Editing Human behavior

{{short description|Array of every physical action and observable emotion associated with humans}}
{{for|the song|Human Behaviour}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2020}}
[[File:John William Waterhouse - The Decameron.jpg|thumb|Social interaction and creative expression are forms of human behavior]]
{{Sociology}}

'''Human behavior''' is the potential and expressed capacity ([[Energy (psychological)|mentally]], [[Physical activity|physically]], and [[Social action|socially]]) of [[human]] [[individual]]s or groups to respond to internal and external [[Stimulation|stimuli]] throughout their life. Behavior is driven by genetic and environmental factors that affect an individual. Behavior is also driven, in part, by [[thought]]s and [[feeling]]s, which provide insight into individual [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]], revealing such things as [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] and [[value (personal and cultural)|values]]. Human behavior is shaped by [[Trait theory|psychological traits]], as personality types vary from person to person, producing different actions and behavior.

Social behavior accounts for actions directed at others. It is concerned with the considerable influence of [[Social relation|social interaction]] and [[culture]], as well as [[ethics]], [[interpersonal relationship]]s, [[politics]], and [[Conflict (process)|conflict]]. Some behaviors are common while others are unusual. The acceptability of behavior depends upon [[social norms]] and is regulated by various means of [[social control]]. Social norms also [[Operant conditioning|condition]] behavior, whereby humans are [[peer pressure|pressured]] into following certain rules and displaying certain behaviors that are deemed [[social acceptance|acceptable]] or [[Social deviance|unacceptable]] depending on the given society or culture.

Cognitive behavior accounts for actions of obtaining and using [[knowledge]]. It is concerned with how information is learned and passed on, as well as creative application of knowledge and personal beliefs such as [[religion]]. Physiological behavior accounts for actions to maintain the body. It is concerned with basic bodily functions as well as measures taken to maintain health. Economic behavior accounts for actions regarding the development, organization, and use of materials as well as other forms of [[Work (human activity)|work]]. Ecological behavior accounts for actions involving the ecosystem. It is concerned with how humans interact with other organisms and how the environment shapes human behavior.

== Study ==
{{Main|Human ethology}}
Human behavior is studied by the [[social science]]s, which include [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[Gender Studies]], [[ethology]], and their various branches and schools of thought.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|pp=13–14}} There are many different facets of human behavior, and no one definition or field study encompasses it in its entirety.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|pp=7–8}} The [[nature versus nurture]] debate is one of the fundamental divisions in the study of human behavior; this debate considers whether behavior is predominantly affected by genetic or environmental factors.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|p=2}} The study of human behavior sometimes receives public attention due to its intersection with cultural issues, including [[crime]], [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], and [[social inequality]].{{Sfn|Longino|2013|p=11}}

Some [[natural sciences]] also place emphasis on human behavior. [[Neurology]] and [[evolutionary biology]], study how behavior is controlled by the [[nervous system]] and how the human mind [[Evolution|evolved]], respectively.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|p=1}} In other fields, human behavior may be a secondary subject of study when considering how it affects another subject.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|p=8}} Outside of formal scientific inquiry, human behavior and the [[human condition]] is also a major focus of [[philosophy]] and [[literature]].{{Sfn|Longino|2013|p=1}} [[Philosophy of mind]] considers aspects such as [[free will]], the [[mind–body problem]], and malleability of human behavior.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|pp=9–10}}

Human behavior may be evaluated through [[questionnaire]]s, [[interview]]s, and [[Experimental psychology#Research in Experimental Psychology|experimental methods]]. [[Animal testing]] may also be used to test behaviors that can then be compared to human behavior.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|p=12}} [[Twin study|Twin studies]] are a common method by which human behavior is studied. [[Twin]]s with identical [[genome]]s can be compared to isolate genetic and environmental factors in behavior. Lifestyle, susceptibility to disease, and unhealthy behaviors have been identified to have both genetic and environmental indicators through twin studies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boomsma |first1=Dorret |last2=Busjahn |first2=Andreas |last3=Peltonen |first3=Leena |date=2002 |title=Classical twin studies and beyond |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg932 |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |language=en |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=872–882 |doi=10.1038/nrg932 |pmid=12415317 |s2cid=9318812 |issn=1471-0064}}</ref>

== Social behavior ==
{{Further|Sociology}}
[[File:Circa 1880 Two women bowing, "ojigi" (hand-colored albumen print, Japan).jpg|thumb|upright|Women bowing in Japan ({{circa|1880}})]]
Human social behavior is the behavior that considers other humans, including communication and cooperation. It is highly complex and structured, based on advanced [[theory of mind]] that allows humans to attribute thoughts and actions to one another. Through social behavior, humans have developed [[society]] and [[culture]] distinct from other animals.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Levinson |first1=Stephen C. |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003135517/roots-human-sociality-stephen-levinson-nicholas-enfield |title=Roots of Human Sociality |last2=Enfield |first2=Nicholas J. |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-1003135517 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.4324/9781003135517 |s2cid=150799476}}</ref> Human social behavior is governed by a combination of biological factors that affect all humans and cultural factors that change depending on upbringing and societal norms.{{Sfn|Duck|2007|pp=1–5}} Human communication is based heavily on [[language]], typically through [[speech]] or [[writing]]. [[Nonverbal communication]] and [[paralanguage]] can modify the meaning of communications by demonstrating ideas and intent through physical and vocal behaviors.{{Sfn|Duck|2007|pp=10–14}}

