Editing Human history

{{Short description|none}}
{{pp|reason=Persistent vandalism; virtually all edits in the past few weeks have been reversions|small=yes}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2024}}
{{redirect|World history}}
{{Human history|expand=all}}

'''Human history''' or '''world history''' is the record of [[human]]kind from [[prehistory]] to the [[present]]. [[Early modern human|Modern humans]] evolved in [[Africa]] around 300,000 years ago and initially lived as [[hunter-gatherer]]s. They [[Early expansions of hominins out of Africa|migrated out of Africa]] during the [[Last Ice Age]] and had spread across Earth's continental land except [[Antarctica]] by the end of the Ice Age 12,000 years ago. Soon afterward, the [[Neolithic Revolution]] in [[West Asia]] brought the first systematic [[Agriculture|husbandry]] of plants and animals, and saw many humans transition from a [[nomad]]ic life to a [[Sedentism|sedentary]] existence as farmers in [[Civilization|permanent settlements]]. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of [[accounting]] and [[writing]].

These developments paved the way for the [[Cradle of civilization|emergence of early civilizations]] in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley]], and [[History of China|China]], marking the beginning of the [[ancient period]] in 3500&nbsp;BCE. These civilizations supported the establishment of regional empires and acted as a fertile ground for the advent of transformative philosophical and religious ideas, initially [[Hinduism]] during the late [[Bronze Age]], and{{snd}}during the [[Axial Age]]: [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Greek philosophy]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Zoroastrianism]]. The subsequent [[Post-classical history|post-classical period]], from about 500 to 1500&nbsp;CE, witnessed the rise of [[Islam]] and the continued spread and consolidation of [[Christianity]] while civilization expanded to new parts of the world and trade between societies increased. These developments were accompanied by the rise and decline of major empires, such as the [[Byzantine Empire]], the Islamic [[caliphate]]s, the [[Mongol Empire]], and various [[Chinese dynasties]]. This period's invention of [[gunpowder]] and of the [[printing press]] greatly affected subsequent history.

During the [[early modern period]], spanning from approximately 1500 to 1800&nbsp;CE, [[Age of Discovery|European powers explored]] and [[colonized]] regions worldwide, intensifying cultural and economic exchange. This era saw substantial intellectual, cultural, and technological advances in Europe driven by the [[Renaissance]], the [[Reformation]] in [[History of Germany|Germany]] giving rise to [[Protestantism]], the [[Scientific Revolution]], and the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a [[Critical mass (sociodynamics)|critical mass]] that brought about the [[Industrial Revolution]], substantial to the [[Great Divergence]], and began the [[modern period]] starting around 1800&nbsp;CE. The rapid growth in productive power further increased [[international trade]] and [[colonization]], linking the different civilizations in the process of [[globalization]], and cemented European dominance throughout the 19th century. Over the last quarter-millennium, which included two devastating [[world war]]s, there has been a great acceleration in many spheres, including [[Population growth|human population]], agriculture, industry, commerce, scientific knowledge, technology, communications, military capabilities, and [[environmental degradation]].

The study of human history relies on insights from academic disciplines including [[history]], [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]], [[linguistics]], and [[genetics]]. To provide an accessible overview, researchers divide human history by a variety of periodizations.

== Prehistory ==
{{Main|Prehistory|Timeline of prehistory}}
=== Human origins ===
{{Further|Human evolution|Lower Paleolithic}}
Humans evolved in Africa from [[great apes]] through the lineage of [[hominins]], which arose 7–5&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=1|loc="Human beings evolved over several million years from primates in Africa."}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=150|loc="But it turned out that humans and chimps differed from each other only by about 10 percent as much as the differences between major groups of mammals, which suggested that they had diverged from each other approximately 5 to 7 million years ago."}}|{{harvnb|Dunbar|2016|p=8|loc="Conventionally, taxonomists now refer to the great ape family (including humans) as ''hominids'', while all members of the lineage leading to modern humans that arose after the split with the [''Homo''-''Pan''] LCA are referred to as ''hominins''. The older literature used the terms hominoids and hominids respectively."}}|{{harvnb|Wragg-Sykes|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 183–184]}} }}</ref> The [[Bipedalism|ability to walk on two legs]] emerged in early hominins after the split from [[Pan (genus)|chimpanzees]], as an adaptation possibly associated with a shift from forest to savanna habitats.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Dunbar|2016|pp=8, 10|loc="What has come to define our lineage – bipedalism – was adopted early on after we parted company with the chimpanzees, presumably in order to facilitate travel on the ground in more open habitats where large forest trees were less common....The australopithecines did not differ from the modern chimpanzees in terms of brain size."}}|{{harvnb|Lewton|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DTwuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 117]}}}}</ref> Hominins began to use rudimentary stone tools {{circa|3.3}}&nbsp;million years ago,{{efn|This date comes from the 2015 discovery of stone tools at the [[Lomekwi]] site in Kenya.<ref>{{harvnb|Harmand|2015|pp=[https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8697F75/download 310–315]}}</ref> Some paleontologists propose an earlier date of 3.39&nbsp;million years ago based on bones found with butchery marks on them in [[Dikika]], Ethiopia,<ref>{{harvnb|McPherron|Alemseged|Marean|Wynn|2010|pp=857–860}}</ref> while others dispute both the Dikika and Lomekwi findings.<ref>{{harvnb|Domínguez-Rodrigo|Alcalá|2016|pp=[https://paleoanthro.org/media/journal/content/PA20160046.pdf 46–53]}}</ref>}} marking the advent of the [[Paleolithic]] era.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|de la Torre|2019|pp=11567–11569}}|{{harvnb|Stutz|2018|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0363 1–9]|loc="The Paleolithic era encompasses the bulk of the human archaeological record. Its onset is defined by the oldest known stone tools, now dated to 3.3 Ma, found at the Lomekwi site in Kenya."}}}}</ref>

The genus ''[[Homo]]'' evolved from ''[[Australopithecus]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Strait|2010|p=341|loc="However, Homo is almost certainly descended from an australopith ancestor, so at least one or some australopiths belong directly to the human lineage."}}</ref> The earliest record of ''Homo'' is the 2.8&nbsp;million-year-old specimen [[LD 350-1]] from Ethiopia,<ref>{{harvnb|Villmoare|Kimbel|Seyoum|Campisano|2015|pp=1352–1355}}</ref> and the earliest named species is ''[[Homo habilis]]'' which evolved by 2.3&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Spoor|Gunz|Neubauer|Stelzer|2015|pp=[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273149772 83–86]|loc="The latter is morphologically more derived than OH 7 but 500,000 years older, suggesting that the ''H. habilis'' lineage originated before 2.3 million years ago, thus marking deep-rooted species diversity in the genus ''Homo''."}}</ref> The most important difference between ''Homo habilis'' and ''Australopithecus'' was a 50% increase in brain size.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=5|loc="What most distinguished ''Homo habilis'' from the australopithecines was a brain that was nearly 50 percent larger."}}</ref> ''[[H. erectus]]''{{efn|the African variant is sometimes called ''[[H. ergaster]]''}} evolved about 2&nbsp;million years ago<ref>{{harvnb|Herries|Martin|Leece|Adams|2020}}</ref>{{efn|Or perhaps earlier; the 2018 discovery of stone tools from 2.1&nbsp;million years ago in [[Shangchen]], China predates the earliest known ''H. erectus'' fossils.<ref>{{harvnb|Zhu|Dennell|Huang|Wu|2018|loc="Fourth, and most importantly, the oldest artefact age of approximately 2.12 Ma at Shangchen implies that hominins had left Africa before the date suggested by the earliest evidence from Dmanisi (about 1.85 Ma). This makes it necessary to reconsider the timing of initial dispersal of early hominins in the Old World."}}</ref>}} and was the first hominin species to [[Early expansions of hominins out of Africa|leave Africa]] and disperse across Eurasia.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunbar|2016|p=10}}</ref> Perhaps as early as 1.5&nbsp;million years ago, but certainly by 250,000 years ago, hominins [[Control of fire by early humans|began to use fire]] for heat and cooking.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Gowlett|2016|p=20150164|loc="We know that burning evidence occurs on numbers of archaeological sites from about 1.5 Ma onwards (there is evidence of actual hearths from around 0.7 to 0.4 Ma); that more elaborate technologies existed from around half a million years ago, and that these came to employ adhesives that require preparation by fire."}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=11}}}}</ref>

Beginning about 500,000 years ago, ''Homo'' diversified into many new species of [[archaic humans]] such as the [[Neanderthal]]s in Europe, the [[Denisovan]]s in [[Siberia]], and the diminutive ''[[H. floresiensis]]'' in [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=400n}}|{{harvnb|Dunbar|2016|p=11}}}}</ref> Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved [[Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans|interbreeding between related species]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hammer|2013|pp=66–71}}|{{harvnb|Yong|2011|pp=34–38}}}}</ref> Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Ackermann|Mackay|Arnold|2015|pp=1–11}}</ref> [[DNA]] evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non-[[sub-Saharan Africa]]n populations. Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their [[genome]] to present-day non-sub-Saharan African humans.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Reich|Green|Kircher|Krause|2010|pp=1053–1060}}|{{harvnb|Abi-Rached|Jobin|Kulkarni|McWhinnie|2011|pp=89–94}}}}</ref>

=== Early humans ===
{{Main|Early modern human|Early human migrations}}
[[File:Spreading homo sapiens la.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|Successive dispersals of {{color box|#e8e22c}} ''[[Homo erectus]]'' (yellow), {{color box|#e4ca30}} ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' (ochre) during ''[[Out of Africa I]]'' and {{color box|#e9252c}} ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' (red, ''[[Out of Africa II]]''), with the numbers of years since they appeared ''[[before present]]''.]]

''Homo sapiens'' emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago{{efn|Some authors suggest a later date at around 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Wragg-Sykes|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}}</ref>}} from the species ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]''.{{efn|The term ''[[Homo rhodesiensis]]'' is also sometimes used.}}<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hublin|Ben-Ncer|Bailey|Freidline|2017|pp=289–292}}|{{harvnb|Fagan|Durrani|2021|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NNFKEAAAQBAJ 3. Enter Homo Sapiens (c. 300,000 Years Ago and Later)]}}|{{harvnb|Coolidge|Wynn|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}}}</ref> Humans continued to develop over the succeeding millennia, and by 100,000 years ago, were using jewelry and [[ocher]] to adorn the body.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=319}}</ref> By 50,000 years ago, they buried their dead, used projectile weapons, and engaged in seafaring.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|pp=319–320, 330, 354}}</ref> One of the most important changes (the date of which is unknown) was the [[Origin of language|development of syntactic language]], which dramatically improved the human ability to communicate.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|pp=344–346}}</ref> Signs of early artistic expression can be found in the form of [[cave painting]]s and sculptures made from ivory, stone, and bone, implying a form of spirituality generally interpreted as [[animism]]<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|McNeill|2003|pp=17–18}}</ref> or [[shamanism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|pp=357–358, 409}}</ref> The earliest known musical instruments besides the human voice are [[bone flutes]] from the [[Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura|Swabian Jura]] in Germany, dated around 40,000 years old.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Morley|2013|pp=42–43}}|{{harvnb|Svard|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mC6oEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}} }}</ref> Paleolithic humans lived as [[hunter-gatherer]]s and were generally [[nomad]]ic.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=22|loc="Most Paleolithic communities lived by foraging, nomadizing over familiar territories."}}</ref>

The migration of anatomically modern humans [[Recent African origin of modern humans|out of Africa]] took place in multiple waves beginning 194,000–177,000 years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Weber|Hershkovitz|Gunz|Neubauer|2020|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618219308080 29–39]}}</ref>{{efn|These dates come from a 2018 study of an upper jawbone from [[Misliya Cave]], Israel.<ref>{{harvnb|Herschkovitz|2018|pp=456–459}}</ref> Researchers studying a fossil skull from [[Apidima Cave]], Greece in 2019 proposed an earlier date of 210,000 years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Harvati|Röding|Bosman|Karakostis|2019|pp=[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1376-z 500–504]}}</ref> The Apidima Cave study has been challenged by other scholars.<ref>{{harvnb|Rosas|Bastir|2020|p=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003552120300042 102745]}}</ref>}} The [[Southern Dispersal|dominant view among scholars]] is that the early waves of migration died out and all modern non-Africans are descended from a single group that left Africa 70,000–50,000 years ago.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=283}}|{{harvnb|O'Connell|Allen|Williams|Williams|2018|pp=8482–8490}}|{{harvnb|Posth|Renaud|Mittnik|Drucker|2016|pp=827–833}}}}</ref>{{efn|Other scholars argue in favor of a northern dispersal of humans through Central Asia into China, or a multiple dispersal model with several different routes of migration.<ref>{{harvnb|Li|Petraglia|Roberts|Gao|2020|pp=1699–1700}}</ref>}} ''H. sapiens'' proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in [[Prehistory of Australia|Australia]] 65,000 years ago,<ref>{{harvnb|Clarkson|Jacobs|Marwick|Fullagar|2017|pp=306–310}}</ref> [[Prehistoric Europe|Europe]] 45,000 years ago,<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=283}}</ref> and the [[Peopling of the Americas|Americas]] 21,000 years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Bennett|2021|pp=[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7586 1528–1531]}}</ref> These migrations occurred during the [[Last Glacial Period|most recent Ice Age]], when various temperate regions of today were inhospitable.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=316|loc="Dispersal over an unprecedented swath of the globe...coincided with an Ice Age that...spread ice in the northern hemisphere as far south as the present lower courses of the Missouri and Ohio rivers in North America and deep into what are now the British Isles. Ice covered what is today Scandinavia. Most of the rest of what is now Europe was tundra or taiga. In central Eurasia, tundra reached almost to the present latitudes of the Black Sea. Steppe licked the shores of the Mediterranean. In the New World, tundra and taiga extended to where Virginia is today."}} | {{harvnb|Pollack|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jV47VHRpmisC&pg=PA93 93]}} }}</ref> Nevertheless, by the end of the Ice Age some 12,000 years ago, humans had colonized nearly all ice-free parts of the globe.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=400|loc="In any case, by the end of the era of climatic fluctuation, humans occupied almost all the habitats their descendants occupy today, with the exception of relatively remote parts of the Pacific, accessible only by high-seas navigation and unsettled, as far as we know, for many millennia more."}}</ref> Human expansion coincided with both the [[Quaternary extinction event]] and the [[Neanderthal extinction]].<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2015|pp=321, 406, 440–441}}</ref> These extinctions were probably caused by climate change, human activity, or a combination of the two.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Koch|Barnosky|2006|pp=215–250}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2015|p=406}}}}</ref>

=== Rise of agriculture ===
{{Main|Neolithic}}

Beginning around 10,000&nbsp;BCE, the [[Neolithic Revolution]] marked the development of [[agriculture]], which fundamentally changed the human lifestyle.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewin|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xryuw8sqNsoC 247]}}</ref> Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe,<ref>{{harvnb|Stephens|Fuller|Boivin|Rick|2019|pp=897–902}}</ref> and included a diverse range of [[taxa]], in at least 11 separate [[centers of origin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|Piperno|Allaby|Purugganan|2014|pp=6139–6146}}</ref> [[Cereal crop]] cultivation and [[animal domestication]] had occurred in [[Mesopotamia]] by at least 8500&nbsp;BCE in the form of wheat, [[barley]], sheep, and goats.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|1999|p=11}}</ref> The [[Yangtze River Valley]] in China domesticated rice around 8000–7000&nbsp;BCE; the [[Yellow River Valley]] may have cultivated [[millet]] by 7000&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|pp=325, 336|loc="More recent improvements in archaeobotanical recovery have indicated that rice domestication was underway durin...the Hemudu cultural phase in the lower Yangtze valley...This points to a start of cultivation in this region of c. 10,000–9,000 years ago; in the middle Yangtze valley it could have begun someone earlier but may represent a parallel process to the lower Yangtze...it has been suggested on the basis of phytolith and starch residue evidence that broomcorn and foxtail millet were already in use in northern China prior to 7000&nbsp;BCE. Nonetheless, the most abundant macrofossil evidence of broomcorn and foxtail millet is found in association with the early Neolithic sites post-7000&nbsp;BCE."}}</ref> Pigs were the most important domesticated animal in early China.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=323}}</ref> People in Africa's [[Sahara]] cultivated [[sorghum]] and several other crops between 8000 and 5000&nbsp;BCE,{{efn|This occurred during the [[African humid period]], when the Sahara was much wetter than it is today.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=59}}</ref>}} while other agricultural centers arose in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] and the West African rainforests.<ref name="Bulliet et al-4">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=21}}</ref> In the [[Indus River Valley]], crops were cultivated by 7000&nbsp;BCE and cattle were domesticated by 6500&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=265}}</ref> In the Americas, [[Cucurbita|squash]] was cultivated by at least 8500&nbsp;BCE in South America, and domesticated [[arrowroot]] appeared in Central America by 7800&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=518|loc="Arrowroot was the earliest domesticate [in Panama], dating to 7800 BC at the Cueva de los Vampiros site and 5800&nbsp;BCE at Aguadulce...Plant domestication began before 8500&nbsp;BCE in southwest coastal Ecuador. Squash phytoliths were recovered from terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene strata at Vegas sites. Phytoliths recovered from the earliest levels are from wild squash, with domesticated size squash phytoliths directly dated to 9840–8555&nbsp;BCE."}}</ref> Potatoes were first cultivated in the [[Andes]] of South America, where the [[llama]] was also domesticated.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=85}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=202}}}}</ref> It is likely that women played a central role in plant domestication throughout these developments.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Adovasio|Soffer|Page|2007|pp=243, 257}}|{{harvnb|Graeber|Wengrow|2021|loc="Seen this way, the 'origins of farming' start to look less like an economic transition and more like a media revolution, which was also a social revolution, encompassing everything from horticulture to architecture, mathematics to thermodynamics, and from religion to the remodelling of gender roles. And while we can't know exactly who was doing what in this brave new world, it's abundantly clear that women's work and knowledge were central to its creation; that the whole process was a fairly leisurely, even playful one, not forced by any environmental catastrophe or demographic tipping point and unmarked by major violent conflict. What's more, it was all carried out in ways that made radical inequality an extremely unlikely outcome"}}}}</ref>

[[File:Göbeklitepe Building C sept 2019 5373crop.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|A pillar at Neolithic [[Göbekli Tepe]]|alt=Stone pillar with animals carved on it]]

Various explanations of the causes of the Neolithic Revolution have been proposed.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=218}}</ref> Some theories identify population growth as the main factor, leading people to seek out new food sources. Others see population growth not as the cause but as the effect of the associated improvements in food supply.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=95}}</ref> Further suggested factors include climate change, resource scarcity, and ideology.<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|pp=216–218}}</ref> The transition to agriculture created food surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production,<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|pp=34–35}}</ref> permitting far denser populations and the creation of the first cities and [[State (polity)|states]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lewin|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xryuw8sqNsoC 247]|loc="The date of 12,000 years before present (BP) is usually given as the beginning of what has been called the Agricultural (or Neolithic) Revolution...The tremendous changes wrought during the Neolithic can be seen as a prelude to the emergence of cities and city states and, of course, to a further rise in population."}}</ref>

Cities were centers of [[trade]], [[manufacturing]], and [[political power]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|pp=313, 391}}</ref> They developed mutually beneficial relationships with their surrounding [[Rural area|countrysides]], receiving agricultural products and providing manufactured goods and varying degrees of political control in return.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|p=193}}|{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|pp=313–316}}}}</ref> [[Pastoral society|Pastoral societies]] based on nomadic animal herding also developed, mostly in dry areas unsuited for plant cultivation such as the [[Eurasian Steppe]] or the African [[Sahel]].<ref>{{harvnb|Barker|Goucher|2015|pp=161–162, 172–173}}</ref> Conflict between nomadic herders and [[Sedentism|sedentary]] agriculturalists was frequent and became a recurring theme in world history.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=99}}</ref>

[[Metalworking]] was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6400&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="Bulliet et al-4" /> Gold and silver soon followed, primarily for use in ornaments.<ref name="Bulliet et al-4" /> The first signs of [[bronze]], an alloy of copper and [[tin]], date to around 4500&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{harvnb|Radivojevic|Rehren|Kuzmanovic-Cvetkovic|Jovanovic|2013|pp=[http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1420706/ 1030–1045]}}</ref> but the alloy did not become widely used until the 3rd millennium&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|pp=30–31}}</ref>

