dedicated to Saint [[Thomas Becket]], just outside the town of Canterbury. The plan was to staff the church with canons instead of monks, which the monks of Canterbury's cathedral chapter feared was an attempt to take away the cathedral chapter's right to elect the archbishop.<ref name=Young13>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 13–15</ref> The attempt in 1189 was settled by Baldwin giving up the site near Canterbury for one further away at [[Lambeth]], which was less threatening to the monks.<ref name=Young29>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 29–30</ref>

==Bishop and archbishop==
After the death of King Henry in 1189, the new King Richard I appointed Walter Bishop of Salisbury; the election took place on 15 September 1189 at [[Pipewell]], with the [[consecration]] on 22 October 1189 at [[Westminster Abbey|Westminster]].<ref name=Handbook270>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 270</ref><ref name=BHOSalis>Greenway "Bishops" ''Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066–1300'' Volume 4: Salisbury</ref> Also elected to bishoprics at this council were [[Godfrey de Lucy]] to the [[Diocese of Winchester|see of Winchester]], [[Richard FitzNeal]] to the [[diocese of London|see of London]], and [[William Longchamp]] to the [[Diocese of Ely|see of Ely]]. The elevation of so many new bishops was probably meant to signal the new king's break with his father's habit of keeping bishoprics empty to retain the revenues of the [[Episcopal see|see]]s.<ref name=RichardI109>Gillingham ''Richard I'' p. 109</ref>{{efn|This process of appropriating the revenues of a vacant see was known as [[Regalian right]].<ref name=Coredon236>Coredon ''Dictionary'' p. 236</ref>}} At about the same time Glanvill was either forced out of his justiciarship or resigned, but the sources are unclear.<ref name=Young23>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 23</ref> Walter was probably elevated to a bishopric even though his uncle had lost some of his power because of political manoeuvring over the elevation of King Richard's illegitimate half-brother [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York|Geoffrey]] to the see of York, which Walter had at first opposed. The bishopric was either a reward or a bribe for Walter's withdrawal of his objections to Geoffrey's election.<ref name=Young25>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 25–26</ref>{{efn|Geoffrey was elected to York partly in fulfilment of King Henry's dying wish, and partly to place Geoffrey in holy orders and thus unable to contest for the English crown. However, the cathedral chapter had elected Walter shortly before Geoffrey's appointment, and for a short while, Walter appealed to Rome.<ref>Turner "Richard Lionheart and English Episcopal Elections" ''Albion'' pp. 4–5</ref>}}

Soon after his appointment, Walter accompanied the king on the Third Crusade,<ref name=Bartlett115>Bartlett ''England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings'' p. 115</ref> going ahead of the king directly from [[Marseille]] to the Holy Land in a group that included [[Baldwin of Forde]], Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ranulf de Glanvill.<ref name=RichardI129>Gillingham ''Richard I'' p. 129</ref> The group left Marseille in August 1190, and arrived at [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] two months later.<ref name=War428>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 428–429</ref> While on crusade, he was praised by his fellow crusaders, and acted as Richard's principal negotiator with [[Saladin]] for a peace treaty.<ref name=RichardI238>Gillingham ''Richard I'' pp. 238–240</ref> After the conclusion of the treaty with Saladin, Walter was in the first band of pilgrims that entered [[Jerusalem]].<ref name=DNB/> Saladin entertained Walter during his stay in Jerusalem, and the Englishman succeeded in extracting a promise from Saladin that a small group of Western clergy would be allowed to remain in the city to perform divine services.<ref name=War471>Tyerman ''God's War'' p. 471</ref> Walter subsequently led the English army back to England after Richard's departure from [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], but in [[Sicily]] he heard of the king's capture, and diverted to Germany.<ref name=RichardI238/> He, along with [[William of Sainte-Mère-Eglise]], was among the first of Richard's subjects to find the king at [[Ochsenfurt]] where he was being held.<ref name=DNB/> In April 1193 he returned to England to raise the king's ransom. Richard wrote to his mother, Queen [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], that Walter should be chosen for the [[Archbishop of Canterbury|see of Canterbury]],<ref name=RichardI238/> as well as to the monks of the cathedral chapter,<ref name=Turner8>Turner "Richard Lionheart and English Episcopal Elections" ''Albion'' p. 8</ref> and soon after Walter's return to England, he was duly elected archbishop of Canterbury, having been [[Translation (ecclesiastical)|translated]] to the see on 29 May 1193.<ref name=Handbook232>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 232</ref> He was chosen as archbishop without consultation from the bishops, who normally claimed the right to help decide the new archbishop.<ref name=Jones35>Jones ''King John and Magna Carta'' p. 35</ref> He received his [[pallium]], the symbol of his archiepiscopal authority, from [[Pope Celestine III]] and was ceremonially enthroned at Canterbury on 7 November 1193.<ref name=Young45>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 45</ref>