=== Social norms ===
Human behavior in a society is governed by [[social norm]]s. Social norms are unwritten expectations that members of society have for one another. These norms are ingrained in the particular culture that they emerge from, and humans often follow them unconsciously or without deliberation. These norms affect every aspect of life in human society, including [[decorum]], [[social responsibility]], [[Right to property|property rights]], [[Contract|contractual agreement]], [[morality]], and [[justice]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clifford-Vaughan |first=M. |date=1967-06-01 |title=VII—Social Change and Legal Norms |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aristotelian/67.1.103 |journal=Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=103–110 |doi=10.1093/aristotelian/67.1.103 |issn=1467-9264|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Many norms facilitate coordination between members of society and prove mutually beneficial, such as norms regarding communication and agreements. Norms are enforced by [[social pressure]], and individuals that violate social norms risk [[social exclusion]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Young |first=H. Peyton |date=2015-08-01 |title=The Evolution of Social Norms |journal=Annual Review of Economics |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=359–387 |doi=10.1146/annurev-economics-080614-115322 |issn=1941-1383|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Systems of [[ethics]] are used to guide human behavior to determine what is moral. Humans are distinct from other animals in the use of ethical systems to determine behavior. Ethical behavior is human behavior that takes into consideration how actions will affect others and whether behaviors will be optimal for others. What constitutes ethical behavior is determined by the individual [[value judgment]]s of the person and the collective social norms regarding right and wrong. Value judgments are intrinsic to people of all cultures, though the specific systems used to evaluate them may vary. These systems may be derived from [[divine law]], [[natural law]], [[civil authority]], [[reason]], or a combination of these and other principles. [[Altruism]] is an associated behavior in which humans consider the welfare of others equally or preferentially to their own. While other animals engage in biological altruism, ethical altruism is unique to humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ayala |first=Francisco J. |date=2010-05-11 |title=The difference of being human: Morality |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=107 |issue=supplement_2 |pages=9015–9022 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0914616107 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3024030 |pmid=20445091|doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Deviance (sociology)|Deviance]] is behavior that violates social norms. As social norms vary between individuals and cultures, the nature and severity of a deviant act is subjective. What is considered deviant by a society may also change over time as new social norms are developed. Deviance is punished by other individuals through [[social stigma]], [[censure]], or [[violence]].{{Sfn|Goode|2015|pp=3–4}} Many deviant actions are recognized as [[crime]]s and punished through a system of [[criminal justice]].{{Sfn|Goode|2015|p=7}} Deviant actions may be punished to prevent harm to others, to maintain a particular worldview and way of life, or to enforce principles of morality and [[decency]].{{Sfn|Goode|2015|p=5}} Cultures also attribute positive or negative value to certain physical traits, causing individuals that do not have desirable traits to be seen as deviant.{{Sfn|Goode|2015|p=6}}

=== Interpersonal relationships ===
{{Main|Interpersonal relationship}}
[[File:Inupiat Family from Noatak, Alaska, 1929, Edward S. Curtis (restored).jpg|left|thumb|A family in [[Noatak, Alaska|Noatak]], Alaska (1929)]]
Interpersonal relationships can be evaluated by the specific choices and emotions between two individuals, or they can be evaluated by the broader societal context of how such a relationship is expected to function. Relationships are developed through communication, which creates intimacy, expresses emotions, and develops identity.{{Sfn|Duck|2007|pp=10–14}} An individual's interpersonal relationships form a [[social group]] in which individuals all communicate and socialize with one another, and these social groups are connected by additional relationships. Human social behavior is affected not only by individual relationships, but also by how behaviors in one relationship may affect others.{{Sfn|Duck|2007|p=107}} Individuals that actively seek out social interactions are [[Extraversion and introversion|extraverts]], and those that do not are introverts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Argyle |first1=Michael |last2=Lu |first2=Luo |date=1990-01-01 |title=The happiness of extraverts |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869%2890%2990128-E |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=1011–1017 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(90)90128-E |issn=0191-8869|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Romance (love)|Romantic love]] is a significant [[interpersonal attraction]] toward another. Its nature varies by culture, but it is often contingent on gender, occurring in conjunction with [[sexual attraction]] and [[sexual orientation]] and [[romantic orientation]]. It takes different forms and is associated with many individual emotions. Many cultures place a higher emphasis on romantic love than other forms of interpersonal attraction. [[Marriage]] is a union between two people, though whether it is associated with romantic love is dependent on the culture.{{Sfn|Duck|2007|pp=56–60}} Individuals that are closely related by [[consanguinity]] form a [[family]]. There are many variations on family structures that may include parents and children as well as [[stepchild]]ren or extended relatives.{{Sfn|Duck|2007|pp=121–125}} Family units with [[children]] emphasize [[parenting]], in which parents engage in a high level of [[parental investment]] to protect and instruct children as they develop over a period of time longer than that of most other mammals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |last2=Flinn |first2=Mark V. |date=2001 |title=Evolution of Human Parental Behavior and the Human Family |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15295192.2001.9681209 |journal=Parenting |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=5–61 |doi=10.1080/15295192.2001.9681209 |s2cid=15440367 |issn=1529-5192|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Politics and conflict ===
{{Further|Political science|Theories of political behavior|Conflict (process)}}
[[File:5tavaszi 08 n.jpg|thumb|A depiction of men fighting in the [[First Battle of Komárom (1849)|First Battle of Komárom]] (1849)]]
When humans make decisions as a group, they engage in politics. Humans have evolved to engage in behaviors of [[self-interest]], but this also includes behaviors that facilitate cooperation rather than conflict in collective settings. Individuals will often form [[in-group and out-group]] perceptions, through which individuals cooperate with the in-group and compete with the out-group. This causes behaviors such as unconsciously conforming, passively obeying authority, taking pleasure in the misfortune of opponents, initiating hostility toward out-group members, artificially creating out-groups when none exist, and punishing those that do not comply with the standards of the in-group. These behaviors lead to the creation of [[political system]]s that enforce in-group standards and norms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alford |first1=John R. |last2=Hibbing |first2=John R. |date=2004 |title=The Origin of Politics: An Evolutionary Theory of Political Behavior |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/perspectives-on-politics/article/abs/origin-of-politics-an-evolutionary-theory-of-political-behavior/0A5EDA700EE2022AC9DFB5AE1CAA7C4D |journal=Perspectives on Politics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=707–723 |doi=10.1017/S1537592704040460 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=8341131 |issn=1541-0986 |access-date=2022-08-15 |archive-date=2022-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503121514/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/perspectives-on-politics/article/abs/origin-of-politics-an-evolutionary-theory-of-political-behavior/0A5EDA700EE2022AC9DFB5AE1CAA7C4D |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