== Ancient history ==
{{Main|Ancient history|Timeline of ancient history}}

=== Cradles of civilization ===
{{Main|Cradle of civilization|Bronze Age|Iron Age}}

[[File:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|thumb|[[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids of Giza]], Egypt|alt=Three large pyramids in the desert, together with subsidiary pyramids and the remains of other structures]]

The Bronze Age saw the development of cities and [[civilization]]s.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McClellan|Dorn|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aJgp94zNwNQC 41]}}|{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|p=46}}}}</ref> Early civilizations arose close to rivers, first in Mesopotamia (3300&nbsp;BCE) with the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris and Euphrates]],<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Stearns|Langer|2001|p=21}}|{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|p=53}}}}</ref> followed by the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian civilization]] along the [[Nile River]] (3200&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bard|2000|p=63}}|{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|p=70}}}}</ref> the [[Norte Chico civilization]] in coastal [[Peru]] (3100&nbsp;BCE),<ref name="Benjamin 2015-3">{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=563}}</ref> the [[Indus Valley civilization]] in Pakistan and northwestern India (2500&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Graeber|Wengrow|2021|p=314}}|{{harvnb|Chakrabarti|2004|pp=10–13}}|{{harvnb|Allchin|Allchin|1997|pp=153–168}}}}</ref> and the [[Ancient China|Chinese civilization]] along the [[Yangtze]] and [[Yellow River]]s (2200&nbsp;BCE).<ref name="Ropp 2010">{{harvnb|Ropp|2010|p=2}}</ref>{{efn|This is the traditional date for the founding of the [[Xia dynasty]] and has not been confirmed by archaeology.<ref name="Ropp 2010" /> Chinese civilization had its origins in the earlier [[Yangshao]] and [[Longshan culture]]s (4000–2000&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{harvnb|Tignor et al.|2014|p=71}}</ref> but the [[Shang]] is the first dynasty that can be archeologically verified (1750&nbsp;BCE).<ref>{{harvnb|Ropp|2010|pp=2–3}}</ref>}}

These societies developed a number of shared characteristics, including a central government, a complex economy and social structure, and systems for keeping records.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=23}}</ref> These cultures variously invented the wheel,<ref>{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=32}}</ref> mathematics,<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|p=59}}</ref> bronze-working,<ref name="Bulliet et al-3">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=35}}</ref> sailing boats,<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|p=91}}</ref> the [[potter's wheel]],<ref name="Bulliet et al-3" /> [[Weaving|woven]] cloth,<ref name="McNeill 1999">{{harvnb|McNeill|1999|p=16}}</ref> construction of monumental buildings,<ref name="McNeill 1999" /> and writing.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|1999|p=18}}</ref> [[Polytheistic]] religions developed, centered on temples where [[priest]]s and priestesses performed [[sacrificial]] rites.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnston|2004|pp=[http://archive.org/details/religionsofancie0000unse_d0s1 13, 19]}}</ref>

[[File:Xerxes Cuneiform Van (cropped).png|thumb|upright=.8|[[Cuneiform]] inscription, eastern Turkey|alt=Photo of a cuneiform inscription]]

[[History of writing|Writing]] facilitated the administration of cities, the expression of ideas, and the preservation of information.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|pp=43–46}}</ref> It may have independently developed in at least four ancient civilizations: Mesopotamia (3300&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=118}}</ref> Egypt (around 3250&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Regulski|2016}}|{{harvnb|Wengrow|2011|pp=99–103|loc=The Invention of Writing in Egypt}}}}</ref> China (1200&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{harvnb|Boltz|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/worldswritingsys0000unse/ 191]|loc=Early Chinese Writing}}</ref> and lowland [[Mesoamerica]] (by 650&nbsp;BCE).<ref>{{harvnb|Fagan|Beck|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ystMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA762 762]}}</ref> The earliest system of writing{{efn|Various forms of [[proto-writing]] existed earlier but they did not constitute fully developed writing system.<ref>{{harvnb|Trubek|2016|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uRcLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT11 The Strangely Familiar Very Far Past]}}</ref>}} was the Mesopotamian [[cuneiform script]], which began as a system of [[pictographs]], whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|pp=53–54}}|{{harvnb|Tignor et al.|2014|pp=49, 52}}}}</ref>{{efn|Cuneiform texts were written by using a blunt [[Phragmites|reed]] as a [[stylus]] to draw [[symbol]]s upon [[clay tablet]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=33}}</ref>}} Other influential early writing systems include [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] and the [[Indus script]].<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zcXH52jICOEC&pg=PA38 38]}}</ref> In China, writing was first used during the [[Shang dynasty]] (1766–1045&nbsp;BCE).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=80}}|{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=136}}}}</ref>

Transport was facilitated by waterways, including rivers and seas, which fostered the projection of military power and the exchange of goods, ideas, and inventions.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Abulafia|2011|pp=[http://archive.org/details/greatseahumanhis0000abul xvii, ''passim'']}}|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=89}}}}</ref> The Bronze Age also saw new land technologies, such as horse-based [[cavalry]] and [[chariot]]s, that allowed [[armies]] to move faster.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=35}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xFHOahfX0R4C&pg=PA256 256]}} }}</ref> Trade became increasingly important as urban societies exchanged manufactured goods for raw materials from distant lands, creating vast commercial networks and the beginnings of [[archaic globalization]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tignor et al.|2014|pp=48–49}}</ref> Bronze production in Southwest Asia, for example, required the import of tin from as far away as England.<ref>{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=31}}</ref>

The growth of cities was often followed by the establishment of states and empires.<ref>{{harvnb|Graeber|Wengrow|2021|p=362|loc="There is no doubt that, in most of the areas that saw the rise of cities, powerful kingdoms and empires also eventually emerged."}}</ref> In Egypt, the initial division into [[Upper and Lower Egypt]] was followed by the unification of the whole valley around 3100&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Bard|2000|pp=57–64}}</ref> Around 2600&nbsp;BCE, the Indus Valley civilization built major cities at [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=320}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=46}}}}</ref> Mesopotamian history was characterized by frequent wars between city-states, leading to shifts in [[hegemony]] from one city to another.<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=257}}</ref> In the 25th–21st centuries&nbsp;BCE, the empires of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]] and the [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Neo-Sumerians]] arose in this area.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|1999|pp=36–37}}</ref> In Crete, the [[Minoan civilization]] emerged by 2000&nbsp;BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=56}}</ref>

Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|1999|pp=46–47}}</ref> By 1600&nbsp;BCE, [[Mycenaean Greece]] began to develop.<ref>{{harvnb|Price|Thonemann|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/birthofclassical00pric 25]}}</ref> It flourished until the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] that affected many Mediterranean civilizations between 1300 and 1000&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=331}}</ref> The foundations of many cultural aspects in India were laid in the [[Vedic period]] (1750–600&nbsp;BCE), including the emergence of [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|pp=116–122}}</ref>{{efn|The [[Vedas]] contain the earliest references to India's [[Caste system in India|caste system]], which divided society into four hereditary classes: priests, warriors, farmers and traders, and laborers.<ref>{{harvnb|Graeber|Wengrow|2021|p=317}}</ref>}} From around 550&nbsp;BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the [[Mahajanapadas]] were established across the subcontinent.<ref>{{harvnb|Singh|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC 260–264]}}</ref>

[[File:San Lorenzo Monument 4 crop.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Olmec colossal heads|Olmec colossal head]], now at the Museo de Antropología de Xalapa|alt=A stone head]]

Speakers of the [[Bantu languages]] began [[Bantu expansion|expanding]] across Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa as early as 3000&nbsp;BCE until 1000&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=646–647}}</ref> Their expansion and encounters with other groups resulted in the displacement of the [[African Pygmies|Pygmy peoples]] and the [[Khoisan]], and in the spread of [[mixed farming]] and [[ironworking]] throughout sub-Saharan Africa, laying the foundations for later states.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=648}}</ref>

The [[Lapita culture]] emerged in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] near [[New Guinea]] around 1500&nbsp;BCE and colonized many uninhabited islands of [[Remote Oceania]], reaching as far as [[Samoa]] by 700&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=617}}</ref>

In the Americas, the Norte Chico culture emerged in Peru around 3100&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="Benjamin 2015-3" /> The Norte Chico built public monumental architecture at the city of [[Caral]], dated 2627–1977&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=562}}|{{harvnb|Shady Solis|Haas|Creamer|2001|pp=[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059519 723–726]}}}}</ref> The later [[Chavín]] polity is sometimes described as the first [[Andean civilizations|Andean]] state,<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=564}}</ref> centered on the religious site at [[Chavín de Huantar]].<ref>{{harvnb|Graeber|Wengrow|2021|p=389}}</ref> Other important Andean cultures include the [[Moche culture|Moche]], whose ceramics depict many aspects of daily life, and the [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], who created animal-shaped designs in the desert called [[Nazca lines]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=565}}</ref> The [[Olmecs]] of Mesoamerica developed by about 1200&nbsp;BCE<ref>{{harvnb|Nichols|Pool|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AHWarqdXsfIC 118]}}</ref> and are known for the [[Olmec colossal heads|colossal stone heads]] that they carved from [[basalt]].<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2007|p=150}}</ref> They also devised the [[Mesoamerican calendar]] that was used by later cultures such as the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] and [[Teotihuacan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2007|pp=150–153}}</ref> Societies in North America were primarily egalitarian hunter-gatherers, supplementing their diet with the plants of the [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=539–540}}</ref> They built earthworks such as [[Watson Brake]] (4000&nbsp;BCE) and [[Poverty Point]] (3600&nbsp;BCE), both in Louisiana.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=540–541}}</ref>

=== Axial Age ===
{{Main|Axial Age}}

[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Standing Buddha from Gandhara (Tokyo)|Standing Buddha from Gandhara]], 2nd century&nbsp;CE|alt=A statue of a standing man wearing a cloak]]

From 800 to 200&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=101}}</ref> the Axial Age saw the emergence of transformative philosophical and religious ideas that developed in many different places mostly independently of each other.<ref>{{harvnb|Baumard|Hyafil|Boyer|2015|p=e1046657}}</ref> Chinese [[Confucianism]],<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|McNeill|2003|p=67}}</ref> Indian [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]],<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=665}}</ref> and Jewish [[monotheism]] all arose during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=115}}</ref> Persian [[Zoroastrianism]] began earlier, perhaps around 1000&nbsp;BCE, but was institutionalized by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] during the Axial Age.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=304}}</ref> [[Ancient Greek philosophy|New philosophies]] took hold in Greece during the 5th century&nbsp;BCE, epitomized by thinkers such as [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|McNeill|2003|pp=73–74}}</ref> The first [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] were held in 776&nbsp;BCE, marking a period known as "[[classical antiquity]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Short|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uGE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}</ref> In 508&nbsp;BCE, [[history of democracy|the world's first democratic system]] of government was instituted in [[Athenian democracy|Athens]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|1994}}</ref>

Axial Age ideas shaped subsequent intellectual and religious history. Confucianism was one of the three schools of thought that came to dominate Chinese thinking, along with [[Taoism]] and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=9}}</ref> The Confucian tradition, which would become particularly influential, looked for [[Political ethics|political morality]] not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=439}}</ref> Confucianism would later spread to [[Korea]] and Japan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=314}}</ref> Buddhism reached China in about the 1st century&nbsp;CE<ref>{{harvnb|Paine|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA3-PA273 273]}}</ref> and spread widely, with 30,000 Buddhist temples in northern China alone by the 7th century&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=453, 456}}</ref> Buddhism became the main religion in much of South, Southeast, and East Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=467–475}}</ref> The Greek philosophical tradition<ref>{{harvnb|Stearns|Langer|2001|p=63}}</ref> diffused throughout the Mediterranean world and as far as India, starting in the 4th century&nbsp;BCE after the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] of [[Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Stearns|Langer|2001|pp=70–71}}</ref> Both [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] developed from the beliefs of [[Judaism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=63}}</ref>

=== Regional empires ===
The millennium from 500&nbsp;BCE to 500&nbsp;CE saw a series of empires of unprecedented size develop. Well-trained professional armies, unifying ideologies, and advanced bureaucracies created the possibility for emperors to rule over large domains whose populations could attain numbers upwards of tens of millions of subjects.<ref>{{harvnb|Burbank|2010|p=[http://archive.org/details/empiresinworldhi0000burb 56]}}</ref> [[International trade]] also expanded, most notably the massive trade routes in the Mediterranean Sea, the [[Indian Ocean trade|maritime trade web in the Indian Ocean]], and the [[Silk Road]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=229, 233}}</ref>

[[File:Persepolis The Persian Soldiers.jpg|thumb|left|Carving of Persian and Median soldiers, [[Persepolis]], [[Achaemenid Empire]], 5th century&nbsp;BCE|alt=Stone relief depicting two groups of three men facing each other]]

The kingdom of the [[Medes]] helped to destroy the [[Assyrian Empire]] in tandem with the nomadic [[Scythians]] and the [[Babylonia]]ns.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=238, 276–277}}</ref> [[Nineveh]], the capital of Assyria, was sacked by the Medes in 612&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|p=110}}</ref> The [[Median Empire]] gave way to successive [[History of Iran|Iranian]] states, including the [[Achaemenid]] (550–330&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=279}}</ref> [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] (247&nbsp;BCE{{snd}}224&nbsp;&nbsp;CE),<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=286}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=248}}}}</ref> and [[Sasanian Empire]]s (224–651&nbsp;CE).<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=248}}</ref>

Two major empires began in modern-day [[Greece]]. In the late 5th century&nbsp;BCE, several Greek [[city states]] checked the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. These wars were followed by the [[Golden Age of Athens]], the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of [[Western civilization]], including the [[Theater of ancient Greece|first theatrical performances]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Strauss|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQFtMcD5dOsC 1–11]}}|{{harvnb|Dynneson|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fk4lGzmhiwC&pg=PA54 54]}}|{{harvnb|Goldhill|1997|p=54}}}}</ref> The wars led to the creation of the [[Delian League]], founded in 477&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/ancientgreecefro00mart_1 106–107]}}</ref> and eventually the [[Athenian Empire]] (454–404&nbsp;BCE), which was defeated by a Spartan-led coalition during the [[Peloponnesian War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=353}}</ref> [[Philip of Macedon]] unified the Greek city-states into the [[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]] and his son Alexander the Great (356–323&nbsp;BCE) founded an empire extending from present-day Greece to India.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Tignor et al.|2014|p=203}}|{{harvnb|Burstein|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lwFLDgAAQBAJ 57–58]}}}}</ref> The empire divided into several [[Diadochi|successor states]] shortly after his death, resulting in the founding of many cities and the spread of Greek culture throughout conquered regions, a process referred to as [[Hellenization]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=283–284}}</ref> The [[Hellenistic period]] lasted from the death of Alexander in 323&nbsp;BCE until 31&nbsp;BCE, when [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] fell to Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Hemingway|Hemingway|2007}}</ref>

In Europe, the [[Roman Republic]] was founded in the 6th century&nbsp;BCE<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=337–338}}</ref> and began expanding its territory in the 3rd century&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Kelly|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eUgSDAAAQBAJ 4–6]}}</ref> Prior to this, the [[Carthaginian Empire]] had dominated the Mediterranean, however lost [[Punic Wars|three successive wars]] to the Romans. The Republic became [[Roman Empire|an empire]] and by the time of [[Augustus]] (63&nbsp;BCE{{snd}}14&nbsp;CE), it had established dominion over most of the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=149, 152–153}}</ref> The empire continued to grow and reached its peak under [[Trajan]] (53–117&nbsp;CE), controlling much of the land from England to Mesopotamia.<ref>{{harvnb|Beard|2015|p=[http://archive.org/details/spqrhistoryofanc0000bear_v4f6 483]}}</ref> The two centuries that followed are known as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'', a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity, and political stability in most of Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|McEvedy|1961}}</ref> Christianity was [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|legalized]] by [[Constantine I]] in 313&nbsp;CE after three centuries of [[Persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire|imperial persecution]]. It became the sole official religion of the empire in 380&nbsp;CE while the emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] outlawed pagan religions in 391–392&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|Friell|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I8KRAgAAQBAJ 105]}}</ref>

In South Asia, [[Chandragupta Maurya]] founded the [[Maurya Empire]] (320–185&nbsp;BCE), which flourished under [[Ashoka the Great]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kulke|Rothermund|1990|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyofindia0000kulk/page/60/mode/2up 61, 71]|loc="At any rate Chandragupta seems to have usurped the throne of Magadha in 320 BC...the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general, Pushyamitra Shunga, during a parade of his troops in the year 185 BC."}}|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=488–489}}}}</ref> From the 4th to 6th centuries&nbsp;CE, the [[Gupta Empire]] oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's golden age.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=502–505}}</ref> The resulting stability helped usher in a flourishing period for Hindu and Buddhist culture in the 4th and 5th centuries, as well as major advances in science and mathematics.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=503–505}}</ref> In [[South India]], three prominent [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] kingdoms emerged: the [[Cheras]], [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]], and [[Pandyas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=187}}</ref>

[[File:Ashoka pillar at Vaishali, Bihar, India.jpg|thumb|[[Pillars of Ashoka|Pillar erected by Ashoka]], a [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan Emperor]] in India|alt=Stone pillar in front of a river]]

In China, [[Qin Shi Huang]] put an end to the chaotic [[Warring States period]] by uniting all of China under the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206&nbsp;BCE).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=416}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=160}}}}</ref> Qin Shi Huang was an adherent of the Legalist school of thought and he displaced the hereditary aristocracy by creating an efficient system of administration staffed by officials appointed according to merit.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=415}}</ref> The harshness of the Qin dynasty led to rebellions and the dynasty's fall.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=417}}</ref> It was followed by the [[Han dynasty]] (202&nbsp;BCE{{snd}}220&nbsp;CE), which combined the Legalist bureaucratic system with Confucian ideals.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=417}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=160}}}}</ref> The Han dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=143}}</ref> As economic prosperity fueled their military expansion, the Han conquered parts of Mongolia, Central Asia, [[Manchuria]], Korea, and northern Vietnam.<ref>{{harvnb|Gernet|1996|pp=119, 121, 126, 130}}</ref> As with other empires during the classical period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, science, and technology.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=165, 169}}|{{harvnb|Gernet|1996|p=138}}}}</ref> The Han invented the [[compass]], one of China's [[Four Great Inventions]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Merrill|McElhinny|1983|p=1}}|{{harvnb|Seow|2022|p=351}}}}</ref>

[[File:Rome Stele.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.65|[[Obelisk of Axum]], Ethiopia|alt=Column with markings carved on its surface]]

In Africa, the [[Kingdom of Kush]] prospered through its interactions with both Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=92}}</ref> It ruled Egypt as the [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty]] from 712 to 650&nbsp;BCE, then continued as an agricultural and trading state based in the city of [[Meroë]] until the fourth century&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=94–95}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Aksum]], centered in present-day Ethiopia, established itself by the 1st century&nbsp;CE as a major trading empire, dominating its neighbors in [[South Arabia]] and Kush and controlling the [[Red Sea]] trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=651–652}}</ref> It minted its own currency and carved enormous monolithic [[stelae]] to mark its emperors' graves.<ref>{{harvnb|Iliffe|2007|p=41}}</ref>

Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2500&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Fagan|2005|pp=390, 396}}</ref> In Mesoamerica, vast [[pre-Columbian]] societies were built, the most notable being the [[Zapotec civilization]] (700&nbsp;BCE{{snd}}1521&nbsp;CE),<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Flannery|Marcus|1996|p=146}}|{{harvnb|Whitecotton|1977|pp=26, LI.1–3}}}}</ref> and the Maya civilization, which reached its highest state of development during the Mesoamerican classic period ({{circa|250–900&nbsp;CE|lk=no}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Coe|2011|p=91}}</ref> but continued throughout the post-classic period.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=560}}</ref> The great Maya [[city-state]]s slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the [[Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán]] and surrounding areas.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=557–558}}</ref> The Maya developed [[Maya script|a writing system]] and used the concept of zero in their mathematics.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=208}}</ref> West of the Maya area, in central Mexico, the city of Teotihuacan prospered due to its control of the [[obsidian]] trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=555}}</ref> Its power peaked around 450&nbsp;CE, when its 125,000–150,000 inhabitants made it one of the world's largest cities.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=204}}</ref>