==Justiciar==

After Richard was freed, he spent little time in England, instead concentrating on the war with King [[Philip II of France]], which began with Philip's attempts to acquire Richard's possessions on the continent. Richard made Walter Chief Justiciar about 25 December 1193.<ref name=Handbook71>Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 71</ref> Walter remained in England, raising money for the king's wars and overseeing the administration of the kingdom. The constant warfare forced Walter to find new means of raising money through [[Taxation in medieval England|taxation]].<ref name=DNB/> The historian [[Doris Mary Stenton|Doris Stenton]] wrote that the [[Pipe Rolls]], or financial records, during Walter's time as justiciar "give the impression of a country taxed to the limit".<ref name=QYoung49>Quoted in Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 49</ref> Walter was also responsible for choosing royal justices, and many of his choices were connected with, or had previously worked with, the archbishop in the royal administration.<ref name=Young51>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 51</ref> Because of Richard's absence from England, Walter was able to exercise more authority as justiciar than any of his predecessors. All that Walter needed to do was keep Richard's monetary needs satisfied. Combined with Walter's position as archbishop, Walter wielded a power unseen in England since the days of [[Lanfranc]].<ref name=West79>West ''Justiciarship'' pp. 79–80</ref>

One of Walter's first acts as justiciar was in February 1194, when he presided over a feudal judgement of [[John of England|John]], Richard's younger brother.  After Richard's release from captivity, John, intending to begin a rebellion, had prepared his castles for defence. His letters ordering the preparations were intercepted and John was deprived of his lands.<ref name=Powell101>Powell and Wallis ''House of Lords'' pp. 101–102</ref> When John showed no signs of submitting, Walter called an ecclesiastical council at [[Westminster]] for the purposes of [[Excommunication|excommunicating]] John unless he submitted.<ref name=Jones5>Jones ''King John and Magna Carta'' pp. 5–6</ref> John refused to submit, and was excommunicated.<ref name=Young52>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 52–53</ref> To defeat the rebellion, Walter was required to lay siege to [[Marlborough Castle]] himself.<ref name=Jones62>Jones ''King John and Magna Carta'' p. 62</ref> Walter employed his brother Theobald in similar actions in [[Lancaster, Lancashire|Lancaster]], and rewarded him with the office of [[sheriff]] of Lancaster.<ref name=Joliffe>Joliffe ''Angevin Kingship'' p. 66</ref> Eventually in May 1194, John made peace with Richard, and was restored to favour, although the restoration of his lands did not occur until late in 1195.<ref name=Turner38>Turner ''King John'' pp. 38–39</ref>

Walter's chief administrative measures were his instructions to the itinerant justices of 1194 and 1198, his ordinance of 1195, an attempt to increase order in the kingdom, and his plan of 1198 for the assessment of a land tax. In 1194 the justices were ordered by a document now known as the [[Articles of Eyre]] to secure the election of four [[coroner]]s by each county court. The coroners were to ''keep'', or register, royal pleas, which had previously been a duty of the sheriff. The juries were to be chosen by a committee of four knights, also elected by the county court.<ref name=Powell102>Powell and Wallis ''House of Lords'' pp. 102–105</ref> This introduction of coroners and constables eventually led to a change in the role of sheriffs, and a lessening of their importance in royal administration.<ref name=Carpenter4>Carpenter "Decline of the Curial Sheriff" ''English Historical Review'' p. 4</ref> Although he probably did not take part in the decision to set up a special exchequer for the collection of Richard's ransom, Walter did appoint the two escheators,<ref name=West80/> or guardians of the amounts due,<ref name=Wordbook84>Cosman ''Medieval Wordbook'' p. 84</ref> who were [[Hugh Bardulf]] in the north of England and William of Sainte-Mère-Eglise in the south.<ref name=West80>West ''Justiciarship'' pp. 80–81</ref> His instructions for the eyre,<ref name=West90/> or circuits of traveling justices,<ref name=Dict118>Coredon ''Dictionary'' p. 118</ref> are the first that survive in English history.<ref name=West90>West ''Justiciarship in England'' pp. 90–91</ref> It was during his tenure of the justiciarship that the judicial role of the Exchequer became separated from the purely financial aspects.<ref name=Kemp560>Kemp "Exchequer and Bench" ''English Historical Review'' p. 560</ref>