When humans oppose one another, it creates conflict. It may occur when the involved parties have a disagreement of opinion, when one party obstructs the goals of another, or when parties experience [[negative emotion]]s such as [[anger]] toward one another. Conflicts purely of disagreement are often resolved through communication or [[negotiation]], but incorporation of emotional or obstructive aspects can escalate conflict. [[Interpersonal conflict]] is that between specific individuals or groups of individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barki |first1=Henri |last2=Hartwick |first2=Jon |date=2004-03-01 |title=Conceptualizing the Construct of Interpersonal Conflict |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/eb022913/full/html |journal=International Journal of Conflict Management |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=216–244 |doi=10.1108/eb022913 |issn=1044-4068 |access-date=2022-08-14 |archive-date=2022-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616151151/https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/eb022913/full/html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Social conflict]] is that between different social groups or demographics. This form of conflict often takes place when groups in society are marginalized, do not have the resources they desire, wish to instigate social change, or wish to resist social change. Significant social conflict can cause [[civil disorder]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Christopher R. |title=Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation |publisher=Berghof Foundation |year=2005 |chapter=Conflict, Social Change and Conflict Resolution. An Enquiry.}}</ref> [[International conflict]] is that between nations or governments. It may be solved through [[diplomacy]] or [[war]].

== Cognitive behavior ==
{{Main|Cognition}}
[[File:Andriyaka mk (1).jpg|thumb|People being taught to paint in [[Volgograd]], Russia (2013)]]
Human cognition is distinct from that of other animals. This is derived from biological traits of human cognition, but also from shared [[knowledge]] and development passed down culturally. Humans are able to learn from one another due to advanced theory of mind that allows knowledge to be obtained through [[education]]. The use of language allows humans to directly pass knowledge to one another.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tomasello |first1=Michael |last2=Rakoczy |first2=Hannes |date=2003 |title=What Makes Human Cognition Unique? From Individual to Shared to Collective Intentionality |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0017.00217 |journal=Mind and Language |language=en |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=121–147 |doi=10.1111/1468-0017.00217 |issn=0268-1064 |access-date=2022-08-12 |archive-date=2022-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812173311/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0017.00217 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Colagè |first1=Ivan |last2=d'Errico |first2=Francesco |date=2020 |title=Culture: The Driving Force of Human Cognition |journal=Topics in Cognitive Science |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=654–672 |doi=10.1111/tops.12372 |pmid=30033618 |s2cid=51706960 |issn=1756-8757 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[human brain]] has [[neuroplasticity]], allowing it to modify its features in response to new experiences. This facilitates [[learning]] in humans and leads to behaviors of [[Practice (learning method)|practice]], allowing the development of new skills in individual humans.<ref name=":1" /> Behavior carried out over time can be ingrained as a [[habit]], where humans will continue to regularly engage in the behavior without consciously deciding to do so.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Wendy |last2=Rünger |first2=Dennis |date=2016-01-04 |title=Psychology of Habit |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=289–314 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033417 |pmid=26361052 |s2cid=8821136 |issn=0066-4308|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Humans engage in [[reason]] to make [[inference]]s with a limited amount of information. Most human reasoning is done automatically without conscious effort on the part of the individual. Reasoning is carried out by making generalizations from past experiences and applying them to new circumstances. Learned knowledge is acquired to make more accurate inferences about the subject. [[Deductive reasoning]] infers conclusions that are true based on [[logic]]al premises, while [[inductive reasoning]] infers what conclusions are likely to be true based on context.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Jonathan St.B. T. |title=Human Reasoning: The Psychology of Deduction |last2=Newstead |first2=Stephen E. |last3=Byrne |first3=Ruth M. J. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2019 |isbn=978-1317716266 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

[[Emotion]] is a cognitive experience innate to humans. Basic emotions such as [[joy]], [[Mental distress|distress]], [[anger]], [[fear]], [[Surprise (emotion)|surprise]], and [[disgust]] are common to all cultures, though social norms regarding the expression of emotion may vary. Other emotions come from higher cognition, such as, [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], [[shame]], [[embarrassment]], [[pride]], [[envy]], and [[jealousy]]. These emotions develop over time rather than instantly and are more strongly influenced by cultural factors.{{Sfn|Evans|2003|pp=1–21}} Emotions are influenced by [[sensory information]], such as [[color]] and [[music]], and [[Mood (psychology)|mood]]s of [[happiness]] and [[sadness]]. Humans typically maintain a standard level of happiness or sadness determined by health and social relationships, though positive and negative events have short-term influences on mood. Humans often seek to improve the moods of one another through [[consolation]], [[entertainment]], and [[complaining|venting]]. Humans can also self-regulate mood through [[exercise]] and [[meditation]].{{Sfn|Evans|2003|pp=47–}}