[[History of technology|Technology developed sporadically]] in the ancient world.<ref name="Benjamin 2015">{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=122}}</ref> There were periods of rapid technological progress, such as the Greco-Roman era in the Mediterranean region.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=134|loc="But the impression that no significant technological advances occurred in ancient civilization is misleading. In fact, between the 8th century&nbsp;BCE and the 5th century&nbsp;CE, the Mediterranean world witnessed a series of innovations that would influence the development of civilization."}}</ref> [[Greek science]], [[Ancient Greek technology|technology]], and [[Greek mathematics|mathematics]] are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period, typified by devices such as the [[Antikythera mechanism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kosso|Scott|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UTkXFLfmLTkC&q=hellenistic%20mathematics%20science%20technology&pg=PA51 51]}}</ref> There were also periods of technological decay, such as the Roman Empire's decline and fall and the ensuing early medieval period.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=133}}</ref> Two of the most important innovations were paper (China, 1st and 2nd centuries&nbsp;CE)<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=142–143}}</ref> and the [[stirrup]] (India, 2nd century&nbsp;BCE and Central Asia, 1st century&nbsp;CE),<ref>{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=59|loc="Toe stirrups were known in India in the second century&nbsp;BCE, and foot stirrups appeared in northern Afghanistan in the first century&nbsp;CE."}}</ref> both of which diffused widely throughout the world. The Chinese learned to make silk and built massive engineering projects such as the [[Great Wall of China]] and the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=145}}</ref> The Romans were also accomplished builders, inventing [[concrete]], perfecting the use of [[arch]]es in construction, and creating [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] to transport water over long distances to urban centers.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=136}}|{{harvnb|Deming|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JZONR6frqcQC&pg=PA174 174]}}}}</ref>

Most ancient societies practiced [[slavery]],<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=80}}</ref> which was particularly prevalent in [[Slavery in ancient Greece|Athens]] and [[Slavery in ancient Rome|Rome]], where slaves made up a large proportion of the population and were foundational to the economy.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=79–80}}</ref> [[Patriarchy]] was also common, with men controlling more political and economic power than women.<ref>{{harvnb|Kent|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cYYEEAAAQBAJ 6]|loc="Ancient societies ruled themselves according to a system known as patriarchy, or the rule of the father, in which male heads of households and states claimed nearly absolute power over women."}}</ref>

=== Declines, falls, and resurgence ===
[[File:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png|thumb|European migrations by mostly [[Germanic peoples]], 2nd–6th centuries]]

The ancient empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central [[bureaucracy]].<ref name="Bulliet et al">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=170–172}}</ref> In Rome and Han China, the state began to decline, and [[barbarian]] pressure on the frontiers hastened internal dissolution.<ref name="Bulliet et al" /> The Han dynasty fell into civil war in 220&nbsp;CE, beginning the [[Three Kingdoms]] period, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=158, 170}}</ref> From the Eurasian Steppe, [[Eurasian nomads|horse-based nomads]] dominated a large part of the continent.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=10}}</ref> The development of the stirrup and the use of [[horse archers]] made the nomads a constant threat to sedentary civilizations.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=248, 264}}</ref>

In the 4th century&nbsp;CE, the Roman Empire split into western and eastern regions, with usually separate emperors.<ref name="Benjamin 2015-2">{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=14}}</ref> The [[Western Roman Empire]] [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fell]] in 476&nbsp;CE to German influence under [[Odoacer]] in the [[Migration Period]] of the [[Germanic peoples]].<ref name="Benjamin 2015-2" /> The Eastern Roman Empire, known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], was more long-lasting.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=562, 583}}</ref> In China, [[dynasties]] rose and fell, but, in sharp contrast to the Mediterranean-European world, political unity was always eventually restored.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=513}}</ref> After the fall of the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, nomadic tribes from the north began to invade, causing many Chinese people to flee southward.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=165}}</ref>

== Post-classical history ==
{{Main|Post-classical history|Timeline of post-classical history}}

[[File:Al- Fargānī, Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad – Compilatio astronomica, 1493 – BEIC 13262685.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Alfraganus]] in the ''{{lang|la|Compilatio astronomica}}'', 1493. [[Islamic astronomers]] began just before the 9th century to collect and translate [[Indian astronomy|Indian]], [[Persian astronomy|Persian]] and [[Greek astronomy|Greek]] astronomical texts, adding their own astronomy and enabling later, particularly European astronomy to build on.<ref name="n063">{{cite web |last=Akerman |first=Iain |title=The language of the stars |website=WIRED Middle East |date=2023-05-17 |url=https://wired.me/culture/arab-astronomy-the-language-of-stars/ |access-date=2024-11-23 |archive-date=2 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202135957/https://wired.me/culture/arab-astronomy-the-language-of-stars/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Symbolic for the post-classical period, a period of an increasing trans-regional literary culture, particularly in the sciences, spreading and building on methods of science.]]

The post-classical period, dated roughly from 500 to 1500&nbsp;CE,{{efn|The exact dates are disputed and some periodizations use 1450 as the end point.<ref>{{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 33]}}</ref>}} was characterized by the rise and spread of major religions while civilization expanded to new parts of the world and trade between societies intensified.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 33]}}|{{harvnb|Stearns|2001|loc=III. The Postclassical Period, 500–1500}}|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=348}}|{{harvnb|Wiesner|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oZiNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204]}}}}</ref> From the 10th to 13th centuries, the [[Medieval Warm Period]] in the northern hemisphere aided agriculture and led to population growth in parts of Europe and Asia.<ref name="Kedar-3">{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=334}}</ref> It was followed by the [[Little Ice Age]], which, along with the plagues of the 14th century, put downward pressure on the population of Eurasia.<ref name="Kedar-3" /> Major inventions of the period were [[gunpowder]], guns, and printing, all of which originated in China.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=317}}|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008b|p=xxiv}}}}</ref>

The post-classical period encompasses the [[early Muslim conquests]], the [[Islamic Golden Age]], and the commencement and expansion of the [[Arab slave trade]], followed by the [[Mongol invasions]] and the founding of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|p=[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan 13]}}</ref> South Asia had a series of [[middle kingdoms of India|middle kingdoms]], followed by the establishment of [[Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic empires]] in India.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=215}}</ref>

In West Africa, the [[Mali Empire|Mali]] and [[Songhai Empire]]s rose.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=379, 393}}</ref> On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where gold, [[Spice trade|spices]], and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this resulted in the [[Swahili culture]].<ref name="Kedar-2">{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=393}}</ref>

China experienced the relatively successive Sui, Tang, [[Song dynasty|Song]], [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]], and early [[Ming dynasty|Ming dynasties]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=297, 336, 339}}</ref> Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road through the [[Gobi Desert]], provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations.<ref name="Benjamin 2015" /> During the same period, civilizations in the Americas, such as the [[Mississippian culture|Mississippians]],<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=214}}</ref> [[Aztec Empire|Aztecs]],<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=395}}</ref> Maya,<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=205}}</ref> and [[Inca]] reached their zenith.<ref name="Bulliet et al-6">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=397}}</ref>

=== Greater Middle East ===
{{Main|History of the Middle East|History of North Africa|History of the Caucasus|History of Central Asia}}

[[File:Umayyad Mosque night.jpg|thumb|[[Umayyad Mosque]] in [[Damascus]]]]

Before the advent of Islam in the 7th century, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, which frequently fought each other for control of several disputed regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Hourani|1991|pp=5, 11|loc="In the early seventh century a religious movement appeared on the margins of the great empires, those of the Byzantines and Sasanians, which dominated the western half of the world....The Byzantine and Sasanian empires were engaged in long wars, which lasted with intervals from 540 to 629."}}</ref> This was also a cultural battle, with Byzantine [[Christian culture]] competing against Persian Zoroastrian traditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=249–250}}</ref> The [[History of Islam#Origins of Islam|birth of Islam]] created a new contender that quickly surpassed both of these empires.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=385}}</ref>

[[Muhammad]], the founder of Islam, initiated the [[early Muslim conquests]] in the 7th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=387–389}}</ref> He established a new unified polity in [[Arabia]] that expanded rapidly under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] and the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], culminating in the establishment of Muslim rule on three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe) by 750&nbsp;CE.<ref name="Bulliet et al-7">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=255}}</ref> The subsequent [[Abbasid Caliphate]] oversaw the Islamic Golden Age, an era of learning, science, and invention during which [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[Islamic art|art]], and [[Islamic literature|literature]] flourished.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=295}}|{{harvnb|Mirsepassi|Fernée|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zibeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA182 182]}}}}</ref>{{efn|For example, the folktales [[One Thousand and One Nights]] were written in this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Chainey|Winsham|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OokmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT82 82]}}</ref>}} Scholars preserved and synthesized knowledge and skills of ancient Greece and Persia<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=295}}</ref> the manufacture of paper from China<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=26}}</ref> and the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|decimal positional numbering system]] from India.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=149}}</ref> At the same time, they made significant original contributions in various fields, such as [[Al-Khwarizmi]]'s development of [[algebra]] and [[Avicenna]]'s comprehensive philosophical system.<ref>{{harvnb|Tiliouine|Renima|Estes|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f9f7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 37, 41]}}</ref> Islamic civilization expanded both by conquest and based on its merchant economy.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=156–157, 393}}</ref> Merchants brought goods and their Islamic faith to [[Islam in China|China]], [[Islam in India|India]], [[Islam in Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]], and [[Islam in Africa|Africa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=393–394}}</ref>

Arab domination of the Middle East ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the [[Seljuk Turks]], migrating south from the Turkic homelands.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=373–374}}</ref> The Seljuks were challenged by Europe during the [[Crusades]], a series of religious wars aimed at rolling back Muslim territory and regaining control of the [[Holy Land]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=292–293}}</ref> The Crusades were ultimately unsuccessful and served more to weaken the Byzantine Empire, especially with the [[sack of Constantinople]] in 1204.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=162, 579}}</ref>  In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the [[Mongols]], swept through the region but were eventually eclipsed by the Turks and the founding of the Ottoman Empire in modern-day Turkey around 1299.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Shaw|1976|p=[https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan 13]}}|{{harvnb|Kuran|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tTHEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11]}}}}</ref>

In the 7th century, North Africa saw the extinguishment of [[Byzantine Africa]] and the [[Mauretania#Roman-Moorish kingdoms|Berber kingdoms]] in the [[Early Muslim conquests]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mones |first=H. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa |volume=3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The conquest of North Africa and the Berber resistance |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202073127/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |url-status=live }}</ref> From the 10th century, the Abbasid Caliphate's African territory was consumed by the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] centered on Egypt, who were supplanted by the [[Ayyubids]] in the 12th century, and them later by the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrbek |first=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa |volume=3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The emergence of the Fatimids |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202073127/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Maghreb]] and [[Western Sahara]], the [[Almoravids]] dominated from the 11th century,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hrbek |first1=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa |volume=3 |last2=Devisse |first2=Jean |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Almovarids |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202073127/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |url-status=live }}</ref> until it was subsumed by the [[Almohad Caliphate]] in the 12th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saidi |first=O. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The unification of the Maghreb under the Alhomads |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Almohads' collapse gave rise to the [[Marinids]] in Morocco, the [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Zayyanids]] in Algeria, and the [[Hafsids]] in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrbek |first=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The disintegration of the political unity of the Maghreb |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Caucasus was fought over in a [[Roman–Persian Wars#Byzantine–Sasanian wars|series of wars]] between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. However, the two opposing powers became exhausted due to continuous conflict. Hence, the Rashidun Caliphate was able to freely expand into the region during the early Muslim conquests.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2010|p=[https://archive.org/details/newcambridgehist0001unse/page/236/mode/2up 236]}}</ref> The Seljuk Turks later subjugated [[Bagratid Armenia|Armenia]] and [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]] in the 11th century. The Mongols subsequently invaded the Caucasus in the 13th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=535}}</ref>

Steppe nomads from Central Asia continued to threaten sedentary societies in the post-classical era, but they also faced incursions from the Arabs and Chinese.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=365–366, 401, 516}}</ref> China expanded into Central Asia during the [[Sui dynasty]] (581–618).<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=297–298}}</ref> The Chinese were confronted by [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in the region.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0 113]}}|{{harvnb|Xue|1992|pp=149–152, 257–264}}}}</ref> Originally the relationship was largely cooperative but in 630, the [[Tang dynasty]] began an offensive against the Turks by capturing areas of the [[Ordos Desert]].<ref>{{harvnb|Xue|1992|pp=226–227}}</ref> In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east.<ref>{{harvnb|Pillalamarri|2017}}</ref> From the 9th to 13th centuries, Central Asia was divided among several powerful states, including the [[Samanid]],<ref>{{harvnb|Tor|2009|pp=279–299}}</ref> [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]],<ref>{{harvnb|Ṭabīb|Faḍlallāh|Nishapuri|Nīšāpūrī|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jmMpaJZemk0C 3–4]}}</ref> and [[Khwarazmian Empire]]s. These states were succeeded by the Mongols in the 13th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=371}}</ref> In 1370, [[Timur]], a Turkic leader in the Mongol military tradition, conquered most of the region and founded the [[Timurid Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=247–248}}</ref> Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death,<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=248}}</ref> but his descendants retained control of a core area in Central Asia and Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=354|loc="He maintained jurisdiction principally in Central Asia and Iran."}}</ref> They oversaw the [[Timurid Renaissance]] of art and architecture.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=355|loc="Despite the political infighting and progressively unstable political situation, Shah Rukh in Herat and Ulugh Beg in Samarkand fostered a cultural and artistic renaissance in the Timurid domains."}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
{{Main|History of Europe|Middle Ages}}

[[File:Notre-Dame de Paris, 4 October 2017.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1|[[Notre-Dame de Paris]], France|alt=Cathedral]]

Since at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a [[Role of Christianity in civilization|prominent role]] in shaping the culture, values, and institutions of Western civilization, primarily through Catholicism and later also [[Protestantism]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Hayas|1953|p=2|loc="...that certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo–Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."}}|{{harvnb|Woods|Canizares|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jYvmAgAAQBAJ 1]|loc="Western civilization owes far more to Catholic Church than most people—Catholic included—often realize. The Church in fact built Western civilization."}}|{{harvnb|McNeill|2010|p=204}}|{{harvnb|Faltin|Wright|2007|p=83}}|{{harvnb|Spielvogel|2016|p=156}}|{{harvnb|Duchesne|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kuF5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA461 461]}}}}</ref> Europe during the [[Early Middle Ages]] was characterized by depopulation, [[deurbanization]], and barbarian invasions, all of which had begun in [[late antiquity]].<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2007|pp=128, 136}}</ref> The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=384–385}}</ref> Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, most of the new kingdoms incorporated existing Roman institutions.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=158}}</ref> Christianity expanded in Western Europe, and monasteries were founded.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=282, 285}}</ref> In the 7th and 8th centuries, the [[Franks]] under the [[Carolingian dynasty]] established an empire covering much of Western Europe;<ref>{{harvnb|Deanesly|2019|pp=339–355|loc=The Carolingian Conquests}}</ref> it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed to pressure from new invaders—the [[Vikings]], [[Hungarians#Entering the Carpathian Basin (c. 862–895)|Magyars]], and Arabs.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=159}}</ref> It split into [[West Francia]] and [[East Francia]], which developed into middle ages [[History of France|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], middle ages [[History of Germany|Germany]]. During the Carolingian era, churches developed a form of musical notation called [[neume]] which became the basis for the modern notation system.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=205}}</ref> [[Kievan Rus']] expanded from its capital in [[Kiev]] to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, [[Vladimir the Great]] adopted [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] as the state religion.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2011|p=250}}|{{harvnb|Brown|Anatolios|Palmer|2009|p=66}}}}</ref>

[[File:Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg|thumb|left|13th-century French [[historiated initial]] with the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the [[clergy]]), those who fought (the [[knight]]s), and those who worked (the [[peasant]]ry)|alt=A miniature depicting a tonsured man, a fully armored man wearing a shield, and a man who holds a spade]]

During the [[High Middle Ages]], which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=289}}</ref> The establishment of the [[feudal system]] affected the structure of medieval society. It included [[manorialism]], the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labor service to nobles, and [[vassal]]age, a political structure whereby [[knight]]s and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=280–281}}</ref> Kingdoms became more centralized after the decentralizing effects of the breakup of the [[Carolingian Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=496–497}}</ref> In 1054, the [[East–West Schism|Great Schism]] between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches led to the prominent cultural differences between Western and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Bideleux|Jeffries|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C 48]}}</ref> The [[Crusades]] were a series of religious wars waged by Christians to wrest control of the Holy Land from the Muslims and succeeded for long enough to establish some [[Crusader states]] in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=293}}</ref> Italian merchants imported slaves to work in households or in sugar processing.<ref>{{harvnb|Phillips|2017|pp=[https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004346611/BP000028.xml 665–698]}}</ref> Intellectual life was marked by [[scholasticism]] and the founding of universities, while the building of [[Gothic cathedrals and churches]] was one of the outstanding artistic achievements of the age.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|McNeill|2003|p=146}}</ref> The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained [[urbanization]] of Northern and Western Europe and lasted until the beginning of the [[early modern period]] in the 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Ziegler|2008|p=595}}</ref>

The [[Mongol invasion of Europe|Mongols reached Europe]] in 1236 and [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|conquered Kievan Rus']], along with briefly invading [[First Mongol invasion of Poland|Poland]] and [[First Mongol invasion of Hungary|Hungary]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=324}}</ref> [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] cooperated with the Mongols but remained independent and in the late 14th century formed a [[Union of Krewo|personal union with Poland]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=335}}</ref> The [[Late Middle Ages]] were marked by difficulties and calamities.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=246–248}}</ref> Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of Western Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Aberth|2001}}</ref> The [[Black Death]] alone killed approximately 75 to 200&nbsp;million people between 1347 and 1350.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Dunham|2008}}|{{harvnb|BBC|2001}}}}</ref> It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in Asia, the disease reached the Mediterranean and Western Europe during the late 1340s,<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=60|loc="Then, in the 1340s, Mongol armies attacked the Black Sea port of Caffa in the Crimean region, and from that point on the infection spread into the Mediterranean, and then north into Europe, reaching Scandinavia within two years, and east and south into the Muslim societies of the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa."}}</ref> and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years; between a quarter and a third of the population perished.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|McNeill|2003|p=120}}</ref>

=== Sub-Saharan Africa ===
{{Further|History of Africa}}

Sub-Saharan Africa was home to many different civilizations. In [[Nubia]], the [[Kingdom of Kush]] was succeeded by the Christian kingdoms of [[Makuria]], [[Alodia]], and [[Nobatia]]. In the 7th century, Makuria conquered Nobatia to become the dominant power in the region and [[First battle of Dongola|resisted]] Muslim expansion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jakobielski |first=Stefan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa |volume=3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Christian Nubia at the height of its civilization |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202073127/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |url-status=live }}</ref> They later entered a severe decline following civil war and [[Islamization of the Sudan region|Arab migrations to the Sudan]] and had disintegrated by the 15th century, giving rise to the [[Funj Sultanate]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kropacek |first=Lubos |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Nubia from the late 12th century to the Funj conquest in the early 15th century |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Lalibela, san giorgio, esterno 24.jpg|thumb|One of the eleven [[Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela]] constructed during the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in Ethiopia]]

In the [[Horn of Africa]],  Islam spread among the [[Somalis]], while the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] declined from the 7th century following Muslim dominance over the [[Red Sea]] trade, and collapsed in the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mekouria |first=Tekle-Tsadik |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa |volume=3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Horn of Africa |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202073127/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Zagwe dynasty]] emerged in the 12th century and contested hegemony with the [[Sultanate of Shewa]] and the powerful [[Kingdom of Damot]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tadesse |first=Tamrat |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Horn of Africa: The Solomonids in Ethiopia and the states of the Horn of Africa |pages=423, 431 |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 13th century, the Zagwe were overthrown by the [[Solomonic dynasty]] of the [[Ethiopian Empire]], while Shewa gave way to the [[Walashma dynasty]] of the [[Sultanate of Ifat]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tamrat|1977|pp=123-134, 140}}</ref> Ethiopia emerged victorious against Ifat and occupied the Muslim states.<ref>{{harvnb|Tamrat|1977|p=143}}</ref> The [[Ajuran Sultanate]] rose on the Horn's east coast to dominate the [[Indian Ocean trade]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ajuran Sultanate |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016 |pages=1–2 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe146 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M.}}</ref> Ifat was succeeded by the [[Adal Sultanate]] who reconquered much of the Muslim lands.<ref>{{harvnb|Tamrat|1977|p=149}}</ref>