He also worked to introduce order into the lending of money by [[Jew]]ish moneylenders, and organised a system where the royal officials worked to combat fraud by both parties in the business of Jewish money lending.<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Young118>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 118–119</ref> Walter was probably the originator of the custom of keeping an archival copy of all [[charter]]s, [[Letters close|letters]], [[Letters patent|patents]] and [[Foot of fine|feet of fines]], or record of agreements reached in the royal courts, in the [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]].<ref name=Bartlett200>Bartlett ''England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings'' p. 200</ref><ref name=Chrimes75>Chrimes ''Introduction'' pp. 75–76</ref><ref name=Saul105>Saul "Fine" ''Companion to Medieval England'' p. 105</ref> The first recorded "foot of the fine" is endorsed with the statement "This is the first [[chirograph]] that was made in the king's court in the form of three chirographs, according to the command of his lordship of Canterbury and other barons of the king, to the end that by this form a record can be made to be passed on to the treasurer to put in the treasury."<ref name=QClanchy68>Clanchy ''From Memory to Written Record'' p. 68</ref> The agreement concerns Walter's brother Theobald, who was the plaintiff.<ref name=Clanchy68>Clanchy ''From Memory to Written Record'' pp. 68–73</ref>{{efn|There were precedents for such recording, as in 1166, King Henry II had ordered a third copy of the ''[[Constitutions of Clarendon]]'' be saved in the royal archives, and there were also Anglo-Saxon administrative precursors.<ref name=Clanchy68/>}}

Walter also helped with the creation of a more professional group of royal justices. Although the group, which included [[Simon of Pattishall]], [[Ralph Foliot]], [[Richard Barre]], [[William de Warenne (justice)|William de Warenne]], [[Richard Herriard]], and Walter's brother Osbert fitzHervey, had mostly already served as justices prior to Walter's term of office, it was Walter who used them extensively. It appears likely that Walter chose them for their ability, not for any familial ties to himself. This group of men replaced the previous system of using mostly local men, and are the first signs of a professional judiciary.<ref name=Heiser226>Heiser "Households of the Justiciars" ''Haskins Society Journal'' pp. 226–227</ref>

In 1195 Walter issued an ordinance by which four knights were appointed in every hundred to act as guardians of the peace, a precursor to the office of Justice of the Peace. His use of the [[knight]]s, who appear for the first time in political life, is the first sign of the rise of this class who, either as [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Members of Parliament]] (MPs) or justices of the peace, later became the mainstay of English government. In 1198, Walter requested a [[carucage]], or plough-tax, of five shillings on every plough-land, or [[carucate]], under cultivation. However, difficulties arose over the assessments, so the justiciar ordered them to be made by a sworn jury in every [[hundred]]. It is likely that those jurors were elected.<ref name=Powell102/>

In foreign affairs, Walter negotiated with Scotland in 1195 and with the Welsh in 1197.<ref name=Bartlett345/> Scotland claimed [[Northumbria]], or northern England. Negotiations broke down, but relations between the two countries remained good throughout the rest of Richard's reign.<ref name=RichardI279>Gillingham ''Richard I'' p. 279</ref> Talks with the Welsh began after the [[Peerage of England|English lords]] [[Roger Mortimer of Wigmore|Roger Mortimer]] and [[William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber|William de Briouze]] expanded into Welsh territory in 1195, causing a concern that the Welsh lord [[Rhys ap Gruffydd]] would strike back across the border.<ref name=RichardI280>Gillingham ''Richard I'' p. 280</ref> In 1196, Walter quickly suppressed a popular uprising in London led by [[William Fitz Osbern (1196)|William Fitz Osbern]].<ref name=Bartlett345>Bartlett ''England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings'' p. 345</ref> FitzOsbern was an orator who harnessed the discontent of the poor residents of London against high taxes. His oratory provoked a riot in London, and he was apprehended and hanged on Walter's orders.<ref name=Young127>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 127–128</ref>