[[Creativity]] is the use of previous ideas or resources to produce something original. It allows for [[innovation]], adaptation to change, learning new information, and novel problem solving. Expression of creativity also supports [[quality of life]]. Creativity includes personal creativity, in which a person presents new ideas [[Authenticity (philosophy)|authentically]], but it can also be expanded to social creativity, in which a community or society produces and recognizes ideas collectively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Runco |first=Mark A. |title=The Nature of Human Creativity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1108185936 |editor-last=Sternberg |editor-first=Robert J. |pages=246–263 |doi=10.1017/9781108185936.018 |editor-last2=Kaufman |editor-first2=James C.}}</ref> Creativity is applied in typical human life to solve problems as they occur. It also leads humans to carry out [[art]] and [[science]]. Individuals engaging in advanced creative work typically have specialized knowledge in that field, and humans draw on this knowledge to develop novel ideas. In art, creativity is used to develop new artistic works, such as [[Visual arts|visual art]] or [[music]]. In science, those with knowledge in a particular scientific field can use [[trial and error]] to develop theories that more accurately explain phenomena.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simon |first=Herbert A. |date=2001 |title=Creativity in the Arts and the Sciences |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4338222 |journal=The Kenyon Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=203–220 |jstor=4338222 |issn=0163-075X |access-date=2022-08-14 |archive-date=2022-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814204752/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4338222 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Religious behavior]] is a set of traditions that are followed based on the teachings of a religious belief system. The nature of religious behavior varies depending on the specific religious traditions. Most religious traditions involve variations of telling [[myth]]s, practicing [[ritual]]s, making certain things [[taboo]], adopting [[Religious symbol|symbolism]], determining morality, experiencing [[Altered state of consciousness|altered states of consciousness]], and believing in [[supernatural]] beings. Religious behavior is often demanding and has high time, energy, and material costs, and it conflicts with [[Rational choice theory|rational choice]] models of human behavior, though it does provide community-related benefits. Anthropologists offer competing theories as to why humans adopted religious behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sosis |first1=Richard |last2=Alcorta |first2=Candace |date=2003-11-24 |title=Signaling, solidarity, and the sacred: The evolution of religious behavior |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/evan.10120 |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews |language=en |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=264–274 |doi=10.1002/evan.10120 |s2cid=443130 |access-date=2022-08-14 |archive-date=2022-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814003329/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/evan.10120 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Religious behavior is heavily influenced by social factors, and group involvement is significant in the development of an individual's religious behavior. Social structures such as [[religious organization]]s or family units allow the sharing and coordination of religious behavior. These social connections reinforce the cognitive behaviors associated with religion, encouraging [[orthodoxy]] and commitment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cornwall |first=Marie |date=1989 |title=The Determinants of Religious Behavior: A Theoretical Model and Empirical Test |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2579261 |journal=Social Forces |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=572–592 |doi=10.2307/2579261 |jstor=2579261 |access-date=2022-08-14 |archive-date=2021-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103062916/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2579261 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> According to a [[Pew Research Center]] report, 54% of adults around the world state that religion is very important in their lives as of 2018.<ref name="pew1">{{cite web |date=13 June 2018 |title='How religious commitment varies by country among people of all ages |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827174002/http://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/ |archive-date=27 August 2018 |access-date=9 March 2019 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life]]}}</ref>

== Physiological behavior ==
{{See also|Psychophysiology}}
[[File:Boy eating a mango.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A boy eating in [[Harare]], Zimbabwe (2017)]]
Humans undergo many behaviors common to animals to support the processes of the [[human body]]. Humans eat [[food]] to obtain [[nutrition]]. These foods may be chosen for their nutritional value, but they may also be [[Hedonic hunger|eaten for pleasure]]. Eating often follows a [[food preparation]] process to make it more enjoyable.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Essentials of Human Nutrition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0199566341 |editor-last=Mann |editor-first=Jim |edition=4th |location=Oxford |page=1|editor-last2=Truswell |editor-first2=A. Stewart}}</ref> Humans dispose of [[Human waste|waste]] through [[urination]] and [[defecation]]. Excrement is often treated as taboo, particularly in developed and urban communities where [[sanitation]] is more widely available and excrement has no value as [[fertilizer]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jewitt |first=Sarah |date=2011 |title=Geographies of shit: Spatial and temporal variations in attitudes towards human waste |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309132510394704 |journal=Progress in Human Geography |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=608–626 |doi=10.1177/0309132510394704 |s2cid=129647616 |issn=0309-1325 |access-date=2022-08-11 |archive-date=2022-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506180125/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309132510394704 |url-status=live }}</ref> Humans also regularly engage in [[sleep]], based on homeostatic and circadian factors. The [[circadian rhythm]] causes humans to require sleep at a regular pattern and is typically calibrated to the day-night cycle and sleep-wake habits. Homeostasis is also maintained, causing longer sleep longer after periods of [[sleep deprivation]]. The human [[sleep cycle]] takes place over 90 minutes, and it repeats 3–5 times during normal sleep.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gillberg |first=M. |date=1997 |title=Human sleep/wake regulation |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9248514/ |journal=Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum |volume=110 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-6576.1997.tb05482.x |issn=0515-2720 |pmid=9248514 |s2cid=9354406 |access-date=2022-08-11 |archive-date=2022-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811054840/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9248514/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are also unique behaviors that humans undergo to maintain physical health. Humans have developed [[medicine]] to prevent and treat illnesses. In industrialized nations, eating habits that favor better nutrition, hygienic behaviors that promote [[sanitation]], medical treatment to eradicate diseases, and the use of [[birth control]] significantly improve human health.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McKeown |first=Thomas |title=The Role of Medicine |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-1400854622 |page=78}}</ref> Humans can also engage in [[exercise]] beyond that required for survival to maintain health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vina |first1=J. |last2=Sanchis-Gomar |first2=F. |last3=Martinez-Bello |first3=V. |last4=Gomez-Cabrera |first4=M.C. |date=2012 |title=Exercise acts as a drug; the pharmacological benefits of exercise: Exercise acts as a drug |journal=British Journal of Pharmacology |language=en |volume=167 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01970.x |pmc=3448908 |pmid=22486393}}</ref> Humans engage in [[hygiene]] to limit exposure to [[dirt]] and [[pathogen]]s. Some of these behaviors are adaptive while others are learned. Basic behaviors of disgust evolved as an adaptation to prevent contact with sources of pathogens, resulting in a biological aversion to [[feces]], [[body fluid]]s, [[rotten food]], and animals that are commonly [[disease vector]]s. [[Personal grooming]], [[disposal of human corpses]], use of [[sewerage]], and use of [[cleaning agent]]s are hygienic behaviors common to most human societies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Curtis |first=Valerie A. |date=2007 |title=A Natural History of Hygiene |journal=Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=11–14 |doi=10.1155/2007/749190 |pmid=18923689 |pmc=2542893 |issn=1712-9532|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Humans [[Sexual reproduction|reproduce sexually]], engaging in [[sexual intercourse]] for both reproduction and [[sexual pleasure]]. Human reproduction is closely associated with [[human sexuality]] and an instinctive [[Libido|desire to procreate]], though humans are unique in that they intentionally control the number of offspring that they produce.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baggott |first=L. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCEQ2hvetsUC |title=Human Reproduction |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521469142 |page=5 |language=en}}</ref> Humans engage in a large variety of [[Human reproduction|reproductive behavior]]s relative to other animals, with various mating structures that include forms of [[monogamy]], [[polygyny]], and [[polyandry]]. How humans engage in mating behavior is heavily influenced by cultural norms and customs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newson |first=Lesley |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/809201501 |title=Building Babies: Primate Development in Proximate and Ultimate Perspective |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1461440604 |editor-last=Clancy |editor-first=Kathryn B. H. |location=New York |page=487 |chapter=Cultural Evolution and Human Reproductive Behavior |oclc=809201501 |editor-last2=Hinde |editor-first2=Katie |editor-last3=Rutherford |editor-first3=Julienne N.}}</ref> Unlike most mammals, humans ovulate spontaneously rather than seasonally, with a [[menstrual cycle]] that typically lasts 25–35 days.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Richard E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M4kEdSnS-pkC |title=Human Reproductive Biology |last2=Lopez |first2=Kristin H. |date=2013 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0123821850 |page=63 |language=en}}</ref>