In the [[Sahel]] region of West Africa, the [[Ghana Empire]] formed from between the 2nd and 8th centuries, while from the 7th century the [[Gao Empire]] ruled to its east.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Gestrich |first=Nikolas |title=The Empire of Ghana |date=2019-03-26 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |title=Gao Empire |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe312 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M.}}</ref> Almoravid capture of royal [[Aoudaghost]] led to Ghana’s conversion to Islam in the 11th century,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Conrad |first1=David |last2=Fisher |first2=Humphrey |year=1983 |title=The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The External Arabic Sources |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/history-in-africa/article/conquest-that-never-was-ghana-and-the-almoravids-1076-i-the-external-arabic-sources/4C43B158FD3D74BE744D8634781A4E0A |journal=History in Africa |volume=10 |doi=10.2307/3171690 |jstor=3171690 |archive-date=8 June 2018 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180608012932/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/history-in-africa/article/conquest-that-never-was-ghana-and-the-almoravids-1076-i-the-external-arabic-sources/4C43B158FD3D74BE744D8634781A4E0A |url-status=live }}</ref> and climatic changes led to Ghana's conquest by its vassal [[Sosso]] in the 13th century.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=McIntosh |first=Susan |year=2008 |title=Reconceptualizing Early Ghana |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |publisher=Taylor and Francis |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=347–373 |jstor=40380172}}</ref> Sosso was quickly overthrown by the [[Mali Empire]] who conquered Gao and dominated the [[trans-Saharan trade]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Niane |first=Djibril |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Mali and the second Mandingo expansion |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Mossi Kingdoms]] were established to its south.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |title=Mossi Empire |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe127 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M.}}</ref> To the east, the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire]] ruled from the 6th century, and projected power over the [[Hausa Kingdoms]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |title=Kanem-Bornu Empire |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe014 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahdi |first=Adamu |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Hausa and their neighbours in central Sudan |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref> The 15th century saw the crumbling of the Mali Empire, with the dominant power in the region becoming the [[Songhai Empire]] centered on [[Gao]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ly-Tall |first=Madina |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The decline of the Mali empire |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Head of an Oba MET DP231468.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|[[Benin Bronzes|Benin Bronze]] head from Nigeria|alt=Bronze head]]

In the [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic|forest regions of West Africa]], various kingdoms and empires flourished, such as the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] empires of [[Ife Empire|Ife]] and [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akintoye |first=Stephen Adebanji |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZcQEAAAQBAJ&dq=history+of+the+yoruba&pg=PT7 |title=A History of the Yoruba People |date=2010 |publisher=Amalion |isbn=978-2-35926-027-4}}</ref> the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] [[Kingdom of Nri]],<ref>{{Cite book |first=M. Angulu |last=Onwuejeogwu |url=https://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> the [[Edo people|Edo]] [[Kingdom of Benin]] (famous for [[Art of the Kingdom of Benin|its art]]),<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |title=Benin (Edo city-state) |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe124 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M.}}</ref> the [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]] [[Kingdom of Dagbon]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Dagbon History: Kings, Towns, and Cultural Legacy |url=https://dagbonkingdom.com/dagbon-history/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007103922/https://dagbonkingdom.com/dagbon-history/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Akan people|Akan]] kingdom of [[Bonoman]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hargrove |first=Jarvis |title=Early Asante, Akan, and Mossi States |date=2024 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.1354 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> They came into contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century which saw the start of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].

In the [[Congo Basin]] by the 13th century there were three main confederations of states: the [[Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza|Seven Kingdoms]], [[Mpemba]], and one led by [[Vungu]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |chapter=The Development of States in West Central Africa to 1540 |date=2020 |title=A History of West Central Africa to 1850 |pages=16–55 |editor-last=Thornton |editor-first=John K. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-west-central-africa-to-1850/development-of-states-in-west-central-africa-to-1540/CE71122CF8DFD7B4B188BA34F8F65BFC |series=New Approaches to African History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-56593-7 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008080246/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-west-central-africa-to-1850/development-of-states-in-west-central-africa-to-1540/CE71122CF8DFD7B4B188BA34F8F65BFC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Rp|24–25}} In the 14th century the [[Kingdom of Kongo]] emerged and dominated the region.<ref name=":2" /> Further east, the [[Luba Empire]] was founded in the [[Upemba Depression]] in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Equatorial Africa and Angola: Migrations and the emergence of the first states |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the northern [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]], the [[Empire of Kitara]] rose around the 11th century, famed for its total lack of written record. It collapsed in the 15th century following [[Luo peoples#Uganda|Luo migrations]] to the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buchanan |first=Carole Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=70U1cAAACAAJ |title=The Kitara Complex: The Historical Tradition of Western Uganda to the 16th Century |date=1974 |publisher=Indiana University}}</ref>

On the [[Swahili coast]] the [[List of Swahili settlements of the East African coast|Swahili city-states]] thrived off of the [[Indian Ocean trade]] and gradually Islamized, giving rise to the [[Kilwa Sultanate]] from the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Masao |first=Fidelis |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa |volume=3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The East African coast and the Comoro Islands |archive-date=2 December 2023 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202073127/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Matveiev |first=Victor |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The development of Swahili civilization |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref> Madagascar was settled by [[Austronesian peoples]] between the 5th and 7th centuries, as societies organized at the behest of ''[[Hasina (Madagascar)|hasina]]''.<ref name="Randrianja 2009">{{cite book |last=Randrianja |first=Solofo |author-link1=Solofo Randrianja |title=Madagascar: A short history |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |chapter=Transforming the island (1100–1599) |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/madagascarshorth0000rand/page/42/mode/2up}}</ref>{{rp|43, 52–53}} In Southern Africa, early kingdoms included [[Mapela, Zimbabwe|Mapela]] and [[Mapungubwe]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huffman |first=Thomas N. |date=2015 |title=Mapela, Mapungubwe and the Origins of States in Southern Africa |journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin |volume=70 |issue=201 |pages=15–27 |issn=0038-1969}}</ref> followed by the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] in the 13th century, and the [[Mutapa Empire]] in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fagan |first=Brian |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |volume=4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Zambezi and Limpopo basins: 1100–1500 |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221018084811/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== South Asia ===
{{Main|History of India}}
[[File:Hoysala emblem.JPG|thumb|upright=.7|[[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Chennakesava Temple]], [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]], India|alt=Statue]]

After the fall of the Gupta Empire in 550&nbsp;CE, [[North India]] was divided into a complex and fluid network of smaller kingdoms.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=189–190}}</ref> Early [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim incursions]] began in the northwest in 711&nbsp;CE, when the Arab Umayyad Caliphate [[Umayyad campaigns in India|conquered]] much of present-day Pakistan.<ref name="Bulliet et al-7" /> The Arab military advance was largely halted at that point, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast.<ref name="Kedar-2" /> The 9th century saw the [[Tripartite Struggle]] for control of North India between the [[Pratihara]], [[Pala Empire|Pala]], and [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakuta Empires]].<ref>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=192}}</ref>

Post-classical dynasties in South India included those of the [[Chalukyas]], [[Hoysalas]], and Cholas.<ref>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|pp=168, 214–215, 251}}</ref> Literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting flourished under the patronage of these kings.<ref>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|pp=169, 213, 215}}</ref> Some of the other important states that emerged in South India during this time included the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] and the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=169}}</ref>

=== Northeast Asia ===
{{Main|History of East Asia|History of Siberia}}

After a period of relative disunity, [[History of China|China]] was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 589.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=426|loc="After China was reunified in 589 by the Sui dynasty (581–618) and suddenly became a looming regional superpower, Silla began exploring even more active ties with China."}}</ref> Under the succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907), China entered a golden age during which political stability and economic prosperity were accompanied by literary and artistic accomplishment, like the [[Tang poetry|poetry]] of [[Li Bai]] and [[Du Fu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ning|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nJ3fEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 203–204]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|2009|p=1}}</ref> The Sui and Tang instituted the long-lasting [[imperial examination]] system, under which administrative positions were open only to those who passed an arduous test on Confucian thought and the [[Chinese classics]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=453}}|{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=118}}}}</ref> China competed with [[Tibetan Empire|Tibet]] (618–842) for control of areas in Inner Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Whitfield|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/aurelsteinonsilk0000whit 193]}}</ref> However, the Tang dynasty eventually splintered. After [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|half a century of turmoil]], the Song dynasty reunified much of China.<ref>{{harvnb|Lorge|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9UTjCgAAQBAJ 4–5]}}</ref> Pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent.<ref name="Kedar">{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=532}}</ref> By 1127, northern China had been lost to the [[Jurchens]] in the [[Jin–Song Wars]], and the Mongols [[Mongol conquest of China|conquered all of China]] in 1279.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=528, 534}}</ref> After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368.<ref name="Kedar" />

[[File:Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Battle during the [[Mongol invasions of Japan#Second invasion (1281)|1281 Mongol invasion of Japan]]|alt=Painting of a battle]]

In [[History of Japan|Japan]], the imperial lineage was established during the 3rd century&nbsp;CE, and a centralized state developed during the [[Yamato period]] (c. 300–710).<ref>{{harvnb|Henshall|1999|pp=11–12}}</ref> Buddhism was introduced, and there was an emphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and Confucianism.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=426, 428–430, 454–455}}</ref> The [[Nara period]] (710–794) was characterized by the appearance of a nascent [[Japanese literature|literary culture]], as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and [[Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara|architecture]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Totman|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACAAJ 64–79]}}|{{harvnb|Henshall|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vD76fF5hqf8C 24–52]}}}}</ref> The [[Heian period]] (794–1185) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans and the [[samurai]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=316–317}}</ref> It was during the Heian period that [[Murasaki Shikibu]] penned ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'', sometimes considered the world's first novel.<ref>{{harvnb|Huffman|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MNzQCwAAQBAJ 29, 35]}}</ref> From 1185 to 1868, Japan was dominated by powerful regional lords ([[daimyo]]s) and the military rule of warlords ([[shogun]]s) such as the [[Ashikaga shogunate|Ashikaga]] and [[Tokugawa shogunate]]s.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=346–347}}|{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=485}}}}</ref> The emperor remained but did not wield significant influence.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=720|loc="In Japan the emperor was revered but had no power."}}</ref> Meanwhile, the power of merchants grew.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=222}}</ref> An influential art style known as ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' arose during the Tokugawa years, consisting of [[Woodblock printing in Japan|woodblock prints]] which originally depicted famous [[Oiran|courtesans]].<ref>{{harvnb|Huffman|2010|p=67}}</ref>

Post-classical [[History of Korea|Korea]] saw the end of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] era, in which the kingdoms of [[Goguryeo]], [[Baekje]], and [[Silla]] had competed for hegemony.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=517–518}}</ref> This period ended when Silla conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668,<ref>{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008e|p=464}}</ref> marking the beginning of the [[Northern and Southern States period]], with [[Unified Silla]] in the south and [[Balhae]], a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north.<ref>{{harvnb|Naver}}</ref> In 892&nbsp;CE, this arrangement reverted to the [[Later Three Kingdoms]], with Goguryeo{{efn|Goguryeo was called [[Taebong]] at that time and eventually named [[Goryeo]].}} emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936.<ref>{{harvnb|The Association of Korean History Teachers|2005|p=113}}</ref> The founding Goryeo dynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the [[Joseon dynasty]],<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=345}}</ref> which ruled for approximately 500 years.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=550}}</ref>

In [[History of Mongolia|Mongolia]], [[Genghis Khan]] united various Mongol and Turkic tribes under one banner in 1206.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McNeill|McNeill|2003|p=120}}|{{harvnb|Butt|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uOXEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 128]}}}}</ref> The [[Mongol Empire]] expanded to comprise all of China and Central Asia, as well as large parts of Russia and the Middle East, to become [[List of largest empires|the largest contiguous empire in history]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=534–535}}</ref> After [[Möngke Khan]] died in 1259,<ref>{{harvnb|Stearns|Langer|2001|p=153}}</ref> the Mongol Empire was [[Division of the Mongol Empire|divided into four successor states]]: the [[Yuan Dynasty]] in China, the [[Chagatai Khanate]] in Central Asia, the [[Golden Horde]] in Eastern Europe and Russia, and the [[Ilkhanate]] in Iran.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=535}}|{{harvnb|O'Brien|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA99 99]}}}}</ref>

=== Southeast Asia ===
{{Main|History of Southeast Asia}}

[[File:Angkor wat temple.jpg|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]] temple complex, Cambodia, early 12th century|alt=Large temple]]

The Southeast Asian polity of [[Funan]], which had originated in the 2nd century&nbsp;CE, went into decline in the 6th century as Chinese trade routes shifted away from its ports. It was replaced by the [[Khmer Empire]] in 802&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|pp=216–217}}</ref> The capital city of the [[Khmers]] at [[Angkor]] was the most extensive city in the world before the industrial age and contained [[Angkor Wat]], the world's largest religious monument.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Evans|Pottier|Fletcher|Hensley|2007|p=14279|loc="The 'boundary' of the urban complex of Angkor, as it can be loosely defined from the infrastructural network, encloses ~900–1,000 km<sup>2</sup> compared with the ~100–150 km<sup>2</sup> of Tikal, the next largest preindustrial low-density city for which we have an overall survey. Mirador, a Pre-Classic Maya urban complex, and Calakmul, a Classic site near Tikal, may be more extensive, but as yet we do not have comprehensive overall surveys for these sites; it is nonetheless clear that no site in the Maya world approaches Angkor in terms of extent."}}|{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|p=219}}}}</ref> The [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]] (mid-13th century) and [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]]s (1351) were major powers of the [[Thai people|Thais]], who were influenced by the Khmers.<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|pp=244–245}}</ref>

Starting in the 9th century, the [[Pagan Kingdom]] rose to prominence in modern [[Myanmar]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|p=91}}</ref> Its collapse brought about political fragmentation that ended with the rise of the [[Toungoo Empire]] in the 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|pp=149–150}}</ref> Other notable kingdoms of the period include [[Srivijaya]]<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=240}}</ref> and [[Lavo Kingdom|Lavo]] (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), [[Champa]]<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|p=350}}</ref> and [[Hariphunchai]] (both about 750),<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|p=235}}</ref> [[Đại Việt]] (968),<ref>{{harvnb|Taylor|1976|p=[https://www.doabooks.org/doab?func=search&query=rid:48459 159]|loc=The Rise of Đại Việt and the Establishment of Thăng-long}}</ref> [[Lan Na]] (13th century),<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|p=243}}</ref> [[Majapahit]] (1293),<ref>{{harvnb|Anthony|2015|p=[http://archive.org/details/a-history-of-southeast-asia-crossroads 45]}}</ref> [[Lan Xang]] (1353),<ref>{{harvnb|Coedès|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/indianizedstates0000cdes 225]|loc="However that may be, various texts agree that the solemn coronation of Fa Ngum, which marks the founding of the kingdom of Lan Chang, took place in 1353; this date has most probably been transmitted correctly."}}</ref> and [[Kingdom of Ava|Ava]] (1365).<ref>{{harvnb|Lieberman|2003|p=125|loc="In the heart of the dry zone, near the juncture of the Irrawaddy with the famed granary of Kyaukse, Ava was founded in 1365."}}</ref> Hinduism and Buddhism had been spreading in Southeast Asia since the 1st century&nbsp;CE when, beginning in the 13th century, Islam arrived and made its way to regions such as present-day Indonesia.<ref>{{multiref| {{harvnb|Ricklefs|2001|p=[http://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_s3o0 4]|loc="The first evidence of Indonesian Muslims concerns the northern part of Sumatra. In the graveyard of Lamreh is found the gravestone of Sultan Suleiman bin Abdullah bin al-Basir, who died in AH 608/AD 1211. This is the first evidence of the existence of an Islamic kingdom in Indonesia."}}|{{harvnb|Baumann|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qejaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1326 1326]}}}}</ref> This period also saw the emergence of the [[Peninsular Malaysia|Malay states]], including [[Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)|Brunei]] and [[Malacca Sultanate|Malacca]].<ref>{{harvnb|Andaya|Andaya|2015|pp=[http://archive.org/details/historyofearlymo0000anda 100, 109]}}</ref> In the [[History of the Philippines|Philippines]], several polities were formed such as [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]], [[Cebu (historical state)|Cebu]], and [[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Abinales|Amoroso|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ 36]}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
{{Main|History of Oceania}}

[[File:Moai Rano raraku.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|alt=Stone statues of human heads and torsos|[[Moai]], [[Easter Island]]<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=625}}|{{harvnb|Flenley|Bahn|2003|p=109|loc="From the islanders' testimony and other Polynesian ethnography it is virtually certain that the statues represented high-ranking ancestors, often served as their funerary monument, and kept their memory alive–like the simple upright slabs in front of platforms in the Society Islands, which represented clan ancestors, or the statues dominating the terraces of sanctuaries in the Marquesas, which were famous old chiefs or priests."}}}}</ref>]]

The [[Polynesians]], descendants of the [[Lapita culture|Lapita peoples]], colonized vast reaches of [[Remote Oceania]] beginning around 1000&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=621–622}}</ref>{{efn|They traveled the open ocean in double-hulled canoes up to {{convert|37|m|ft}} long, each canoe carrying as many as 50 people and their livestock.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=406–407}}</ref>}} Their voyages resulted in the colonization of hundreds of islands including the [[Marquesas]], Hawaii, [[Rapa Nui]] (Easter Island), and New Zealand.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=622}}</ref>

The [[Tu{{fakau'a}}i Tonga Empire]] was founded in the 10th century&nbsp;CE and expanded between 1250 and 1500.<ref>{{harvnb|Burley|1998|pp=368–369, 375}}</ref> Tongan culture, language, and hegemony spread widely throughout eastern [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and central [[Polynesia]] during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Kirch|Green|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WRapfjQ_iTEC&pg=PA87 87]}}</ref> They influenced east [['Uvea]], [[Rotuma]], [[Futuna (Wallis and Futuna)|Futuna]], [[Samoan Islands|Samoa]], and [[Niue]], as well as specific islands and parts of [[Micronesia]], [[Vanuatu]], and [[New Caledonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Geraghty|1994|pp=236–239|loc=Linguistic Evidence for the Tongan Empire}}</ref> In Northern Australia, there is evidence that [[Aboriginal Australians]] regularly [[Makassan contact with Australia|traded with Makassan trepangers]] from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans.<ref>{{harvnb|MacKnight|1986|pp=69–75}}</ref> In Aboriginal societies, leadership was [[Achieved status|based on achievement]] while the social structure of Polynesian societies was characterized by hereditary [[chiefdom]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|McNiven|2017|pp=603–604, 629}}</ref>

=== Americas ===
{{Main|History of the Americas}}

[[File:Chichén Itzá Mayan observatory.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Maya civilization|Maya]] [[observatory]], [[Chichen Itza]], Mexico|alt=Ruins of a domed building with steps leading to it]]
[[File:Machu Picchu, Perú, 2015-07-30, DD 47.JPG|thumb|[[Machu Picchu]], [[Inca Empire]], Peru|alt=Stone ruins in the mountains]]

In North America, this period saw the rise of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the modern-day United States {{c.|950|lk=no}}&nbsp;CE,<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=546–547}}</ref> marked by the extensive 11th-century urban complex at [[Cahokia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=437}}</ref> The [[Ancestral Puebloans]] and their predecessors (9th–13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that remained the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fagan|2005|p=35}}</ref>

In Mesoamerica, the [[Teotihuacan#History|Teotihuacan civilization]] fell and the [[classic Maya collapse]] occurred.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=205, 208}}</ref> The [[Aztec Empire]] came to dominate much of Mesoamerica in the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=622}}</ref>