==Ecclesiastical affairs and resignation==
Walter held a [[Papal legate|legateship]] from Pope Celestine III from 1195 to 1198, which enabled him to act with the pope's delegated authority within the English Church.<ref name=Bartlett411>Bartlett ''England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings'' p. 411</ref> Walter actively investigated ecclesiastical misconduct, and deposed several [[abbot]]s, including Robert of [[Thorney Abbey]] in 1195 and an abbot of St Mary's in the province of the Archbishop of York.<ref name=Monastic651>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' pp. 651–652</ref> At the monastic [[Anglican Diocese of Worcester|cathedral of Worcester]], he disciplined the monks between the death of [[Henry de Sully (died 1195)|Henry de Sully]] and the election of [[John of Coutances]], as was his right as the archbishop of the province.<ref name=Monastic654>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 654</ref> In his own diocese, he granted markets and fairs to towns, was granted the privilege of minting coins at Shrewsbury, and worked to recover lands and manors that had been lost to the archdiocese.<ref name=Young73>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 73</ref>

Walter revived the scheme of his predecessor, Baldwin of Forde, to found a church in [[Canterbury]] that would be [[Secular clergy|secular]] and not [[Monk|monastic]]. He promised that the new foundation's canons would not be allowed to vote in archiepiscopal elections nor would the body of Saint Thomas Becket ever be moved to the new church, but the monks of his cathedral chapter were suspicious and appealed to the papacy. The dispute from the time of Baldwin of Forde flared up again, with the papacy supporting the monks and the king supporting the archbishop. Finally, Pope [[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]] ruled for the monks and ordered Walter to destroy what had been built.<ref name=Monastic324>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' pp. 324–328</ref>

The archbishop held ecclesiastical councils, including one at [[York]] in 1195 that legislated that the clergy should collect their [[tithe]]s in full, "...without any reduction".<ref name=Moorman111>Moorman ''Church Life'' pp.&nbsp;111–112</ref> Another council was held at London in 1200 to legislate the size and composition of clerical retinues,<ref name=Moorman121>Moorman ''Church Life'' p.&nbsp;121</ref> and also ruled that the clergy, when saying [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], should speak clearly and not speed up or slow down their speech.<ref name=Moorman226>Moorman ''Church Life'' p.&nbsp;226</ref> At the request of the papacy, Walter also led inquiries into the [[canonisation]]s of [[Gilbert of Sempringham]] and [[Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester|Wulfstan of Worcester]].<ref name=DNB/><ref name=Young141>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 141–142</ref> Walter refused to acquiesce in the election of Gerald of Wales to the [[Bishop of St David's|see of St David's]] in Wales and opposed the efforts of Gerald and others to elevate St David's to an archbishopric.<ref name=Mortimer208>Mortimer ''Angevin England'' p. 208</ref>

In the later part of Richard's reign, the pressures mounted on Walter. Conflicts between his ecclesiastical duties and his government duties made him the target of criticism from both sides.<ref name=DNB/><ref name=RichardI281/> A dispute in December 1197, over Richard's demand that the magnates of England provide 300&nbsp;knights to serve in France, led to renewed grumbling among the clergy and barons.<ref name=RichardI281/> Richard was also dissatisfied with the results of the carucage in 1198,<ref name=DNB/> so Walter resigned his position of chief justiciar on 11 July of that year.<ref name=Handbook71/> Walter may have resigned willingly, as he had talked of resigning his secular duties since 1194.<ref name=RichardI281>Gillingham ''Richard I'' pp. 280–281</ref> Some medieval sources, however, stated that he was forced out of office by the king.<ref name=Young129>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 129–130</ref>