Humans are [[Bipedalism|bipedal]] and move by [[walking]]. Human walking corresponds to the [[bipedal gait cycle]], which involves alternating heel contact and toe off with the ground and slight elevation and rotation of the [[pelvis]]. Balance while walking is learned during the first 7–9 years of life, and individual humans develop unique [[gaits]] while learning to displace weight, adjust [[center of mass]], and coordinate neural control with movement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Inman |first=Verne T. |date=1966-05-14 |title=Human Locomotion |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |volume=94 |issue=20 |pages=1047–1054 |issn=0008-4409 |pmc=1935424 |pmid=5942660}}</ref> Humans can achieve higher speed by [[running]]. The [[Endurance running hypothesis#"No horse or dog could possibly…"|endurance running hypothesis]] proposes that humans can outpace most other animals over long distances through running, though human running causes a higher rate of energy exertion. The human body self-regulates through [[perspiration]] during periods of exertion, allowing humans more endurance than other animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carrier |first1=David R. |last2=Kapoor |first2=A. K. |last3=Kimura |first3=Tasuku |last4=Nickels |first4=Martin K. |last5=Scott |first5=Eugenie C. |last6=So |first6=Joseph K. |last7=Trinkaus |first7=Erik |date=1984-08-01 |title=The Energetic Paradox of Human Running and Hominid Evolution [and Comments and Reply] |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/203165 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=483–495 |doi=10.1086/203165 |s2cid=15432016 |issn=0011-3204 |access-date=2022-08-23 |archive-date=2022-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825185729/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/203165 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The human [[hand]] is [[Prehensility|prehensile]] and capable of [[grasp]]ing objects and applying force with control over the hand's [[dexterity]] and [[grip strength]]. This allows the use of complex [[tool]]s by humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wells |first1=Richard |last2=Greig |first2=Michael |date=2001-12-01 |title=Characterizing human hand prehensile strength by force and moment wrench |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130110109702 |journal=Ergonomics |volume=44 |issue=15 |pages=1392–1402 |doi=10.1080/00140130110109702 |issn=0014-0139 |pmid=11936830 |s2cid=10935674 |access-date=2022-08-23 |archive-date=2022-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825185730/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140130110109702 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Economic behavior ==
{{Further|Behavioral economics}}
Humans engage in predictable behaviors when considering economic decisions, and these behaviors may or may not be [[Rationality|rational]]. Humans make basic decisions through [[cost–benefit analysis]] and the acceptable rate of return at the minimum risk. Human economic decision making is often [[Reference dependence|reference dependent]], in which options are weighed in reference to the status quo rather than absolute gains and losses. Humans are also [[Loss aversion|loss averse]], fearing loss rather than seeking gain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Laurie R |last2=Hughes |first2=Kelly D |date=2009-02-01 |title=Economic cognition in humans and animals: the search for core mechanisms |url=https://caplab.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/2009-SantosHughes.pdf |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |series=Cognitive neuroscience |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=63–66 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2009.05.005 |pmid=19541475 |s2cid=21443957 |issn=0959-4388 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20240228105114/https://caplab.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/2009-SantosHughes.pdf | archivedate = 2024-02-28 | url-status = live}}</ref> Advanced economic behavior developed in humans after the [[Neolithic Revolution]] and the development of [[agriculture]]. These developments led to a sustainable supply of resources that allowed [[Specialization of labor|specialization]] in more complex societies.{{Sfn|Neff|1985|pp=24–33}}

=== Work ===
{{Main|Work (human activity)}}
[[File:Boskapsskötsel i ladugården. Kvinna sitter och mjölkar en mager ko medan barfota flicka mockar - Nordiska museet - NMA.0036603.jpg|thumb|Women tending to farm animals in Mangskogs, Sweden (1911)]]
The nature of human work is defined by the complexity of society. The simplest societies are [[tribe]]s that work primarily for sustenance as [[hunter-gatherer]]s. In this sense, work is not a distinct activity but a constant that makes up all parts of life, as all members of the society must work consistently to stay alive.