In South America, the 15th century saw the rise of the Inca.<ref name="Bulliet et al-6" /> The [[Inca Empire]], with its capital at [[Cusco]], spanned the entire [[Andes]], making it the most extensive [[pre-Columbian civilization]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=638}}</ref> The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent [[Inca road system|road system]] and elegant stonework.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=644, 658}}</ref>

== Early modern period ==
{{Main|Early modern period|Timelines of modern history}}

The early modern period is the era following the European Middle Ages until 1789 or 1800.{{efn|The time span varies depending on the type of history studied: [[literary studies]] can define it as short as about 1500–1700 while some general historians extend its span from 1300–1800.<ref name="Wiesner" />}} A common break with the medieval period is placed between 1450 and 1500 which includes a number of significant events: the fall of [[Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]], the spread of [[printing]] and European voyages of discovery to America and along the African coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Wiesner-Hanks|2021|loc=§ Creating 'Early Modern'}}</ref> The nature of warfare evolved as the size and organization of military forces on land and sea increased, alongside the wider propagation of gunpowder.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Wiesner-Hanks|2021|p=12}}|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008c|pp=xxxv–xxxvi}}}}</ref> The early modern period is significant for the start of [[proto-globalization]],<ref>{{harvnb|Martell|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zGfy7s_CfPsC&pg=PA52 52–53]}}</ref> increaslingly centralized bureaucratic states<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=449}}</ref> and early forms of [[capitalism]].<ref name="Wiesner">{{harvnb|Wiesner-Hanks|2021|p=12}}</ref> European powers also began colonizing large parts of the world through maritime empires: first the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish Empire]]s, then the [[French colonial empire|French]], [[English overseas possessions|English]], and [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch Empires]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=455}}|{{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=37–38}}}}</ref> Historians still debate the causes of Europe's rise, which is known as the [[Great Divergence]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=16}}</ref>

[[File:NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg|thumb|Japanese depiction of a Portuguese [[carrack]], a result of globalizing maritime trade|alt=Painting of a ship]]

Capitalist economies emerged, initially in the [[Maritime republics|northern Italian republics]] and some Asian port cities.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=192|loc="The Italian city-states developed business procedures that have been described as early capitalism, although this was already business as usual in Asian port-cities such as Cambay, Calicut and Zayton."}}</ref> European states practiced [[mercantilism]] by implementing one-sided trade policies designed to benefit the mother country at the expense of its colonies.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=448, 460, 501}}|{{harvnb|Horn|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhbHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 68–69]}}}}</ref> Starting at the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese established [[Factory (trading post)|trading posts]] across Africa, Asia, and Brazil, for commodities like gold and spices while also practicing slavery.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazeroony|2023|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KIvXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1981 § European Colonialism]}}</ref> In the 17th century, private [[chartered companies]] were established, such as the [[English East India Company]] in 1600{{snd}}often described as the first [[multinational corporation]]{{snd}}and the [[Dutch East India Company]] in 1602.<ref name="Bentley">{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=194}}</ref> Meanwhile, in much of the European sphere, serfdom declined and eventually disappeared while the power of the Catholic Church waned.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=448, 460, 501}}</ref>

The [[Age of Discovery]] was the first period in which the [[Old World]] engaged in substantial cultural, material, and biological exchange with the [[New World]]. It began in the late 15th century, when [[History of Portugal (1415–1578)|Portugal]] and [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] sent the first exploratory voyages to the Americas, where [[Christopher Columbus]] first arrived in 1492. Global integration continued as [[European colonization of the Americas]] initiated the [[Columbian exchange]]: the exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), [[communicable diseases]], and culture between the [[Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern]] and [[Western Hemisphere]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|pp=103–134}}</ref> It was one of history's most important global events, involving ecology and agriculture.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=38}}</ref> New crops brought from the Americas by 16th-century European seafarers substantially contributed to world population growth.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=383|loc="Because such crops flourished where more familiar staples grew less well, American crops effectively increased the area under cultivation and thereby made possible population growth in many parts of Afro-Eurasia from the 16th century onward."}}</ref>

=== Greater Middle East ===
The Ottoman Empire quickly came to dominate the Middle East after conquering Constantinople in 1453, which marked the end of the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=417}}|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008c|p=xv}}}}</ref> Persia came under the rule of the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]] in 1501,<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2008|p=121}}</ref> succeeded by the [[Afsharid dynasty|Afshars]] in 1736, the [[Zands]] in 1751, and the [[Qajars]] in 1794.<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2008|p=171}}</ref> The Safavids [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|established]] [[Shia Islam]] as Persia's official religion, thus giving Persia a separate identity from its [[Sunni]] neighbors.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=469|loc="Having determined to build a distinctive Iranian, Shi'a identity for their empire, the Safavids forced the conversion of all Muslims in their territory to Shi'ism."}}</ref> Along with the [[Mughals]] in India, the Ottomans and Safavids are known as the [[gunpowder empires]] because of their early adoption of firearms.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=456|loc="In the Middle East, Central Asia and India, the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires adopted firearms so enthusiastically that they are often referred to as 'gunpowder empires.{{'"}}}}</ref> Throughout the 16th century the Ottomans conquered all of North Africa save for Morocco, which came under the rule of the [[Saadi dynasty]] at the same time, and then the [[Alawi dynasty]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vesely |first=Rudolf |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Ottoman conquest of Egypt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cherif |first=Mohammed |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Algeria, Tunisia and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=El Fasi |first=Mohammad |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Morocco}}</ref> At the end of the 18th century, the [[Russian Empire]] began its [[Russian conquest of the Caucasus|conquest]] of the Caucasus.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=626|loc="In the region of the Caucasus Mountains, the third area of southward expansion, Russia first took over Christian Georgia (1786), Muslim Azerbaijan (1801), and Christian Armenia (1813) before gobbling up the many small principalities in the heart of the mountains."}}</ref> The [[Uzbek Khanate|Uzbeks]] replaced the [[Timurids]] as the preeminent power in Central Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=358|loc="Political and military instability, succession disputes and conflicts with the Türkmen and Uzbeks vitiated these remarkable economic achievements, weakening the Timurids and making them vulnerable to the previously nomadic Uzbeks, who became the dominant force in Central Asia from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth century."}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
{{Main|Early modern Europe}}
{{See also|Renaissance|Reformation|Age of Enlightenment}}

[[File:Badia fiorentina, campanile, veduta da, duomo 01.jpg|thumb|[[Florence]], birthplace of the [[Italian Renaissance]]|alt=A city with red roofs and a larger domed building in the center.]]

The early modern period in Europe was an era of intense intellectual ferment. The [[Renaissance]]{{snd}}the "rebirth" of classical culture, beginning [[Italian Renaissance|in Italy]] in the 14th century and extending into the 16th{{efn|Some scholars date the period later, to the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Carter|Butt|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mHJvKVq0vXoC 4]|loc="Historians of different kinds will often make some choice between a long Renaissance (say, 1300–1600), a short one (1453–1527), or somewhere in between (the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, as is commonly adopted in music histories)."}}</ref>}}{{snd}}comprised the rediscovery of the [[classical world]]'s cultural, scientific, and technological achievements, and the economic and social rise of Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=363, 368}}</ref> This period is also celebrated for its artistic and literary attainments.<ref name="Bulliet et al-2">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=365–368}}</ref> [[Petrarch]]'s poetry, [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]'s ''[[Decameron]]'', and the paintings and sculptures of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Albrecht Dürer]], as part of the [[Northern Renaissance]], are some of the great works of the age.<ref name="Bulliet et al-2" /> After the Renaissance came the [[Reformation]], an anti-clerical theological and social movement started in Germany by [[Martin Luther]] that resulted in the creation of [[Protestant Christianity]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|pp=338–339, 345}}</ref>

The Renaissance also engendered a culture of inquisitiveness which ultimately led to [[humanism]]<ref>{{harvnb|Tignor et al.|2014|pp=426–427}}</ref> and the [[Scientific Revolution]], an effort to understand the natural world through direct observation and experiment.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|pp=683–685}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=436}}}}</ref> The success of the new scientific techniques inspired attempts to apply them to political and social affairs, known as the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], by thinkers such as [[John Locke]] and [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=444}}|{{harvnb|Bristow|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> This development was accompanied by [[secularization]] as a continued decline of the influence of religious beliefs and authorities in the public and private spheres.<ref>{{harvnb|Schulman|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4vOoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}}</ref> [[Johannes Gutenberg]]'s invention of [[movable type]] printing in 1440{{efn|The Chinese invented movable type centuries earlier, but it was better suited to the alphabetical writing systems of European languages.<ref>{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=85}}</ref>}} helped spread the ideas of the new intellectual movements.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=85}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=436}}|{{harvnb|Chrisp|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA267 267]}}}}</ref>

[[File:10 2599 Wittenberg - Marktplatz.jpg|thumb|[[Wittenberg]], birthplace of [[Protestantism]]]]

In addition to changes wrought by incipient capitalism and colonialism, early modern Europeans experienced an increase in the power of the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=452}}</ref> [[Absolutism (European history)|Absolute]] monarchs in [[Kingdom of France|France]], [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]], the [[Habsburg lands]], and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and efficient bureaucracies, all under the control of the king.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=455, 535, 591, 670}}</ref> In Russia, [[Ivan the Terrible]] was crowned in 1547 as the first [[tsar]] of Russia, and by annexing the Turkic khanates in the east, transformed Russia into a regional power, eventually [[Partitions of Poland|replacing]] the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] as a major power in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=165}}|{{harvnb|Davies|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC 313, 386]}}}}</ref> The countries of Western Europe, while expanding prodigiously through technological advances and colonial conquest, competed with each other economically and militarily in a state of almost constant war.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=455|loc="As a result, the major European nations were nearly always at war somewhere."}}</ref> Wars of particular note included the [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], the [[Seven Years' War]], and the [[French Revolutionary Wars]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|pp=41, 44, 47, 343}}</ref> The [[French Revolution]], starting in 1789, laid the groundwork of liberal democracy by overthrowing monarchy. It led to the rise of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] and the subsequent [[Napoleonic Wars]] of the early 19th century.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=41}}|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008d|p=xxxi}}|{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=529|loc="The French Revolution ended in the rule of Napoleon in 1799, and his attempts to conquer Europe began in 1803."}}}}</ref>

=== Sub-Saharan Africa ===
In the [[Horn of Africa]], there was the [[Oromo expansion]] in the 16th century, which weakened [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] and caused [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]]'s collapse. [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran]] was succeeded by the [[Geledi Sultanate]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haberland |first=Eike |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Horn of Africa}}</ref> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Ethiopia rapidly expanded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Ethiopia and Somalia}}</ref>

In West Africa, the [[Songhai Empire]] fell to [[Moroccan invasion of the Songhai Empire|Moroccan invasion]] in the late 16th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abitbol |first=Michel |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The end of the Songhay empire}}</ref> They were succeeded by the [[Bamana Empire]]. The [[Fula jihads]] beginning in the 18th century led to the establishment of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], the [[Massina Empire]], and the [[Tukulor Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Batran |first=Aziz |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The nineteenth-century Islamic revolutions in West Africa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Last |first=Murray |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Sokoto caliphate and Borno}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ly-Tall |first=Madina |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Massina and Torodbe (Tukuloor) empire until 1878}}</ref> In the forest regions, the [[Asante Empire]] was established in present-day Ghana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boahen |first=Albert |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The states and cultures of the Lower Guinea coast}}</ref> Between 1515 and 1800, 8&nbsp;million Africans were exported in the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="Bulliet et al-5">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=512}}</ref>

In the Congo Basin, [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] fought three wars against the Portuguese who had begun [[Colonization of Angola|colonizing Angola]], ending in the conquest of [[Ndongo]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Kongo kingdom and its neighbours}}</ref> Further east, the [[Lunda Empire]] rose to dominate the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nzieme |first=Isidore |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The political system of the Luba and Lunda: its emergence and expansion}}</ref> It fell to the [[Chokwe people#History|Chokwe]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vellut |first=Jean-Luc |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Congo basin and Angola}}</ref> In the northern [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]], there were the kingdoms of [[Bunyoro-Kitara]], [[Buganda]], and [[Kingdom of Rwanda|Rwanda]] among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Webster |first1=James |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |last2=Ogot |first2=Bethwell |last3=Chretien |first3=Jean-Pierre |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Great Lakes region: 1500–1800}}</ref>

[[Kilwa Sultanate|Kilwa]] was conquered by the Portuguese in the 16th century as they began [[Portuguese Mozambique|colonizing Mozambique]]. They were defeated by the [[Omani Empire]] who took control of the [[Swahili coast]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salim |first=Ahmed |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=East Africa: The coast}}</ref> In Madagascar the 16th century onward saw the emergence of [[Imerina]], the [[Betsileo people#History|Betsileo kingdoms]], and the [[Sakalava people#History|Sakalava empire]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kent |first=Raymond |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean}}</ref> Imerina conquered most of the island in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mutibwa |first=Phares |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Madagascar 1800–80}}</ref> In the Zambezi Basin [[Mutapa]] was followed by the [[Rozvi Empire]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhila |first=Hoyini |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Southern Zambezia}}</ref> with [[Maravi]] around [[Lake Malawi]] to its north.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Phiri |first1=Kings |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |last2=Kalinga |first2=Owen |last3=Bhila |first3=Hoyini |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The northern Zambezia-Lake Malawi region}}</ref> [[Mthwakazi]] succeeded Rozvi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isaacman |first=Allen |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The countries of the Zambezi basin}}</ref> Further south, the Dutch began [[History of South Africa|colonizing South Africa]] in the 16th century, who lost it to the British.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denoon |first=Donald |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa |volume=5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=Southern Africa}}</ref> In the 19th century Dutch settlers formed various [[Boer Republics]], while the [[Mfecane]] ravaged the region and led to the establishment of various [[List of kingdoms and empires in African history#Southern Africa|African kingdoms]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ncgongco |first=Leonard |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa |volume=6 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO |chapter=The Mfecane and the rise of the new African states}}</ref>

=== South Asia ===
[[File:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|[[Taj Mahal]], [[Mughal Empire]], India|alt=A white stone building with three domes flanked by a wall and four towers]]

In the [[Indian subcontinent]], the [[Mughal Empire]] was established under [[Babur]] in 1526 and lasted for two centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Stein|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC 159]}}</ref> Starting in the northwest, it brought the entire subcontinent under Muslim rule by the late 17th century,<ref>{{harvnb|Lal|2001}}</ref> except for the southernmost Indian provinces, which remained independent.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=529}}</ref> To resist the Muslim rulers, the Hindu [[Maratha Empire]] was founded by [[Shivaji]] on the western coast in 1674.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolpert|1997|p=115}}</ref> The Marathas gradually gained territory from the Mughals over several decades, particularly in the [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]] (1680–1707).<ref>{{harvnb|Osborne|2020|pp=992, 1005}}</ref>

[[Sikhism]] developed at the end of the 15th century from the spiritual teachings of ten [[Sikh gurus|gurus]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Singh|2000|p=17}}|{{harvnb|Haigh|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2zLUpxh8E74C&pg=PA30 30]}}}}</ref> In 1799, [[Ranjit Singh]] established the [[Sikh Empire]] in the [[Punjab]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Keay|2000|pp=410–411, 420|loc="This brought the British into potential conflict with Ranjit Singh, a young Sikh leader who had been prominent in repulsing Afghan attacks by Ahmed Shah Abdali's successors and who, since occupying Lahore in 1799, had been pursuing a policy of conquest and alliance that mirrored that of the British...over the next 30 years the Raja of Lahore, comparatively free of British interference, would blossom into the Maharaja of the Panjab, creator of the most formidable non-colonial state in India...Ranjit had by 1830 created a kingdom,  nay an 'empire', rated by one visitor 'the most wonderful object in the whole world'."}}|{{harvnb|Grewal|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC&pg=PA99 99]}}}}</ref>

=== Northeast Asia ===
[[File:Chemin de ronde muraille long.JPG|thumb|[[Ming dynasty]] section, [[Great Wall of China]]|alt=A stone wall going uphill with towers spaced along it]]

In 1644, the Ming [[Transition from Ming to Qing|were supplanted]] by the [[Qing]],<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=116}}</ref> the last Chinese imperial dynasty, which ruled until 1912.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|McNeill|2003|p=247}}</ref> Japan experienced its [[Azuchi–Momoyama period]] (1568–1600), followed by the [[Edo period]] (1600–1868).<ref>{{harvnb|Henshall|1999|pp=41, 49, 60, 66}}</ref> The Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) ruled throughout this period, repelling invasions from Japan and China in the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=545–546, 550}}</ref> Expanded maritime trade with Europe significantly affected China and Japan during this period, particularly through the Portuguese in [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] and the Dutch in [[Dejima|Nagasaki]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=541, 544}}</ref> However, China and Japan later pursued [[isolationist]] policies{{efn|They are known as ''[[haijin]]'' in China and ''[[sakoku]]'' in Japan.}} designed to eliminate foreign influences.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=554–555, 704}}</ref>

=== Southeast Asia ===
In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the [[Malacca Sultanate]] in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian [[Sumatra]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=74|loc="When the Portuguese admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered the sultanate of Melaka (Malacca) on August 24, 1511, he brought under Portuguese control a Southeast Asian polity whose reach stretched across the Malay peninsula."}}</ref> The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641.<ref name="Bentley" /> The [[Johor Sultanate]], centered on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|p=257|loc="As of about 1500, the power in this region, and the main enemy of the ''Estado da Índia'', was the sultanate of Johor."}}</ref>

[[European colonisation of Southeast Asia|European colonization]] expanded with the Dutch in [[Dutch East Indies|Indonesia]], the Portuguese in [[Portuguese Timor|Timor]], and the Spanish in the [[Spanish East Indies|Philippines]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|pp=200, 276, 381–382}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
The Pacific Islands of Oceania were also affected by European contact, starting with the [[Magellan expedition|circumnavigational voyage]] of [[Ferdinand Magellan]] (1519–1522),{{efn|Magellan died in 1521. The voyage was completed by Spanish navigator [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]] in 1522.<ref name="Paine 2013">{{harvnb|Paine|2013|pp=[http://archive.org/details/seacivilizationm0000pain 402–403]}}</ref>}} who landed in the [[Marianas]] and other islands.<ref name="Paine 2013" /> [[Abel Tasman]] (1642–1644) sailed to present-day [[History of Australia|Australia]], [[History of New Zealand|New Zealand]], and nearby islands.<ref>{{harvnb|Serle|1949}}</ref> [[James Cook]] (1768–1779) made the first recorded European contact with [[History of Hawaii|Hawaii]].<ref>{{harvnb|Siler|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BA-TSRWOnIcC xxii]}}</ref> In 1788, Britain founded its [[Colony of New South Wales|first Australian colony]].<ref>{{harvnb|Matsuda|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vvy2VITgvCIC 161]}}</ref>

=== Americas ===
Several European powers colonized the Americas, largely displacing the native populations and conquering the advanced civilizations of the Aztecs and Inca.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=37–38}}|{{harvnb|Burbank|Cooper|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XuUXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 163–164]}}}}</ref> [[Native American disease and epidemics#European contact|Diseases introduced by Europeans]] devastated American societies, killing 60–90&nbsp;million people by 1600 and reducing the population by 90–95%.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|pp=39, 66}}</ref> In some cases, colonial policies included the deliberate [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples#Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948)|genocide of indigenous peoples]].<ref>{{multiref| {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=430|loc="That said, and ever since the initial Eastern seaboard settler wars against the Tsenacommacahs and Pequots in the 1620s and early 1630s, systematic genocidal massacre was a core component of native destruction throughout three centuries of largely 'Anglo' expansion across continental North America."}} | {{harvnb|Blackhawk|Kiernan|Madley|Taylor|2023|p=38|loc="With these works, a near consensus emerged. By most scholarly definitions and consistent with the UN Convention, these scholars all asserted that genocide against at least some Indigenous peoples had occurred in North America following colonisation, perpetuated first by colonial empires and then by independent nation-states"}} | {{harvnb|Kiernan|Lemos|Taylor|2023|p=622|loc="These mass killings represent turning points in the history of the Spanish Atlantic conquest and share important characteristics. Each targeted Amerindian communities. Each was entirely or partially planned and executed by European actors, namely Spanish military entrepreneurs under the leadership of friar Nicolás de Ovando, Hernán Cortés and Pedro de Alvarado respectively. Each event can be described as a 'genocidal massacre' targeting a specific community because of its membership of a larger group"}}}}</ref> Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France all made extensive territorial claims, and undertook large-scale settlement, including the importation of large numbers of African slaves.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=475}}</ref> One side-effect of the slave trade was cultural exchange through which various African traditions found their way to the Americas, including cuisine, music, and dance.<ref name="Stearns 2010">{{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=137}}</ref>{{efn|In Brazil, this influence resulted in the development of [[Capoeira]].<ref name="Stearns 2010" />}} Portugal claimed [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]], while Spain seized the rest of South America, Mesoamerica, and southern North America.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=277}}</ref> The Spanish mined and exported prodigious amounts of gold and silver, leading to a surge in inflation known as the [[Price Revolution]] in the 16th and 17th centuries in Western Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|pp=216–229}}</ref>