==Under John==
[[Image:John of England (John Lackland).jpg|upright|thumb|right|King John from the medieval manuscript, ''Historia Anglorum'' c.&nbsp;1250–1259|alt=Illuminated manuscript illustration of a seated crowned man holding a small model of a church in one hand.]]
According to the ''Life of William Marshal'', which dates to soon after 1219, when word reached [[William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke|William Marshal]], one of the richest and most influential barons, that Richard was dead, he consulted with Walter and discussed whom to support as the next king. Marshal's choice was John, but Walter initially leaned towards John's young nephew [[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany|Arthur of Brittany]]. When Marshall was insistent on John, who was an adult, the author of the ''Life'' has Walter say in reply " 'So be it then,' said the archbishop, 'but mark my words, Marshal, you will never regret anything in your life as much as this.'"<ref name=John49>Quoted in Warren ''King John'' p. 49</ref> This is almost certainly a retrospective comment that has been inserted into the biography, however, based on John's later behaviour.<ref name=DNB/> Once John knew he had the support of Walter and William Marshal, he sent Walter ahead to England to request all free men to pledge [[fealty]] to the new king.<ref name=Bartlett124>Bartlett ''England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings'' p. 124</ref> On 27 May 1199 Walter crowned John, supposedly making a speech that promulgated, for the last time, the theory of a king's election by the people. This story is only contained in the writings of [[Matthew Paris]], however, and although it seems certain that Walter made a speech, it is not certain what the exact contents were.<ref name=Dutaillis117>Petit-Dutaillis ''Feudal Monarchy'' pp.&nbsp;117–118</ref> On his coronation day, John appointed Walter Lord Chancellor. W. L. Warren, historian and author of a biography of John, says of Walter that "No one living had a firmer grasp of the intricacies of royal government, yet even in old age his mind was adaptable and fecund with suggestions for coping with new problems."<ref name=John134>Warren ''King John'' pp. 134–135</ref>

One of Walter's first suggestions was to lower the fees for having charters confirmed, from nine [[Pound sterling|pounds]] and five [[shilling]]s to eighteen shillings and four [[Penny|pence]]. Accompanying this measure was a requirement that no charter would be accepted in a king's court without having been confirmed by King John. Not only did this reduce forgeries, it led to the establishment of the Charter Roll, an administrative copy of all charters issued and confirmed by the government.<ref name=Chrimes75/><ref name=John134/> In his relations with other officers, Walter worked closely with the justiciar [[Geoffrey Fitz Peter, 1st Earl of Essex|Geoffrey Fitz Peter]], on the collection of taxation, and both men went to Wales in 1203 on a diplomatic mission.<ref name=DNB/> Another joint action of the two men concerned a tax of a seventh part of all movables collected from both lay and ecclesiastical persons. The medieval chronicler [[Roger of Wendover]] said that the king "had Archbishop Hubert of Canterbury to act for him in the matter of the church property, Geoffrey fitz-Peter in the matter of lay property; and these two spared no one in carrying out their orders."<ref name=QLevies>Quoted in Cheney "Levies on the English Clergy" ''English Historical Review'' p. 578</ref><ref name=Levies578>Cheney "Levies on the English Clergy" ''English Historical Review'' p. 578</ref> Walter was also responsible for the keeping of copies of other royal letters in the [[Close Roll]]s and the [[Patent Rolls]].<ref name=Clanchy68/> The Patent rolls record letters that were issued in "patent", or openly and not sealed, and the Close rolls record letters issued sealed, or letters close. The various rolls are extant from 1199 for the Charter roll, 1201 for the Patent roll, and 1204 for the Close roll.<ref name=Saul116>Saul "Government" ''Companion to Medieval England'' p. 116</ref> Walter also continued to innovate in local government, as the earliest record of the coroner's rolls, or county records, being used to cross-check oral testimony in the county courts date from 1202 and 1203, during Walter's chancellorship.<ref name=Clanchy68/>

In 1201 Walter went on a diplomatic mission to Philip II of France, which was unsuccessful, and in 1202 he returned to England as regent while John was abroad. In April 1204 Walter returned to France with [[John de Gray]] the [[Bishop of Norwich]], [[Eustace, Dean of Salisbury|Eustace]] the [[Bishop of Ely]], William Marshal, and [[Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester|Robert de Beaumont]] the [[Earl of Leicester]] to seek peace with Philip Augustus. Philip insisted that John hand over Arthur of Brittany, Arthur's sister [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany|Eleanor]], and renounce all of his continental possessions before the French king would make peace. John refused to do this, and the embassy returned to England not long before Philip conquered [[Normandy]].<ref name=John96>Warren ''King John'' pp. 96–97</ref>

Besides sending Walter on diplomatic missions, King John gave Walter custody of [[Rochester Castle]] on 20 July 1202, but as Walter was already accounting for the taxes and fees of the city of Rochester to the Exchequer in 1200, it is possible that he held the castle before 1202.<ref name=Young74>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 74–75</ref> John also upheld the right of the archbishop to mint coins, which Walter held until his death in 1205.<ref name=Young76>Young ''Hubert Walter'' p. 76</ref>