More advanced societies developed after the Neolithic Revolution, emphasizing work in agricultural and [[Pastoralism|pastoral]] settings. In these societies, production is increased, ending the need for constant work and allowing some individuals to specialize and work in areas outside of food-production. This also created non-laborious work, as increasing occupational complexity required some individuals to specialize in technical knowledge and administration.{{Sfn|Neff|1985|pp=24–33}} Laborious work in these societies has variously been carried out by slaves, serfs, peasants, and guild craftsmen.

The nature of work changed significantly during the [[Industrial Revolution]] in which the [[factory system]] was developed for use by industrializing nations. In addition to further increasing general quality of life, this development changed the dynamic of work. Under the factory system, workers increasingly collaborate with others, employers serve as authority figures during work hours, and forced labor is largely eradicated. Further changes occur in [[Post-industrial society|post-industrial societies]] where technological advance makes industries obsolete, replacing them with [[mass production]] and [[service industries]].{{Sfn|Neff|1985|pp=41–46}}

Humans approach work differently based on both physical and personal attributes, and some work with more effectiveness and commitment than others. Some find work to contribute to personal fulfillment, while others work only out of necessity.{{Sfn|Neff|1985|p=2}} Work can also serve as an identity, with individuals identifying themselves based on their occupation. [[Work motivation]] is complex, both contributing to and subtracting from various human needs. The primary [[motivation]] for work is for material gain, which takes the form of [[money]] in modern societies. It may also serve to create self-esteem and personal worth, provide activity, gain respect, and express creativity.{{Sfn|Neff|1985|pp=142–153}} Modern work is typically categorized as laborious or [[Blue-collar worker|blue-collar work]] and non-laborious or [[White-collar worker|white-collar work]].{{Sfn|Neff|1985|pp=79–80}}

=== Leisure ===
{{Main|Leisure}}
[[File:Amateur Football in Kilkenny-Ireland.jpg|thumb|Men playing [[association football]] in [[Kilkenny]], Ireland (2007)]]
Leisure is activity or lack of activity that takes place outside of work. It provides relaxation, [[entertainment]], and improved quality of life for individuals.<ref name=":3" /> Engaging in leisure can be beneficial for physical and mental health. It may be used to seek temporary relief from [[psychological stress]], to produce positive emotions, or to facilitate social interaction. However, leisure can also facilitate health risks and [[negative emotion]]s caused by [[boredom]], [[substance abuse]], or [[Risk|high-risk behavior]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caldwell |first=Linda L. |date=2005-02-01 |title=Leisure and health: why is leisure therapeutic? |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880412331335939 |journal=British Journal of Guidance & Counselling |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=7–26 |doi=10.1080/03069880412331335939 |issn=0306-9885 |s2cid=144193642|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Leisure may be defined as serious or casual.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Stebbins |first=Robert A. |date=2001 |title=Serious Leisure |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/d7879f2e6d26559fdf8d5bef294d9ee6/1 |url-status=live |journal=Society |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=53–57 |doi=10.1007/s12115-001-1023-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825185729/https://www.proquest.com/openview/d7879f2e6d26559fdf8d5bef294d9ee6/1 |archive-date=2022-08-25 |access-date=2022-08-14|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Serious leisure behaviors involve non-professional pursuit of arts and sciences, the development of [[Hobby|hobbies]], or career volunteering in an area of expertise.<ref name=":4" /> Casual leisure behaviors provide short-term gratification, but they do not provide long-term gratification or personal identity. These include [[Play (activity)|play]], relaxation, casual social interaction, [[volunteering]], passive entertainment, active entertainment, and sensory stimulation. Passive entertainment is typically derived from [[mass media]], which may include written works or [[digital media]]. Active entertainment involves games in which individuals participate. Sensory stimulation is immediate gratification from behaviors such as eating or sexual intercourse.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Stebbins |first=Robert A. |date=2001-01-01 |title=The costs and benefits of hedonism: some consequences of taking casual leisure seriously |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360110086561 |journal=Leisure Studies |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=305–309 |doi=10.1080/02614360110086561 |s2cid=145273350 |issn=0261-4367 |access-date=2022-08-14 |archive-date=2022-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825185730/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02614360110086561 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Consumption ===
{{Main|Consumer behaviour}}
Humans operate as [[consumer]]s that obtain and use goods. All production is ultimately designed for [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]], and consumers adapt their behavior based on the availability of production. [[Mass consumption]] began during the Industrial Revolution, caused by the development of new technologies that allowed for increased production.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=de Vries |first=Jan |title=The Industrious Revolution: Consumer Behavior and the Household Economy, 1650 to the Present |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0511409936 |pages=4–7}}</ref> Many factors affect a consumer's decision to purchase goods through trade. They may consider the nature of the product, its associated cost, the convenience of purchase, and the nature of [[advertising]] around the product. Cultural factors may influence this decision, as different cultures value different things, and [[subculture]]s may have different priorities when it comes to purchasing decisions. [[Social class]], including wealth, education, and occupation may affect one's purchasing behavior. A consumer's interpersonal relationships and [[reference group]]s may also influence purchasing behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gajjar |first=Nilesh B. |date=2013 |title=Factors Affecting Consumer Behavior |journal=International Journal of Research in Health Science |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=10–15 |issn=2320-771X}}</ref>