In North America, Britain colonized the east coast while France settled the central region.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008c|p=xxi}}|{{harvnb|Wiesner|2015|loc=§ Colonization, Empires, and Trade}}|{{harvnb|Springer|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uDvsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1157 1157]}}}}</ref> Russia made incursions into the northwest coast of North America, with its first colony in present-day [[History of Alaska|Alaska]] in 1784,<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Wheeler|1971|p=441|loc="This view overlooks the fact that, in the forty years since Shelikhov had founded the first permanent settlement on Kodiak Island in 1784, only eight additional settlements had been established, none of which was south of 57° north latitude."}}|{{harvnb|Gilbert|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yz5PEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}}}}</ref> and the outpost of [[Fort Ross]] in present-day [[History of California|California]] in 1812.<ref>{{harvnb|Chapman|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q_qdriEP_UC&pg=PA36 36]}}</ref> France lost its North American territory to England and Spain after the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=482|loc="The peace agreement forced France to yield Canada to the English and cede Louisiana to Spain."}}|{{harvnb|Wiesner|2015|loc=§ Colonization, Empires, and Trade}}}}</ref> Britain's [[Thirteen Colonies]] [[American Revolution|declared independence as the United States]] in 1776, ratified by the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1783, ending the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tindall & Shi 2010|pp=219, 254}}</ref> In 1791, African slaves [[Haitian Revolution|launched a successful rebellion]] in the French colony of [[Saint-Domingue]]. France won back its continental claims from Spain in 1800, but sold them to the United States in the [[Louisiana Purchase]] of 1803.<ref>{{harvnb|Tindall & Shi 2010|p=352}}</ref>

== Modern era ==
{{Main|Modern era|19th century|20th century|21st century}}

=== Long nineteenth century ===
{{Main|Long nineteenth century}}
{{See also|Age of Revolution|New Imperialism}}

[[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|[[James Watt]]'s [[steam engine]] powered the [[Industrial Revolution]].|alt=A steam engine]]

The [[long nineteenth century]] traditionally starts with the [[French Revolution]] in 1789,{{efn|Some historians use a different periodization, saying that it began as early as 1750<ref>{{harvnb|Stearns|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bjgucmvp_-8C&pg=PA219 219]}}</ref> or as late as 1800.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Morys|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IX0IEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 vii]}}|{{harvnb|Becker|Platt|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rkHUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 1–2]}}}}</ref>}} and lasts until the outbreak of World War I in 1914.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Haynes|Hough|Pilbeam|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PJGREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 43]}}|{{harvnb|Berger|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=80F76LFgBrsC&pg=PR17 xvii]}}}}</ref> It saw the global spread of the Industrial Revolution, the greatest transformation of the world economy since the Neolithic Revolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=562|loc="Manchester's rise as a large, industrial city was a result of what historians call the Industrial Revolution, the most profound transformation in human life since the beginnings of agriculture."}}</ref> The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around 1770 and used new modes of production—the factory, [[mass production]], and [[mechanization]]—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster while using less labor than previously required.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=137}}</ref>

Industrialization raised the global [[standard of living]] but caused upheaval as factory owners and workers clashed over wages and working conditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=584–585}}</ref> Along with industrialization came modern [[globalization]], the increasing interconnection of world regions in the economic, political, and cultural spheres.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=490}}|{{harvnb|Babones|2008|p=146|loc=Studying Globalization: Methodological Issues}}}}</ref> Globalization began in the early 19th century and was enabled by improved transportation technologies such as railroads and [[steamship]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|O'Rourke|Williamson|2002|pp=23–50}}</ref>

[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Empires of the world in 1898|alt=A world map colored to show imperial control]]

European empires [[Decolonization of the Americas|lost territories in Latin America]], which [[Spanish American wars of independence|won independence]] by the 1820s through military campaigns,<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=529, 532}}</ref> but expanded elsewhere as their industrial economies gave them an advantage over the rest of the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=563|loc="The first countries to industrialize grew rich and powerful, facilitating a second great wave of European imperialism in the 19th century."}}</ref> Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Malaya, North Borneo, [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[Aden Province|Aden]]; the French took Indochina; and the Dutch cemented their rule over Indonesia.<ref name="McNeill-2">{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=336}}</ref> The British also colonized Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=532, 676–678, 692}}</ref>

Russia colonized large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=448}}</ref> The United States completed its [[American frontier|westward expansion]], establishing control over the territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Greene|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBjHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}}</ref>

In the late 19th century to early 20th century, the European powers, driven by the [[Second Industrial Revolution]], rapidly [[Scramble for Africa|conquered and colonized almost the entirety of Africa]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=562}}</ref> Only Ethiopia and [[Liberia]] remained independent.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=532}}</ref> Imperial rule in Africa involved many atrocities such as [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State|those in the Congo Free State]] and the [[Herero and Nama genocide]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=429}}|{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=2}}}}</ref>

Within Europe, economic and military competition fostered the creation and consolidation of nation-states, and other ethno-cultural communities began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for their own cultural and political autonomy.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=306, 310–311}}</ref> This [[nationalism]] became important to peoples across the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=312}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=41–44}} }}</ref> In the [[Waves of democracy|first wave of democratization]], between 1828 and 1926,  democratic institutions were established in 33 countries worldwide.<ref>{{harvnb|Huntington|1991|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IMjyTFG04JYC 15–16]}}</ref>

Most of the world [[Abolitionism|abolished slavery]] and serfdom in the 19th century.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=112}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=42}} }}</ref> Over several decades, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing throughout the 20th,<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=35}}</ref> in many countries the [[women's suffrage]] movement won women the right to vote,<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=95}}</ref> and women began to enjoy greater access to education and to professions beyond domestic employment.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=448}}</ref>

[[File:Wright First Flight 1903Dec17 (full restore 115).jpg|thumb|The first airplane, the ''[[Wright Flyer]]'', flew on 17 December 1903.|alt=An airplane flying on a beach]]

In response to encroachment by European powers, several countries undertook programs of industrialization and political reform along Western lines.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=390–392}}</ref> The [[Meiji Restoration]] in [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] led to the establishment of a [[Japanese colonial empire|colonial empire]], while the ''[[tanzimat]]'' reforms in the Ottoman Empire did little to slow the Ottoman decline.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=370, 386, 388, 390–391}}</ref> China achieved some success with its [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] but was devastated by the [[Taiping Rebellion]], history's bloodiest civil war, which between 1850 and 1864 killed 20–30&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Meyer-Fong|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IyD00vXZlfkC 1]}}|{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=390, 623}}}}</ref>

By the end of the century, the United States became the world's largest economy.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=600, 602}}</ref> During the [[Second Industrial Revolution]], new technological advances, involving [[electric power]], the [[internal combustion engine]], and [[assembly-line]] manufacturing, further increased productivity.<ref>{{harvnb|Landes|1969|p=[https://archive.org/details/unboundprometheu0000land_a8r2 235]}}</ref> Technological innovations also provided new avenues for artistic expression through the media of [[photography]], [[sound recording]], and [[film]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|pp=210, 249–250, 254}}</ref>

Meanwhile, [[industrial pollution]] and [[Natural environment|environmental]] degradation accelerated drastically.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=80}}</ref> [[Balloon flight]] had been invented in the late 18th century, but it was only at the beginning of the 20th century that [[Wright Flyer|powered aircraft were developed]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008a|p=xxxiii}} | {{harvnb|Curley|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iemcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} }}</ref>

The 20th century opened with Europe at an apex of wealth and power.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=206|loc="The half-century preceding the outbreak of World War I stands out as an era of European economic, political, and cultural dominance never achieved before and impossible to sustain at the end of the war."}}</ref> Much of the world was under its direct colonial control or its indirect influence through heavily Europeanized nations like the United States and Japan.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=313–314}}</ref> As the century unfolded, however, the global system dominated by rival powers experienced severe strains and ultimately yielded to a more fluid structure of independent [[nation state]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=306}}</ref>

=== World wars ===
{{Main|World War I|World War II}}

This transformation was catalyzed by wars of unparalleled scope and devastation. [[World War I]] was a global conflict from 1914 to 1918 between [[Allies of World War I|the Allies]], led by France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, and the [[Central Powers]], led by Germany, [[Austria-Hungary]], the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. It had an estimated death toll ranging from 10 to 22.5&nbsp;million and resulted in the collapse of four empires{{snd}}the [[Austro-Hungarian]], [[German Empire|German]], Ottoman, and Russian Empires.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=308}} | {{harvnb|Heyman|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YBTHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 114–115]}} | {{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008a|pp=419}} | {{harvnb|Diener|Hagen|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-cl2C2v7-nQC&pg=PA123 123]}} | {{harvnb|Showalter|Royde-Smith|2024}} }}</ref> Its new emphasis on industrial technology had made traditional military tactics obsolete.<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=25}}</ref>

The [[Armenian genocide|Armenian]], [[Sayfo|Assyrian]], and [[Greek genocide]]s saw the systematic destruction, mass murder, and expulsion of those populations in the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Suny|2015|pp=245, 330}}|{{harvnb|Bozarslan|Duclert|Kévorkian|2015|p=187}}}}</ref> From 1918 to 1920, the [[Spanish flu]] caused the deaths of at least 25&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=246–247}}</ref>

In the war's aftermath a [[League of Nations]] was formed in the hope of averting future international conflicts;<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=296–297, 324}}</ref> and powerful ideologies rose to prominence. The [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 created the first [[communist]] state,<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=450}}</ref> while the 1920s and 1930s saw [[fascist]] political parties gain control in [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany|Germany]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=452}}</ref>{{efn|Some historians also classify [[Francoist Spain]] as a fascist regime.<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|pp=159–160n}}</ref>}} The Soviet Union, during [[Joseph Stalin]]'s rule from 1924 to 1953, committed [[Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin|countless atrocities]] against its own people, including [[Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|mass purges]], [[Gulag|forced labor camps]], and [[Soviet famine of 1930–1933|widespread famine]] caused by state policies.<ref>{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008a|pp=xxxii, xlii, 359}}</ref>

Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the [[Great Depression]], helped precipitate [[World War II]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|pp=301–302, 312}}</ref> In that war, the vast majority of the world's countries, including all the [[great power]]s, fought as part of two opposing [[military alliance]]s: the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and the [[Axis powers|Axis]]. The leading Axis powers were Germany, Japan, and Italy;<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=312}}</ref> while the United Kingdom, the United States, the [[Soviet Union]], and the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] were the "[[Four Policemen|Big Four]]" Allied powers.<ref>{{harvnb|Sainsbury|1986|p=[https://archive.org/details/turningpointroos0000sain/page/14/mode/2up 14]}}</ref>

[[File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Atomic bombing of Nagasaki]], 1945|alt=A mushroom cloud]]

The [[militaristic]] governments of Germany and Japan pursued an ultimately doomed course of [[imperialist]] [[expansionism]]. In the course of doing so, Germany [[German war crimes|orchestrated]] the [[genocide]] of 6&nbsp;million Jews in [[the Holocaust]], and of millions of non-Jews across [[German-occupied Europe]],<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=423–424}}</ref> while Japan [[Japanese war crimes|murdered]] millions of Chinese.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=507–508|loc="Indeed, Japan's China war between 1931 and 1945 exacted the heaviest toll in lives of all colonial wars – between 10 and 30 million Chinese deaths being the best estimates available in the absence of official or authoritative statistics."}}</ref> The war also saw the introduction and use of [[nuclear weapons]], which brought unprecedented destruction and ultimately led to Japan's surrender.<ref>{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008a|p=xlii}}</ref> Estimates of the war's total casualties range from 55 to 80&nbsp;million.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=319}}</ref>

=== Contemporary history ===
{{Main|Contemporary history}}

When World War II ended in 1945, the [[United Nations]] was founded in the hope of preventing future wars,<ref>{{harvnb|Fasulo|2015|pp=1–3}}</ref> as the [[League of Nations]] had been formed following World War I.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=324}}</ref> The United Nations championed the [[human rights movement]], in 1948 adopting a [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].<ref>{{harvnb|Simmons|2009|p=41}}</ref> Several European countries formed what would evolve into a 27-member-state economic and political  community, the [[European Union]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dinan|2004|pp=[https://archive.org/details/europerecasthist0000dina_u0v7/ xiii, 8–9]}}</ref>

World War II had opened the way for the advance of communism into Eastern and Central Europe, China, [[North Korea]], [[North Vietnam]], and [[Cuba]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=319, 451}}</ref> To [[Containment|contain]] this advance, the United States established a global network of alliances.<ref>{{harvnb|Acheson|1969}}</ref> The largest, [[NATO]], was established in 1949 and eventually [[Enlargement of NATO|grew to include 32 member states]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kunertova|2024|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YwYDEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT182 182]}}</ref> In response, in 1955 the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies formed the [[Warsaw Pact]] mutual-defense treaty.<ref>{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|p=xl}}</ref>

[[File:Thefalloftheberlinwall1989.JPG|thumb|[[Fall of the Berlin Wall]], 1989|alt=People standing on a wall]]

The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the primary global powers in the aftermath of World War II.<ref>{{harvnb|Kennedy|1987|p=[https://archive.org/details/risefallofgreatp00kenn/ 357]}}</ref> Both nations harbored deep suspicions and fears about the global spread of the other's political-economic system — capitalism for the United States and communism for the Soviet Union.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=817}}</ref> This mutual distrust sparked the [[Cold War]], a 45-year stand-off and [[arms race]] between the two nations and their allies.<ref>{{harvnb|Allison|2018|p=126}}</ref>

With the development of nuclear weapons during World War II and their subsequent [[Nuclear proliferation|proliferation]], all of humanity was put at risk of [[nuclear war]] between the two superpowers, as demonstrated by [[Nuclear close calls|many incidents]], most prominently the October 1962 [[Cuban Missile Crisis]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|pp=321, 330}}</ref> Such war [[Nuclear holocaust|being viewed as impractical]], the superpowers instead waged [[proxy war]]s in non-nuclear-armed [[Third World]] countries.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Allison|2018|pp=127–128}}|{{harvnb|Stevenson|2020|pp=[https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v42/n20/tom-stevenson/in-the-grey-zone 41–43]}}}}</ref> The Cold War ended peacefully in 1991 after the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union collapsed]],<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=342}}</ref> partly due to its inability to compete economically with the United States and Western Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|pp=456–457|loc="The collapse of the Soviet Union was, as Mikhail Gorbachev understood, a failure to compete economically and technologically."}}</ref>

Cold War preparations to deter or fight a [[third world war]] accelerated advances in technologies that, though conceptualized before World War II, had been implemented for that war's exigencies, such as [[jet aircraft]],<ref name="Scranton 2006">{{harvnb|Scranton|2006|p=[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1177/1744935906064096 131]}}</ref> [[rocket]]ry,<ref>{{harvnb|Wolfe|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mmR_eJYhPAwC 90]}}</ref> and computers.<ref>{{harvnb|Naughton|2016|p=7}}</ref> In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel;<ref name="Scranton 2006" /> [[artificial satellites]] with innumerable applications,<ref name="McNeill-3">{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=195}}</ref> including [[GPS]];<ref>{{harvnb|Easton|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pb7TAAAAQBAJ 2]}}</ref> and the [[Internet]],<ref name="McNeill-3" /> which in the 1990s began to gain traction as a form of communication.<ref>{{harvnb|Naughton|2016|p=14}}</ref> These inventions revolutionized the movement of people, ideas, and information.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|pp=195–196}}</ref>

[[File:Apollo 17 Cernan on moon.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Last Moon landing: [[Apollo 17]] (1972)|alt=A man standing on the moon with an American flag in the background]]

The second half of the 20th century also saw groundbreaking scientific and technological developments such as the discovery of the structure of [[DNA]]<ref>{{harvnb|Pääbo|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/50yearsofdna00clay/page/95 95]|loc=The Mosaic That Is Our Genome}}</ref> and [[DNA sequencing]],<ref>{{harvnb|Pettersson|Lundeberg|Ahmadian|2009|pp=105–111}}</ref> the worldwide [[eradication of smallpox]],<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=258}}</ref> the [[Green Revolution]] in agriculture,<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=91}}</ref> the discovery of [[plate tectonics]],<ref name="McNeill">{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=200}}</ref> the [[Apollo program|moon landings]],<ref>{{harvnb|Gleick|2019}}</ref> crewed and uncrewed [[exploration of space]],<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=198}}</ref> advances in [[energy technologies]],<ref>{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|p=xxxiv}}</ref> and foundational discoveries in [[physics]] phenomena ranging from the smallest entities ([[particle physics]]) to the greatest ([[physical cosmology]]).<ref name="McNeill" />

These technical innovations had far-reaching effects.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=442}}</ref> During the 20th century the world's population quadrupled to six billion, while world economic output increased by a factor of 20.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|pp=442, 446}}</ref> Toward the end of the 20th century, the rate of [[population growth]] started to decline, in part because of increased awareness of [[family planning]] and better access to [[contraceptives]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ivanov|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sThmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA249 249–250]}}|{{harvnb|Huhle|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2kZuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 141–142]}}}}</ref> Parts of the world now have [[sub-replacement fertility]] rates.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=196–197, 204, 207–208}}</ref>

[[Public health]] measures and advances in [[medical science]] contributed to a sharp increase in global [[life expectancy]] at birth from about 31 years in 1900 to over 66 years in 2000.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a30_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|DeLaet|DeLaet|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8]}} | {{harvnb|Mathew|Bhatia|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ykvlALiqW6YC&pg=PA8 8]}} | {{harvnb|Getzen|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 234]}} }}</ref>{{efn|One of the main factors responsible for this was the reduction of [[infant mortality]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nohr|Olsen|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A1F2AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA637 637]}}</ref>}} In 1820, 75% of humanity lived on less than one dollar a day, while in 2001 only about 20% did.<ref>{{harvnb|Vásquez|2001}}</ref> At the same time, economic inequality increased both within individual countries and between rich and poor countries.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=449}}</ref> The importance of public education had already begun to increase in the 18th and 19th centuries{{efn|The Aztec civilization is an exception, having established compulsory formal education for children as early as the 14th century.<ref>{{multiref|1={{harvnb|Reagan|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bCGRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108]}}|2={{harvnb|Murphy|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aX9hDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 80]}}|3={{harvnb|Kte'pi|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Yub3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 63]}}}}</ref>}} but it was not until the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century that compulsory free education was provided to [[Universal access to education|most children worldwide]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Barro|Lee|2015|pp=13, 55–56}}|{{harvnb|Urata|Kuroda|Tonegawa|2022|pp=40–41}}|{{harvnb|Shelley|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}|{{harvnb|Scott|Vare|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k1YAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 54–56]}}}}</ref>{{efn|According to one estimate, about 90% of the global population aged 15–64 was uneducated in 1870. This number had dropped to 10% by 2010.<ref>{{harvnb|Barro|Lee|2015|pp=55–56}}</ref>}}

In China, the [[Maoist]] government implemented industrialization and [[collectivization]] policies as part of the [[Great Leap Forward]] (1958–1962), leading to the [[Great Chinese Famine|starvation deaths]] (1959–1961) of 30–40&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=459–460}}</ref> After these policies were rescinded, China entered a period of [[economic liberalization]] and rapid growth, with the economy expanding by 6.6% per year from 1978 to 2003.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=629}}</ref>