Under John, Walter continued to be active in ecclesiastical affairs, and in September 1200 held a provincial church council at London. This council set forth 14&nbsp;canons, or decrees, which dealt with a number of subjects, including doctrinal concerns, financial affairs, and the duties of the clergy. It drew heavily on earlier church decrees, including those of the [[Third Council of the Lateran|Third Lateran Council]] of 1179.<ref name=Young102>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 102–103</ref> Walter also interceded with Pope Innocent III in 1200, mediating between the pope and the king over a royal dispute with the Cistercians. Walter's intercession prevented the dispute from escalating, and kept the pope from imposing sanctions on the king for his threats to the Cistercians.<ref name=Harper-Bill303>Harper-Bill "John and the Church" ''King John'' p. 303</ref> It was in 1200 that the church court records of the archdiocese of Canterbury began to be recorded and kept, although after Walter's death in 1205 the records become sparse until the 14th century.<ref name=Clanchy97>Clanchy ''From Memory to Written Record'' p. 97</ref>

==Death and legacy==
[[File:Huber Walter Paten.JPG|thumb|Walter's tomb was opened in 1890 and his pair of buskins, crozier, paten (illustrated here) and chalice were discovered.]]
Walter died on 13 July 1205, from a septic carbuncle on his back.<ref>Dan Jones, "The Plantagenets: The Warrior Kings and Queens Who Made England"</ref> The lingering character of his ailment permitted a reconciliation with his monks.<ref name=Monastic363>Knowles ''Monastic Order'' p. 363</ref> The medieval chronicler [[Ralph of Coggeshall]] described his death as taking four days, and related that he gave vestments, jewellery, and altar furnishings to his monks, which were confiscated by King John after Walter's death.<ref name=Patronage11>Turner "Religious Patronage" ''Albion'' pp. 11–12</ref> He was buried in the [[Trinity Chapel]] in [[Canterbury Cathedral]], next to Thomas Becket, where his tomb can still be seen.<ref name=Bartlett595>Bartlett ''England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings'' p. 595</ref>{{efn|The tomb may have been built by [[William the Englishman]], who designed the [[Trinity Chapel]] in Canterbury Cathedral.<ref name=Throne134>Reeve "Seat of Authority" ''Gesta'' p. 134</ref>}} The tomb occupied a highly visible spot in the Trinity Chapel, and Walter was the first archbishop to be buried there since the 1170s, when all of the tombs but Becket's had been relocated to focus attention on Becket's shrine. He remained the only ecclesiastic to be buried there until the 14th century.<ref name=Throne136>Reeve "Seat of Authority" ''Gesta'' p. 136</ref> The use by the archbishops of Canterbury of the title "Primate of All England" dates from Walter's archepiscopal tenure.<ref name=Hearn47>Hearn "Canterbury Cathedral" ''Art Bulletin'' p. 47</ref>

The medieval chronicler Matthew Paris retold the story that when King John heard of Walter's death, the king exclaimed "Now for the first time I am king of England."<ref name=QHistorianJudge>Quoted in Gillingham "Historian as Judge" ''English Historical Review''</ref> This story, however entertaining, is apocryphal.<ref name=HistorianJudge>Gillingham "Historian as Judge" ''English Historical Review''</ref> More secure is the story that another chronicler, Roger of Wendover, relates about Walter's Christmas celebrations in 1200. Roger reports that Walter distributed clothing to those attending his Christmas feast, which angered King John. The chronicler says that Walter "wished to put himself on a par with the king".<ref name=Church295>Church "Rewards of Royal Service" ''English Historical Review'' p. 295</ref>

Walter was not a holy man, although he was, as [[John Gillingham]], a historian and biographer of Richard I, says, "one of the most outstanding government ministers in English History".<ref name=QRichardI274>Gillingham ''Richard I'' p. 274</ref> [[Hugh of Lincoln]], a contemporary and later canonised, is said to have asked forgiveness of God for not having rebuked Walter as often as he probably should have.<ref name="QRichardI274"/> Modern historians tend not to share the older view that Walter was the driving force behind the administrative changes during Richard's reign, that Richard was uninterested in government, and that he left all decisions in the hands of his ministers, especially Longchamp and Walter.<ref name=Chrimes42>Chrimes ''Introduction'' pp. 42–43</ref> The studies of James Holt and others have shown that Richard was highly involved in government decisions, and that it was more a partnership between the king and his ministers.<ref name=RichardI275>Gillingham ''Richard I'' pp. 275–276</ref> Walter was, however, very innovative in his approach to government.<ref name=Mortimer70>Mortimer ''Angevin England'' p. 70</ref> Walter continued to enjoy the support of Richard's brother John, and it was during John's reign that a number of Walter's administrative reforms took place, although how much royal initiative was behind the innovations is unknown, given John's interest in government and administration.<ref name=Hollister6>Hollister "King John and the Historians" ''Journal of British Studies'' p. 6</ref>