== Ecological behavior ==
{{Main|Human ecology}}
[[File:Rural life in Gilandeh, Kharajgil - 15 April 2018 01.jpg|thumb|A girl with lambs in [[Gilandeh, Kharajgil|Gilandeh]], Iran (2018)]]
Like all living things, humans live in [[ecosystem]]s and interact with other organisms. Human behavior is affected by the environment in which a human lives, and environments are affected by human habitation. Humans have also developed man-made ecosystems such as [[urban area]]s and [[agricultural land]]. Geography and [[landscape ecology]] determine how humans are distributed within an ecosystem, both naturally and through planned [[urban morphology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Steiner |first=F. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/256490644 |title=Encyclopedia of Ecology |publisher=Elsevier |year=2008 |isbn=978-0080454054 |editor-last=Jørgensen |editor-first=Sven Erik  |chapter=Human Ecology: Overview |pages=1898–1906 |doi=10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00626-1 |oclc=256490644 |editor-last2=Fath |editor-first2=Brian D.}}</ref>

Humans exercise control over the animals that live within their environment. [[Domesticated animal]]s are trained and cared for by humans. Humans can develop social and emotional bonds with animals in their care. [[Pet]]s are kept for companionship within human homes, including [[dog]]s and [[cat]]s that have been bred for domestication over many centuries. [[Livestock]] animals, such as [[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, and [[poultry]], are kept on agricultural land to produce [[animal product]]s. Domesticated animals are also kept in laboratories for [[animal testing]]. Non-domesticated animals are sometimes kept in [[nature reserve]]s and [[zoo]]s for [[tourism]] and [[Conservation biology|conservation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hosey |first1=Geoff |last2=Melfi |first2=Vicky |date=2014 |title=Human-animal interactions, relationships and bonds: a review and analysis of the literature |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6955n8kd |journal=International Journal of Comparative Psychology |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |issn=0889-3675 }}</ref>

==Causes and factors==
Human behavior is influenced by biological and cultural elements. The [[structure and agency]] debate considers whether human behavior is predominantly led by individual human impulses or by external structural forces.<ref name=":2" /> [[Behavioral genetics]] considers how human behavior is affected by inherited traits. Though genes do not guarantee certain behaviors, certain traits can be inherited that make individuals more likely to engage in certain behaviors or express certain personalities.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Plomin |first1=Robert |title=Behavioral Genetics |last2=DeFries |first2=John C. |last3=McClearn |first3=Gerald E. |publisher=Worth Publishers |year=2008 |isbn=978-1429205771 |edition=5th |pages=1–4 |chapter=Overview}}</ref> An individual's environment can also affect behavior, often in conjunction with genetic factors. An individual's [[personality]] and [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] affect how behaviors are expressed, formed in conjunction by genetic and environmental factors.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Beauchaine |first1=T. P. |title=Child and Adolescent Psychopathology |last2=Hinshaw |first2=S. P. |last3=Gatzke-Kopp |first3=L. |year=2008 |isbn=978-0470007440  |pages=58–90 |chapter=Genetic and Environmental Influences on Behavior|publisher=Wiley }}</ref>

=== Age ===
{{Further|Ageing}}
[[File:Drummer girl (24186419196).jpg|thumb|An infant engaging in play in [[Los Angeles]], California (2015)]]
;Infants
[[Infant]]s are limited in their ability to interpret their surroundings shortly after birth. [[Object permanence]] and understanding of [[motion]] typically develop within the first six months of an infant's life, though the specific cognitive processes are not understood.{{Sfn|Bremner|Wachs|2010|pp=234–235}} The ability to mentally categorize different concepts and objects that they perceive also develops within the first year.{{Sfn|Bremner|Wachs|2010|pp=264–265}} Infants are quickly able to discern their body from their surroundings and often take interest in their own limbs or actions they cause by two months of age.{{Sfn|Bremner|Wachs|2010|pp=337–340}}

Infants practice [[imitation]] of other individuals to engage socially and learn new behaviors. In young infants, this involves imitating [[facial expression]]s, and imitation of tool use takes place within the first year.{{Sfn|Bremner|Wachs|2010|pp=346–347}} Communication develops over the first year, and infants begin using [[gesture]]s to communicate intention around nine to ten months of age. Verbal communication develops more gradually, taking form during the second year of age.{{Sfn|Bremner|Wachs|2010|pp=398–399}}

;Children
Children develop [[fine motor skill]]s shortly after infancy, in the range of three to six years of age, allowing them to engage in behaviors using the hands and [[eye–hand coordination]] and perform basic activities of [[Self sufficient|self sufficiency]].{{Sfn|Woody|Woody|2019|pp=259–260}} Children begin expressing more complex emotions in the three- to six-year-old range, including humor, empathy, and altruism, as well engaging in creativity and inquiry.{{Sfn|Woody|Woody|2019|p=263}} [[Aggression|Aggressive]] behaviors also become varied at this age as children engage in increased physical aggression before learning to favor diplomacy over aggression.{{Sfn|Woody|Woody|2019|p=279}} Children at this age can express themselves using language with basic grammar.{{Sfn|Woody|Woody|2019|pp=268–269}}

As children grow older, they develop [[emotional intelligence]].{{Sfn|Charlesworth|2019|p=346}} Young children engage in basic social behaviors with [[Peer group|peers]], typically forming friendships centered on play with individuals of the same age and gender.{{Sfn|Woody|Woody|2019|p=281}} Behaviors of young children are centered around play, which allows them to practice physical, cognitive, and social behaviors.{{Sfn|Woody|Woody|2019|p=290}} Basic self-concept first develops as children grow, particularly centered around traits such as gender and ethnicity,{{Sfn|Charlesworth|2019|p=343}} and behavior is heavily affected by peers for the first time.{{Sfn|Charlesworth|2019|p=353}}