In the postwar decades, in a process of [[decolonization]], the [[Decolonisation of Africa|African]], [[Decolonisation of Asia|Asian]], and [[Decolonisation of Oceania|Oceanian]] colonies of European empires won their formal independence.<ref>{{harvnb|Abernethy|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/dynamicsofglobal0000aber/ 133]}}</ref> Postcolonial states in Africa struggled to grow their economies, facing structural barriers such as reliance on the export of [[commodities]] rather than manufactured goods.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|pp=578–579}}</ref> Sub-Saharan Africa was the world region hit hardest by the [[HIV/AIDS pandemic]] of the late 20th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=111}}</ref> Moreover, Africa experienced high levels of violence, as in the [[Second Congo War]] (1998–2003), the deadliest conflict since World War II.<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|pp=140–141}}</ref>

The [[Near East]] experienced numerous conflicts, including the [[Iran-Iraq War]], the [[Gulf War|first]] and [[Iraq War|second Gulf wars]], and the [[Syrian Civil War]], as well as [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|tensions and conflicts between Israel and Palestine]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nugent|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JlUuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA347 347]}} | {{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008|p=xlii}} }}</ref> Development efforts in Latin America were hindered by over-reliance on commodity exports<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|pp=550–551}}</ref> and by political instability, some of it caused by [[United States involvement in regime change in Latin America]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|pp=547–550}}</ref>

[[File:Pudong Shanghai November 2017 panorama.jpg|thumb|[[Shanghai]]. China urbanized rapidly in the 21st century.|alt=A city skyline with tall buildings]]
[[File:COVID-19 Nurse.jpg|thumb|[[COVID-19 pandemic]], 2020]]

The early 21st century was marked by growing [[economic globalization]] and [[Economic integration|integration]],<ref>{{harvnb|Friedman|2007|pp=[https://archive.org/details/worldisflat00thom 137–138, ''passim'']}}</ref> which brought both benefits and risks to interlinked economies, as exemplified by the [[Great Recession]] of the late 2000s and early 2010s.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=609|loc="But the crisis beginning in 2007, with the eddying effects of the subprime lending-induced financial crash, demonstrated how vital the health of the American economy remained for global growth and stability. Events and processes outside the United States continued to affect the internal politics and economics, and vice versa. The United States and the rest of the world were interconnected, and disengagement was impossible."}}|{{harvnb|Tozzo|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iH86DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 116]}}}}</ref> Communications expanded, with [[smartphone]]s and [[social media]] becoming ubiquitous worldwide by the mid-2010s. By the early 2020s, [[artificial intelligence]] systems improved to the point of outperforming humans at many circumscribed tasks.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|''The Economist''|2023}}|{{harvnb|Roivainen|2023}}}}</ref>

The influence of religion continued to decline in many Western countries, while some parts of the Muslim world saw the rise of [[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamentalist movements]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Martikainen|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tpsuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72–73]}}|{{harvnb|Hiro|1989|loc=§ Introduction}}}}</ref> In 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] substantially disrupted global trading, caused recessions in the global economy, and spurred cultural [[paradigm shift]]s.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Casselman|2022}}|{{harvnb|Howe|Chauhan|Soderberg|Buckley|2020}}}}</ref>

[[Environmental movement|Concerns]] grew as [[Global catastrophic risk|existential threats]] from [[environmental degradation]] and [[global warming]] became increasingly evident,<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Armstrong McKay|Staal|Abrams|Winkelmann|2022|p=eabn7950}}|{{harvnb|Kolbert|2023|loc="[T]he world's phosphorus problem [arising from the element's exorbitant use in agriculture] resembles its carbon-dioxide problem, its plastics problem, its groundwater-use problem, its soil-erosion problem, and its nitrogen problem. The path humanity is on may lead to ruin, but, as of yet, no one has found a workable way back."}}|{{harvnb|Kolbert|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ra9RAQAAQBAJ 267]}}}}</ref> while [[Climate change mitigation|mitigation efforts]], including a shift to [[sustainable energy]], made gradual progress.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Oreskes|2022}}|{{harvnb|''The Economist''|2023a}}|{{harvnb|Ritchie|2024}}}}</ref>

== Academic research ==

The study of human history has a long tradition and early precursors were already practiced in the ancient period as attempts to provide comprehensive accounts of the history of the world.{{efn|Some historian use the terms ''[[World history (field)|world history]]'' and ''global history'' to refer to all these attempts while others understand world history and global history in a more narrow sense as one among several competing approaches to study the development of the world on a global scale.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Clavin|2005|pp=435–436}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|p=3}}|{{harvnb|Hughes-Warrington|2015|p=41}}|{{harvnb|Conrad|2016|pp=217–219}}}}</ref>}} Most research before the 20th century focused on histories of individual communities and societies after the prehistoric period. This changed in the late 20th century, when attempts to integrate the diverse narratives into a common context reaching back to the emergence of the first humans became a central research topic.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|pp=1–4}}|{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|pp=111–112}}| {{harvnb|Cajani|2013|loc=§ Current Trends}}|{{harvnb|Andrea|Neel|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> This transition to a widened perspective was accompanied by questioning [[Eurocentrism]] and the Western-focused perspective that had previously dominated academic history.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|pp=2–4}}|{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|pp=110–111}}}}</ref>

Like in other historical disciplines, the [[Historical method|methodology]] of analyzing textual sources to construct narratives and interpretations of past events plays a central role in the study of human history. The scope of its topic poses the unique challenge of synthesizing a coherent and comprehensive narrative spanning different cultures, regions, and time periods while taking diverse individual perspectives into account. This is also reflected in its [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary approach]] by integrating insights from fields belonging to the [[humanities]] and the [[Social sciences|social]], biological, and [[physical sciences]], such as other [[History|historical disciplines]], [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]], [[linguistics]], [[genetics]], [[paleontology]], and [[geology]]. The interdisciplinary approach is of particular importance to the study of human history before the invention of writing.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Manning|2013|loc=§ Conceptualization, § Conclusion}}|{{harvnb|Manning|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–4]}}|{{harvnb|Norberg|Deutsch|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_VXGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}}|{{harvnb|Aldenderfer|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1 1]}}|{{harvnb|Neel|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11–12]}}}}</ref>

=== Periodization ===
To provide an accessible overview, historians divide human history into different periods organized around key themes, events, or developments that have shaped human societies over time. The number of periods and their time frames depend on the chosen topics, and the transitions between periods are often more fluid than static periodization schemes suggest.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|pp=5–6}}|{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|p=110}}|{{harvnb|Lang|2015|pp=84–85}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA97 97–99]}}}}</ref>

A traditionally influential periodization in European scholarship distinguishes between the ancient, medieval, and modern periods<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|p=7}}|{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|p=110}}|{{harvnb|Cajani|2013|loc=§ Biblical Chronology Challenged}}}}</ref> organized around historical events responsible for major shifts in political, economic, and cultural structures to mark the transitions between the periods: first the fall of the Western Roman Empire and later the emergence of the Renaissance.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|p=7}}|{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|p=110}}|{{harvnb|Gamble|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5zRIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}}}</ref> Another periodization divides human history into three periods based on the way humans engage with nature to produce goods. The first transition happened with the emergence of agriculture and husbandry to replace hunting and gathering as the main means of food production. The Industrial Revolution constitutes the second transition.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Cajani|2013|loc=§ Current Trends}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA102 102–103]}}}}</ref> [[The Rise of the West|A further approach]] uses the relations between societies to divide the history of the world into the periods of Middle Eastern dominance before 500&nbsp;BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500&nbsp;CE, and Western dominance afterwards.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Cajani|2013|loc=§ Current Trends}}|{{harvnb|Denemark|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SjpKFSq9VD0C&pg=PA32 32–33]}}}}</ref> The invention of writing is often used to demark prehistory from the ancient period while another approach divides early history based on the type of tools used in the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McNeill|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IwxpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 69–70]}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA101 101]}}}}</ref> Historians focusing on religion and culture identify the Axial Age as a key turning point that laid the spiritual and philosophical foundations of many of the world's major civilizations. Some historians draw on elements from different approaches to arrive at a more nuanced periodization.<ref>{{harvnb|Cajani|2013|loc=§ Current Trends}}</ref>