Walter was the butt of jokes about his lack of learning,<ref name=RichardI256>Gillingham ''Richard I'' p. 256</ref> and was the target of a series of tales from the pen of the chronicler [[Gerald of Wales]].<ref name=Moorman159>Moorman ''Church Life'' p.&nbsp;159</ref> Even Walter's supporters could only state that he was "moderately literate".<ref name=Bartlett485>Quoted in Bartlett ''England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings'' p. 485</ref> Walter employed several canon lawyers who had been educated at Bologna<ref name=Roman9>Turner "Roman Law" ''Journal of British Studies'' p. 9</ref> in his household, including [[John of Tynemouth (canon lawyer)|John of Tynemouth]], [[Simon of Southwell]],<ref name=Young57>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 57–58</ref> and [[Honorius of Kent]].<ref name=Cheney164>Cheney ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 164–165</ref> He also employed the architect [[Elias of Dereham]], who was one of Walter's executors. Elias is traditionally credited as being the architect of [[Salisbury Cathedral]] after Walter's death.<ref name=Young61>Young ''Hubert Walter'' pp. 61–62</ref> Another scholar employed by Walter was [[Peter of Blois]], who served both Walter and his predecessor as a Latin secretary.<ref name=Turner309>Turner "Reputation of Royal Judges" ''Albion'' p. 309</ref>

Little is known of his appearance, although he was described by Gerald of Wales as tall and handsome. Gerald also praised his intelligence and cleverness.<ref name=West78>West ''Justiciarship in England'' p. 78</ref>

W. L. Warren advances the theory that either Walter or Geoffrey Fitz Peter, instead of Ranulf Glanvill, was the author of ''[[Tractatus of Glanvill|Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae]],'' a legal treatise on the laws and constitutions of the English.<ref name=John127>Warren ''King John'' p. 127</ref> Chrimes agrees that Glanvill was probably not the author, and feels that Walter likely was, although he could not be certain.<ref name=Chrimes40>Chrimes ''Introduction'' p. 40</ref> If he was the author, he composed what Chrimes called a "great literary memorial of Henry II's government".<ref name=Chrimes52>Chrimes ''Introduction'' p. 52</ref> Neither of Walter's two modern biographers, however, feel that he was the author of the ''Tractatus'', and the historian Ralph Turner agrees.<ref name=Glanvill113>Turner "Who Was the Author of Glanvill?" ''Law and History Review'' pp. 113–114</ref> The historian [[Michael Clanchy]] says of Walter "The proliferation of documents was a European and a continuing phenomenon, yet if it were to be associated in England with one man, he would be Hubert Walter."<ref name=QClanchy73>Clanchy ''From Memory to Written Record'' p. 73</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist|60em}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|40em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}
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{{refend}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef| before=[[Eustace, Dean of Salisbury|Eustace]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Lord Chancellor]] | years=1199–1205 }}
{{s-aft| after=[[Walter de Gray]]}}
{{s-bef| before=[[Walter de Coutances]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Justiciar|Chief Justiciar]]  | years=1193–1198}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Geoffrey Fitz Peter, 1st Earl of Essex|Geoffrey Fitz Peter]] }}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef| before=[[Josceline de Bohon]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Bishop of Salisbury]] | years=1189–1193  }}
{{s-aft| after=[[Herbert Poore]]}}
{{s-bef | before=[[Reginald Fitz Jocelin]] }}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Archbishop of Canterbury]]  | years=1193–1205}}
{{s-aft| after=[[Reginald (sub-prior)|Reginald]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{House of Blois and Anjou Lord Chancellors}}
{{Deans of York}}
{{Bishops of Salisbury}}
{{Archbishops of Canterbury}}
{{Subject bar|portal1=England|portal2=Middle Ages|portal3=Catholicism |portal4=Law |commons=y |portal5=Biography |s=y}}

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