;Adolescents
[[Adolescents]] undergo changes in behavior caused by [[puberty]] and the associated changes in [[hormone]] production. Production of [[testosterone]] increases [[sensation seeking]] and [[Reward system|sensitivity to rewards]] in adolescents as well as [[aggression]] and [[risk-taking]] in adolescent boys. Production of [[estradiol]] causes similar risk-taking behavior among adolescent girls. The new hormones cause changes in emotional processing that allow for close friendships, stronger motivations and intentions, and [[adolescent sexuality]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peper |first1=Jiska S. |last2=Dahl |first2=Ronald E. |date=2013 |title=The Teenage Brain: Surging Hormones&nbsp;– Brain-Behavior Interactions During Puberty |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=134–139 |doi=10.1177/0963721412473755 |issn=0963-7214 |pmc=4539143 |pmid=26290625}}</ref>

Adolescents undergo social changes on a large scale, developing a full self-concept and making autonomous decisions independently of adults. They typically become more aware of social norms and social cues than children, causing an increase in [[self-consciousness]] and [[adolescent egocentrism]] that guides behavior in social settings throughout adolescence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Choudhury |first1=Suparna |last2=Blakemore |first2=Sarah-Jayne |last3=Charman |first3=Tony |date=2006 |title=Social cognitive development during adolescence |url=https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/1/3/165/2362733 |journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=165–174|doi=10.1093/scan/nsl024 |pmid=18985103 |pmc=2555426 }}</ref>

=== Culture and environment ===
Human brains, as with those of all mammals, are [[Neuroplasticity|neuroplastic]]. This means that the structure of the brain changes over time as [[neural pathway]]s are altered in response to the environment. Many behaviors are learned through [[Interactionism (nature versus nurture)|interaction]] with others during early development of the brain.{{Sfn|Van Schaik|2016|loc=Chapter 2.4}} Human behavior is distinct from the behavior of other animals in that it is heavily influenced by culture and language. [[Social learning theory|Social learning]] allows humans to develop new behaviors by following the example of others. Culture is also the guiding influence that defines social norms.{{Sfn|Van Schaik|2016|loc=Chapter 3.1}}

=== Physiology ===
[[Neurotransmitter]]s, [[hormone]]s, and [[metabolism]] are all recognized as biological factors in human behavior.{{Sfn|Longino|2013|p=12}}

[[Physical disability|Physical disabilities]] can prevent individuals from engaging in typical human behavior or necessitate alternative behaviors. Accommodations and [[accessibility]] are often made available for individuals with physical disabilities in developed nations, including health care, [[assistive technology]], and [[Vocational rehabilitation|vocational services]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lutz |first1=Barbara J. |last2=Bowers |first2=Barbara J. |date=2005 |title=Disability in Everyday Life |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1049732305278631 |journal=Qualitative Health Research |language=en |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=1037–1054 |doi=10.1177/1049732305278631 |issn=1049-7323 |pmid=16221878 |s2cid=24307046|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Severe disabilities are associated with increased leisure time but also with a lower satisfaction in the quality of leisure time. Productivity and health both commonly undergo long term decline following the onset of a severe disability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Powdthavee |first=Nattavudh |date=2009-12-01 |title=What happens to people before and after disability? Focusing effects, lead effects, and adaptation in different areas of life |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953609006145 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |series=Part Special Issue: New approaches to researching patient safety |language=en |volume=69 |issue=12 |pages=1834–1844 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.023 |issn=0277-9536 |pmid=19833424|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Disabilities affecting intellectual abilities|Mental disabilities]] are those that directly affect cognitive and social behavior. Common [[mental disorder]]s include [[mood disorder]]s, [[anxiety disorder]]s, [[personality disorder]]s, and [[substance dependence]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krueger |first=Robert F. |date=1999-10-01 |title=The Structure of Common Mental Disorders |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |language=en |volume=56 |issue=10 |pages=921–926 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.56.10.921 |issn=0003-990X |pmid=10530634 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Psychology|Society}}
* [[Behavioral modernity]]
* [[Behaviorism]]
* [[Cultural ecology]]
* [[Human behavioral ecology]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |title=The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |isbn=978-1444332735 |editor-last=Bremner |editor-first=Gavin |edition=2nd |volume=1: Basic Research |editor-last2=Wachs |editor-first2=Theodore D.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Charlesworth |first=Leanne Wood |title=Dimensions of Human Behavior: The Changing Life Course |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2019 |editor-last=Hutchison |editor-first=Elizabeth D. |edition=6th |pages=327–395 |chapter=Early Childhood |isbn=978-1544339344 |lccn=2018021374}}
* {{Cite book |last=Duck |first=Steve |title=Human Relationships |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2007 |isbn=978-1412929998 |edition=4th |author-link=Steve Duck}}
* {{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Dylan |title=Emotion: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0192804617  |author-link=Dylan Evans}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goode |first=Erich |editor-first1=Erich |editor-last1=Goode |title=The Handbook of Deviance |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118701386 |publisher=Wiley |year=2015 |isbn=978-1118701324 |pages=3–29 |chapter=The Sociology of Deviance: An Introduction|doi=10.1002/9781118701386 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Longino |first=Helen E. |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226921822/html |title=Studying Human Behavior: How Scientists Investigate Aggression and Sexuality |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |doi=10.7208/9780226921822 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |isbn=978-0226921822}}
* {{Cite book |last=Neff |first=Walter S. |title=Work and Human Behavior |publisher=Aldine Publishing Company |year=1985 |isbn=0202303195 |edition=3rd}}
* {{Cite book |last=Van Schaik |first=Carel P. |title=The primate origins of human nature |date=2016 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-119-11820-6 |series=Foundations of human biology |location=Hoboken, New Jersey}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Woody |first1=Debra J. |title=Dimensions of Human Behavior: The Changing Life Course |last2=Woody |first2=David |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2019 |editor-last=Hutchison |editor-first=Elizabeth D. |edition=6th |pages=251–326 |chapter=Early Childhood |isbn=978-1544339344 |lccn=2018021374}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Human behavior}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Human behavior| ]]
[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:Main topic articles]]