== References ==

=== Explanatory notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Abernethy |first1=David B. |title=The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415–1980 |date=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-09314-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/dynamicsofglobal0000aber/}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.hamilton.edu/news/story/from-the-brink-of-the-apocalypse-confronting-famine-war-plague-and-death-in-the-later-middle-ages |title=From the Brink of the Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague, and Death in the Later Middle Ages |last=Aberth |first=John |date=2001 |publisher=Hamilton College |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=17 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917141128/https://www.hamilton.edu/news/story/from-the-brink-of-the-apocalypse-confronting-famine-war-plague-and-death-in-the-later-middle-ages |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Abi-Rached L, Jobin MJ, Kulkarni S, McWhinnie A, Dalva K, Gragert L, Babrzadeh F, Gharizadeh B, Luo M, Plummer FA, Kimani J, Carrington M, Middleton D, Rajalingam R, Beksac M, Marsh SG, Maiers M, Guethlein LA, Tavoularis S, Little AM, Green RE, Norman PJ, Parham P |display-authors=6 |title=The Shaping of Modern Human Immune Systems by Multiregional Admixture with Archaic Humans |journal=Science |volume=334 |issue=6052 |pages=89–94 |date=2011 |pmid=21868630 |pmc=3677943 |doi=10.1126/science.1209202 |bibcode=2011Sci...334...89A}}
* {{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |date=2017 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-0395-1 |access-date=17 January 2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Abulafia |first=David |url=http://archive.org/details/greatseahumanhis0000abul |title=The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean |date=2011 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9934-1 |author-link=David Abulafia}}
* {{cite book |last1=Acheson |first1=Dean |title=Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-30412-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OirSz3Wtaa0C |date=1969}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Three Kingdoms, Korea |editor1-last=Ackermann |editor1-first=Marsha E. |editor2-last=Schroeder |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Terry |editor3-first=Janice J. |editor4-last=Upshur |editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo |editor5-last=Whitters |editor5-first=Mark F. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of world history |date=2008e |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4 |display-editors=1}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ackermann |editor1-first=Marsha E. |editor2-last=Schroeder |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Terry |editor3-first=Janice J. |editor4-last=Upshur |editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo |editor5-last=Whitters |editor5-first=Mark F. |title=Encyclopedia of World History 2: The Expanding World 600 c.e. to 1449 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4 |date=2008b}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ackermann |editor1-first=Marsha E. |editor2-last=Schroeder |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Terry |editor3-first=Janice J. |editor4-last=Upshur |editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo |editor5-last=Whitters |editor5-first=Mark F. |title=Encyclopedia of World History 3: The First Global Age 1450 to 1749 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4 |date=2008c}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ackermann |editor1-first=Marsha E. |editor2-last=Schroeder |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Terry |editor3-first=Janice J. |editor4-last=Upshur |editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo |editor5-last=Whitters |editor5-first=Mark F. |title=Encyclopedia of World History 4: Age of Revolution and Empire 1750 to 1899 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4 |date=2008d}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ackermann |editor1-first=Marsha E. |editor2-last=Schroeder |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Terry |editor3-first=Janice J. |editor4-last=Upshur |editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo |editor5-last=Whitters |editor5-first=Mark F. |title=Encyclopedia of World History 5: Crisis and Achievement 1900 to 1949 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4 |date=2008a}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ackermann |editor1-first=Marsha E. |editor2-last=Schroeder |editor2-first=Michael J. |editor3-last=Terry |editor3-first=Janice J. |editor4-last=Upshur |editor4-first=Jiu-Hwa Lo |editor5-last=Whitters |editor5-first=Mark F. |title=Encyclopedia of World History 6: The Contemporary World 1950 to the Present |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4 |date=2008}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Ackermann RR, Mackay A, Arnold ML |date=2015 |title=The Hybrid Origin of "Modern" Humans |journal=Evolutionary Biology |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1007/s11692-015-9348-1 |s2cid=14329491}}
* {{cite book |last1=Adovasio |first1=J. M. |author-link1=James M. Adovasio |first2=Olga |last2=Soffer |first3=Jake |last3=Page |title=The Invisible Sex: Uncovering the True Roles of Women in Prehistory |date=2007 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-157177-0 |oclc=191804695}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aldenderfer |first1=Mark |title=World History Encyclopedia |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1-85109-930-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1 |chapter=Era 1: Beginnings of Human Society to 4000 BCE |volume=2 |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last1=Allchin |first1=Bridget |author-link1=Bridget Allchin |last2=Allchin |first2=Raymond |author-link2=Raymond Allchin |title=Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia |date=1997 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-87713-3}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Allison |first=Graham |author-link=Graham Allison |title=The Myth of the Liberal Order: From Historical Accident to Conventional Wisdom |magazine=[[Foreign Affairs]] |volume=97 |number=4 |date=2018 |pages=124–133 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2018-06-14/myth-liberal-order |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709125053/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2018-06-14/myth-liberal-order |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Andaya |first1=Barbara Watson |author-link1=Barbara Watson Andaya |last2=Andaya |first2=Leonard |author-link2=Leonard Andaya |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofearlymo0000anda |title=A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400–1830 |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88992-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Andrea |first1=Alfred J. |last2=Neel |first2=Carolyn |title=World History Encyclopedia |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1-85109-930-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |chapter=What Is World History? |volume=1 |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last=Anthony |first=Reid |author-link=Anthony Reid (academic) |url=http://archive.org/details/a-history-of-southeast-asia-crossroads |title=A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-631-17961-0 |date=2015}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Armstrong McKay |first1=David I. |last2=Staal |first2=Arie |last3=Abrams |first3=Jesse F. |last4=Winkelmann |first4=Ricarda |last5=Sakschewski |first5=Boris |last6=Loriani |first6=Sina |last7=Fetzer |first7=Ingo |last8=Cornell |first8=Sarah E. |last9=Rockström |first9=Johan |last10=Lenton |first10=Timothy M. |display-authors=1 |date=2022 |title=Exceeding 1.5&nbsp;°C Global Warming Could Trigger Multiple Climate Tipping Points |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=377 |page=eabn7950 |doi=10.1126/science.abn7950 |pmid=36074831 |s2cid=252161375 |hdl-access=free |number=6611 |hdl=10871/131584}}
* {{cite book |last=Axworthy |first=Michael |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofiranemp0000axwo |title=A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind |date=2008 |publisher=Basic |isbn=978-0-465-00888-9}}
* {{cite book |title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization |last=Babones |first=Salvatore |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-76642-2 |editor-last=Ritzer |editor-first=George |chapter=Studying Globalization: Methodological Issues |oclc=232611725 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA146 |access-date=13 December 2023}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bard |first=Kathryn A. |author-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200–2686 BC) |encyclopedia=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |editor-last=Shaw |editor-first=Ian |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/57 57–82] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-280458-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/57}}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=2 |title=A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE–500 CE |editor1-last=Barker |editor1-first=Graeme |editor1-link=Graeme Barker |editor2-last=Goucher |editor2-first=Candace |editor2-link=Candice Goucher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ri07CQAAQBAJ |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-521-19218-7 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=3 September 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Barro |first1=Robert J. |last2=Lee |first2=Jong-Wha |editor1-last=Barro |editor1-first=Robert J. |editor2-last=Yi |editor2-first=Chong-hwa |title=Education Matters: Global Schooling Gains from the 19th to the 21st Century |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-937923-1 |chapter=2. International Comparisons of School Enrollment and Educational Attainment, 1870–2010 |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baumann |first1=Martin |editor-last1=Melton |editor-first1=J. Gordon |editor-last2=Baumann |editor-first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices [6 volumes] |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qejaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1326 |date=2010 |chapter=Hinduism}}
* {{cite journal |title=What Changed During the Axial Age: Cognitive Styles or Reward Systems? |last1=Baumard |first1=Nicolas |last2=Hyafil |first2=Alexandre |last3=Boyer |first3=Pascal |journal=Communicative & Integrative Biology |date=2015 |volume=8 |issue=5 |page=e1046657 |publisher=[[United States National Library of Medicine]] |doi=10.1080/19420889.2015.1046657 |pmid=27066164 |pmc=4802742}}
* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1576875.stm |title=De-coding the Black Death |date=2001 |work=BBC |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707042715/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1576875.stm |url-status=live |author=BBC}}
* {{cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) |url=http://archive.org/details/spqrhistoryofanc0000bear_v4f6 |title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome |date=2015 |publisher=Profile |isbn=978-1-84668-380-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Becker |first1=Tobias |last2=Platt |first2=Len |title=Popular Culture in Europe Since 1800 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-341259-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkHUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 |chapter=Reading Cultures – Modernity and the Word |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=4 |title=A World with States, Empires, and Networks, 1200 BCE–900 CE |editor1-last=Benjamin |editor1-first=Craig |editor1-link=Craig Benjamin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAFuCAAAQBAJ |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-107-01572-2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=28 October 2022}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Matthew |display-authors=et al. |title=Evidence of Humans in North America During the Last Glacial Maximum |journal=Science |date=2021 |volume=373 |issue=6562 |pages=1528–1531 |doi=10.1126/science.abg7586 |pmid=34554787 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1528B |s2cid=237616125|url=http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/36202/7/science_manuscript_WHSA_rev3_17Aug21.pdf }}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=6 |title=The Construction of a Global World, 1400–1800 CE, Part 1, Foundations |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Jerry |editor1-link=Jerry H. Bentley |editor2-last=Subrahmanyam |editor2-first=Sanjay |editor2-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |editor3-first=Merry |editor3-last=Wiesner-Hanks |editor3-link=Merry Wiesner-Hanks |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015a |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139194594 |isbn=978-0-521-76162-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilxWtAEACAAJ |access-date=26 January 2023}}
* {{cite book |volume=6 |title=The Construction of a Global World, 1400–1800 CE, Part 2, Patterns of Change |series=The Cambridge World History |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Jerry |editor1-link=Jerry H. Bentley |editor2-last=Subrahmanyam |editor2-first=Sanjay |editor2-link=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |editor3-first=Merry |editor3-last=Wiesner-Hanks |editor3-link=Merry Wiesner-Hanks |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015b |issue=2 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139022460 |isbn=978-0-521-19246-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJtrCgAAQBAJ |access-date=26 January 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bentley |first1=Jerry H. |last2=Ziegler |first2=Herbert F. |title=Traditions & Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past: Volume II From 1500 to the Present |edition=4th |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-07-333063-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berger |first1=Stefan |title=A Companion to Nineteenth-Century Europe, 1789–1914 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5232-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=80F76LFgBrsC&pg=PR17 |chapter=Introduction |date=2008}}
* {{cite book |title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change |last1=Bideleux |first1=Robert |last2=Jeffries |first2=Ian |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-16112-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C |year=1998 |access-date=10 February 2022}}
* {{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=2: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2023 |editor1-last=Blackhawk |editor1-first=Ned |editor1-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor2-last=Kiernan |editor2-first=Ben |editor2-link=Ben Kiernan |editor3-last=Madley |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |isbn=978-1-108-76548-0 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480}}
* {{cite book |chapter=Early Chinese Writing |title=The World's Writing Systems |editor1-last=Bright |editor1-first=Peter |editor2-last=Daniels |editor2-first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/worldswritingsys0000unse/ |last=Boltz |first=William G. |year=1996 |isbn=0-19-507993-0 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bozarslan |first1=Hamit |last2=Duclert |first2=Vincent |last3=Kévorkian |first3=Raymond H. |author1-link=Hamit Bozarslan |author2-link=Vincent Duclert |title=Comprendre le Génocide des Arméniens—1915 à nos Jours |date=2015 |publisher=[[Groupe Artémis|Tallandier]] |isbn=979-1-02-100681-2 |language=fr |trans-title=Understanding the Armenian Genocide: 1915 to the Present Day}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Bristow |first1=William |title=Enlightenment |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 June 2024 |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Cynthia Stokes |url=http://archive.org/details/bighistoryfrombi0000brow |title=Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present |date=2007 |publisher=New Press |author-link=Cynthia Stokes Brown |isbn=978-1-59558-196-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Stephen F. |last2=Anatolios |first2=Khaled |last3=Palmer |first3=Martin |editor-last=O'Brien |editor-first=Joanne |title=Catholicism & Orthodox Christianity |publisher=Infobase |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60413-106-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bulliet |first1=Richard |last2=Crossley |first2=Pamela |last3=Headrick |first3=Daniel |last4=Hirsch |first4=Steven |last5=Johnson |first5=Lyman |title=The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition |volume=1 |publisher=Cengage |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-495-91311-5}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqOCwAAQBAJ |title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History |first1=Richard |last1=Bulliet |author-link=Richard Bulliet |first2=Pamela |last2=Crossley |author2-link=Pamela Kyle Crossley |first3=Daniel |last3=Headrick |author3-link=Daniel R. Headrick |first4=Steven |last4=Hirsch |first5=Lyman |last5=Johnson |last6=Northrup |first6=David |year=2015a |ref={{harvid|Bulliet et al.|2015a}} |publisher=Cengage |isbn=978-1-285-44567-0 |edition=6th |volume=1 |access-date=25 August 2022}}
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/earthitspeoplesg0000unse_a0j7 |title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History |first1=Richard |last1=Bulliet |author-link=Richard Bulliet |first2=Pamela |last2=Crossley |author2-link=Pamela Kyle Crossley |first3=Daniel |last3=Headrick |author3-link=Daniel R. Headrick |first4=Steven |last4=Hirsch |first5=Lyman |last5=Johnson |last6=Northrup |first6=David |year=2015b |ref={{harvid|Bulliet et al.|2015b}} |publisher=Cengage |isbn=978-1-285-44570-0 |edition=6th |volume=2}}
* {{cite book |last=Burbank |first=Jane |url=http://archive.org/details/empiresinworldhi0000burb |title=Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference |date=2010 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12708-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Burbank |first1=Jane |last2=Cooper |first2=Frederick |title=Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3470-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuUXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 |date=2021}}
* {{cite journal |last=Burley |first=David V. |date=1998 |title=Tongan Archaeology and the Tongan Past, 2850–150 B.P. |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=368–369, 375 |doi=10.1023/A:1022322303769 |jstor=25801130 |s2cid=160340278 |issn=1573-7802}}
* {{cite book |last=Burstein |first=Stanley M. |author-link=Stanley M. Burstein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwFLDgAAQBAJ |title=The World from 1000 BCE to 300 CE |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-933613-5 |access-date=1 October 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Butt |first1=John J. |title=The Greenwood Dictionary of World History |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-313-08315-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOXEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |date=2005}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cajani |first1=Luigi |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Jerry H. |title=The Oxford Handbook of World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-968606-3 |chapter=Periodization |date=2013}}
* {{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Music: Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHJvKVq0vXoC |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79273-8 |editor1-last=Carter |editor1-first=Tim |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=Butt}}
* {{cite news |last=Casselman |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Casselman |date=2022 |title=Pandemic's Economic Impact Is Easing, but Aftershocks May Linger |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/19/business/covid-economy.html |url-access=limited |access-date=11 May 2023 |archive-date=11 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511050920/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/19/business/covid-economy.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chainey |first1=Dee Dee |last2=Winsham |first2=Willow |title=Treasury of Folklore: Seas and Rivers: Sirens, Selkies and Ghost Ships |publisher=Batsford |isbn=978-1-84994-705-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OokmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT82 |date=2021}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Chakrabarti |first=Dilip K. |date=2004 |title=Introduction |editor-last=Chkrabarti |editor-first=Dilip K. |encyclopedia=Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries |publisher=Marg |isbn=978-81-85026-63-3 |pages=10–13 |author-link=Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chapman |first1=Tim |title=Imperial Russia, 1801–1905 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-57970-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q_qdriEP_UC&pg=PA36 |date=2002}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chrisp |first1=Peter |title=Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-22590-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ |date=2016 |chapter=Civilizations Develop |access-date=4 May 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Christian |first1=David |title=This Fleeting World: A Short History of Humanity |publisher=Berkshire |isbn=978-1-933782-04-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BYLrRXaZrAkC&pg=PA102 |date=2008}}
* {{cite book |last=Christian |first=David |author-link=David Christian (historian) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFHOahfX0R4C |title=Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History |date=2011 |orig-date=2004 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-27144-9 |access-date=16 December 2023}}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=1 |title=Introducing World History, to 10,000 BCE |editor-last=Christian |editor-first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWwaCAAAQBAJ |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-521-76333-2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139194662 |access-date=26 January 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Christian |first1=David |editor1-last=Christian |editor1-first=David |title=The Cambridge World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76333-2 |chapter=Introduction and Overview |date=2015a}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Clarkson C, Jacobs Z, Marwick B, Fullagar R, Wallis L, Smith M, Roberts RG, Hayes E, Lowe K, Carah X, Florin SA, McNeil J, Cox D, Arnold LJ, Hua Q, Huntley J, Brand HE, Manne T, Fairbairn A, Shulmeister J, Lyle L, Salinas M, Page M, Connell K, Park G, Norman K, Murphy T, Pardoe C |display-authors=6 |title=Human Occupation of Northern Australia by 65,000 Years Ago |journal=Nature |volume=547 |issue=7663 |pages=306–310 |date=2017 |pmid=28726833 |doi=10.1038/nature22968 |bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C |s2cid=205257212 |hdl=2440/107043 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers/4803 |hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Clavin |first1=Patricia |title=Defining Transnationalism |journal=Contemporary European History |volume=14 |issue=4 |doi=10.1017/S0960777305002705 |date=2005 |pages=421–439}}
* {{cite book |title=The Maya |last=Coe |first=Michael D. |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-500-28902-0 |edition=8th}}
* {{cite book |last=Coedès |first=George |author-link=George Coedès |editor=Walter F. Vella |translator-first=Susan Brown |translator-last=Cowing |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/indianizedstates0000cdes}}
* {{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Sebastian |title=What is Global History? |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15525-8 |date=2016}}
* {{cite book |last1=Coolidge |first1=Frederick Lawrence |last2=Wynn |first2=Thomas Grant |title=The Rise of Homo Sapiens: The Evolution of Modern Thinking |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-068091-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |date=2018}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Curley |editor1-first=Robert |title=The Complete History of Aviation: From Ballooning to Supersonic Flight |publisher=Britannica |isbn=978-1-61530-725-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iemcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC |title=God's Playground: A History of Poland |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925339-5 |volume=1: The Origins to 1795 |author-link=Norman Davies}}
* {{cite journal |first=Ignacio |last=de la Torre |year=2019 |title=Searching for the Emergence of Stone Tool Making in Eastern Africa |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=116 |issue=24 |pages=11567–11569 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1906926116 |pmid=31164417 |pmc=6575166 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11611567D |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last1=DeLaet |first1=Debra L. |last2=DeLaet |first2=David E. |title=Global Health in the 21st Century: The Globalization of Disease and Wellness |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-25899-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780429061530-18/carolingian-conquests-margaret-deanesly |chapter=The Carolingian Conquests |last=Deanesly |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret Deanesly |title=A History of Early Medieval Europe |year=2019 |pages=339–355 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.4324/9780429061530-18 |isbn=978-0-429-06153-0 |s2cid=198789183 |access-date=17 September 2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Deming |first1=David |title=Science and Technology in World History, Volume 1: The Ancient World and Classical Civilization |publisher=McFarland & Co. |isbn=978-0-7864-5657-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZONR6frqcQC&pg=PA174 |date=2014}}
* {{cite book |last1=Denemark |first1=Robert Allen |title=World System History: The Social Science of Long-term Change |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-23276-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjpKFSq9VD0C&pg=PA32 |date=2000}}
* {{cite book |last1=Diener |first1=Alexander C. |last2=Hagen |first2=Joshua |editor1-last=Diener |editor1-first=Alexander C. |title=Borderlines and Borderlands: Political Oddities at the Edge of the Nation-State |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-5635-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cl2C2v7-nQC&pg=PA123 |chapter=Russia's Kaliningrad Exclave: Discontinuity as a Threat to Sovereignty |date=2010}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dinan |first1=Desmond |title=Europe Recast: A History of European Union |date=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-333-98734-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/europerecasthist0000dina_u0v7/}}
* {{cite journal |first1=Manuel |last1=Domínguez-Rodrigo |first2=Luis |last2=Alcalá |year=2016 |title=3.3-Million-Year-Old Stone Tools and Butchery Traces? More Evidence Needed |journal=PaleoAnthropology |pages=46–53 |url=https://paleoanthro.org/media/journal/content/PA20160046.pdf |access-date=14 December 2023 |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214095225/https://paleoanthro.org/media/journal/content/PA20160046.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Duchesne |first1=Ricardo |title=The Uniqueness of Western Civilization |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-19461-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuF5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA461 |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Robin Dunbar |last=Dunbar |first=Robin |title=Human Evolution: Our Brains and Behavior |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-19-061678-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/humanevolutionou0000dunb/ |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/01/29/2149185.htm |title=Black Death 'Discriminated' Between Victims |last=Dunham |first=Will |date=2008 |work=ABC Science |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220120404/http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/01/29/2149185.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |first=John |last=Dunn |title=Democracy: The Unfinished Journey 508 BCE&nbsp;– 1993 CE |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-827934-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dynneson |first1=Thomas L. |title=City-state Civism in Ancient Athens: Its Real and Ideal Expressions |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-4331-0311-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fk4lGzmhiwC&pg=PA54 |date=2008}}
* {{cite book |last=Easton |first=Richard D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pb7TAAAAQBAJ |title=GPS Declassified |date=2013 |publisher=Potomac |isbn=978-1-61234-408-9 |access-date=16 September 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ebrey |author-link=Patricia Buckley Ebrey |last2=Walthall |last3=Palais |title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-618-13384-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Damian |last2=Pottier |first2=C. |last3=Fletcher |first3=R. |last4=Hensley |first4=S. |last5=Tapley |first5=I. |last6=Milne |first6=A. |last7=Barbetti |first7=M. |display-authors=1 |year=2007 |title=A Comprehensive Archaeological Map of the World's Largest Pre-industrial Settlement Complex at Angkor, Cambodia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=36 |page=14279 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702525104 |pmid=17717084 |pmc=1964867 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10414277E |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Fagan |first=Brian M. |title=Ancient North America: The Archaeology of a Continent |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-500-28148-2 |edition=4th}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ystMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA762 |title=The Oxford Companion to Archaeology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-507618-9 |editor-last1=Fagan |editor-first1=Brian M. |editor-last2=Beck |editor-first2=Charlotte |access-date=19 April 2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |last2=Durrani |first2=Nadia |title=World Prehistory: The Basics |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-046679-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NNFKEAAAQBAJ |chapter=3. Enter Homo Sapiens (c. 300,000 Years Ago and Later) |date=2021}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fage |first1=John |author-link1=John Fage |last2=Tordoff |first2=William |edition=4th |title=A History of Africa |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-25247-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrica0000fage/}}
* {{cite book |last1=Faltin |first1=Lucia |last2=Wright |first2=Melanie J. |title=The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity |url=https://archive.org/details/religiousrootsco00falt |url-access=limited |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8264-9482-5 |publisher=A&C Black}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fasulo |first1=Linda |title=An Insider's Guide to the UN |date=2015 |edition=3rd |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-20365-3}}
* {{cite book |title=Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley |last1=Flannery |first1=Kent V. |author-link=Kent Flannery |last2=Marcus |first2=Joyce |author2-link=Joyce Marcus |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-500-05078-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Flenley |first1=John |last2=Bahn |first2=Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/enigmasofeasteri0000flen |title=The Enigmas of Easter Island |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-164719-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Friedman |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Friedman |year=2007 |title=The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century |edition=Further Updated and Expanded |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0-312-42507-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/worldisflat00thom}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gamble |first1=Andrew |title=An Introduction to Modern Social and Political Thought |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-349-16615-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zRIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |date=1981}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ganivet |first1=Elisa |title=Border Wall Aesthetics: Artworks in Border Spaces |publisher=transcript Verlag |isbn=978-3-8394-4777-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhazDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 |date=2019}}
* {{cite book |last1=Geraghty |first1=Paul |chapter=Linguistic Evidence for the Tongan Empire |editor1-last=Dutton |editor1-first=Tom |title=Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World |date=1994 |publisher=Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-012786-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xOlI8czLshIC&pg=PA233 |series=Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs |volume=77 |access-date=6 June 2016}}
* {{cite book |last=Gernet |first=Jacques |author-link=Jacques Gernet |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-49781-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Getzen |first1=Thomas E. |title=Money and Medicine: The Evolution of National Health Expenditures |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-757328-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |date=2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Martin |title=The Routledge Atlas of Russian History |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-10831-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yz5PEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |date=2013}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/08/15/moon-fever-apollo-11/ |title=Moon Fever |last=Gleick |first=James |author-link=James Gleick |newspaper=[[The New York Review of Books]] |volume=LXVI |issue=13 |date=2019 |access-date=1 July 2022 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701224629/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/08/15/moon-fever-apollo-11/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldhill |first=Simon |year=1997 |chapter=The Audience of Athenian Tragedy |editor-last=Easterling |editor-first=P. E. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy |series=Cambridge Companions to Literature series |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-42351-1 |pages=54–68}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Gowlett |first1=J. A. J. |title=The Discovery of Fire by Humans: A Long and Convoluted Process |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=2016 |volume=371 |issue=1696 |page=20150164 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0164 |pmid=27216521 |pmc=4874402}}
* {{cite book |last1=Graeber |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xkQEAAAQBAJ |title=The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity |last2=Wengrow |first2=David |date=2021 |publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-15735-7 |access-date=15 November 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=Elizabeth B. |title=Buildings and Landmarks of 19th-Century America: American Society Revealed |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4408-3573-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBjHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 |date=2017}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-63764-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC&pg=PA99 |date=1998}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haigh |first1=Gerald |title=Special Times: Sikhism |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4081-0434-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zLUpxh8E74C&pg=PA30 |date=2009}}
* {{cite journal |url=https://www.grochbiology.org/EarlyHominidInterbreeding.pdf |title=Human Hybrids |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824034550/https://www.grochbiology.org/EarlyHominidInterbreeding.pdf |archive-date=24 August 2018 |vauthors=Hammer MF |journal=Scientific American |date=2013 |volume=308 |issue=5 |pages=66–71 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0513-66 |pmid=23627222 |bibcode=2013SciAm.308e..66H}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harmand |first1=Sonia |author-link=Sonia Harmand |title=3.3-million-year-old Stone Tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya |journal=Nature |date=2015 |volume=521 |issue=7552 |pages=310–315 |doi=10.1038/nature14464 |display-authors=etal |pmid=25993961 |bibcode=2015Natur.521..310H |s2cid=1207285}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harvati |first1=Katerina |author-link=Katerina Harvati |last2=Röding |first2=Carolin |last3=Bosman |first3=Abel M. |last4=Karakostis |first4=Fotios A. |last5=Grün |first5=Rainer |last6=Stringer |first6=Chris |last7=Karkanas |first7=Panagiotis |last8=Thompson |first8=Nicholas C. |last9=Koutoulidis |first9=Vassilis |last10=Moulopoulos |first10=Lia A. |last11=Gorgoulis |first11=Vassilis G. |date=2019 |title=Apidima Cave Fossils Provide Earliest Evidence of Homo Sapiens in Eurasia |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1376-z |journal=Nature |volume=571 |issue=7766 |pages=500–504 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z |pmid=31292546 |hdl=10072/397334 |s2cid=195873640 |issn=1476-4687 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710170906/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1376-z |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Hayas |first=Caltron J. H. |year=1953 |title=Christianity and Western Civilization |publisher=Stanford University Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Hough |first2=Peter |last3=Pilbeam |first3=Bruce |title=World Politics |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5297-7459-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJGREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Headrick |first=Daniel R. |author-link=Daniel R. Headrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WgSDAAAQBAJ |title=Technology: A World History |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533821-8 |access-date=30 September 2023}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm |title=Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition |last1=Hemingway |first1=Colette |last2=Hemingway |first2=Seán |date=2007 |website=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=18 November 2016 |archive-date=31 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531025138/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Henshall |first=Kenneth |title=A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower |isbn=0-312-21986-5 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |year=1999 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjapan00kenn/}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vD76fF5hqf8C |last=Henshall |first=Kenneth |title=A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower |isbn=978-0-230-36918-4 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2012 |edition=3rd}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Herries AI, Martin JM, Leece AB, Adams JW, Boschian G, Joannes-Boyau R, Edwards TR, Mallett T, Massey J, Murszewski A, Neubauer S, Pickering R, Strait DS, Armstrong BJ, Baker S, Caruana MV, Denham T, Hellstrom J, Moggi-Cecchi J, Mokobane S, Penzo-Kajewski P, Rovinsky DS, Schwartz GT, Stammers RC, Wilson C, Woodhead J, Menter C |display-authors=6 |title=Contemporaneity of ''Australopithecus'', ''Paranthropus'', and Early ''Homo Erectus'' in South Africa |journal=Science |volume=368 |issue=6486 |page=7293 |date=2020 |pmid=32241925 |doi=10.1126/science.aaw7293 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Herschkovitz |first=Israel |display-authors=etal |title=The Earliest Modern Humans Outside Africa |date=2018 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=359 |issue=6374 |pages=456–459 |doi=10.1126/science.aap8369 |pmid=29371468 |bibcode=2018Sci...359..456H |doi-access=free |hdl=10072/372670 |hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last1=Heyman |first1=Neil |title=World War I |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1-57356-656-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YBTHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |date=1997}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hiro |first1=Dilip |title=Holy Wars: The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-90207-X |date=1989}}
* {{cite book |last1=Horn |first1=Jeff |title=The Industrial Revolution: History, Documents, and Key Questions |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-61069-885-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhbHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |date=2016}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Albert Hourani |last=Hourani |first=Albert |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo0000hour |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |date=1991 |publisher=New York: MJF Books |isbn=978-1-56731-216-4}}
* {{cite journal |pmc=7648497 |date=2020 |last1=Howe |first1=D. C. |last2=Chauhan |first2=R. S. |last3=Soderberg |first3=A. T. |last4=Buckley |first4=M. R. |title=Paradigm Shifts Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic |journal=Organizational Dynamics |volume=50 |issue=4 |doi=10.1016/j.orgdyn.2020.100804 |pmid=33191959}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Hublin JJ, Ben-Ncer A, Bailey SE, Freidline SE, Neubauer S, Skinner MM, Bergmann I, Le Cabec A, Benazzi S, [[Katerina Harvati|Harvati K]], Gunz P |display-authors=6 |title=New Fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the Pan-African Origin of Homo Sapiens |journal=Nature |volume=546 |issue=7657 |pages=289–292 |date=2017 |pmid=28593953 |doi=10.1038/nature22336 |bibcode=2017Natur.546..289H |hdl=1887/74734 |s2cid=256771372 |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/62267/1/Submission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf |access-date=27 July 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108234003/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/62267/1/Submission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Japan in World History |last=Huffman |first=James |author-link=James Huffman (historian) |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536808-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNzQCwAAQBAJ |access-date=2 December 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hughes-Warrington |first1=Marnie |editor1-last=Christian |editor1-first=David |title=The Cambridge World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76333-2 |chapter=Writing World History |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |last1=Huhle |first1=Teresa |editor1-last=Unger |editor1-first=Corinna R. |editor2-last=Borowy |editor2-first=Iris |editor3-last=Pernet |editor3-first=Corinne A. |title=The Routledge Handbook on the History of Development |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-060205-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kZuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |chapter=Demographic Concerns and Interventions |date=2022}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Samuel P. Huntington |last=Huntington |first=Samuel P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMjyTFG04JYC |title=The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late 20th Century |date=1991 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-8604-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Iliffe |first=John |author-link=John Iliffe (historian) |year=2007 |title=Africans: The History of a Continent |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-68297-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo00ilif/}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ivanov |first1=Serguey F. |editor1-last=Vishnevsky |editor1-first=Anatoly G. |title=Population and Development: Challenges and Opportunities |publisher=EOLSS |isbn=978-1-84826-086-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sThmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA249 |chapter=Population Growth and New World Population Redistribution |date=2009}}
* {{cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/religionsofancie0000unse_d0s1 |editor-last=Johnston |editor-first=Sarah Iles |editor-link=Sarah Iles Johnston |title=Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide |date=2004 |publisher=Belknap |isbn=978-0-674-01517-3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Jungers |first=William L. |title=Lucy's Length: Stature Reconstruction in ''Australopithecus Afarensis'' (A.L.288-1) with Implications for Other Small-bodied Hominids |journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=227–231 |pmid=3137822 |date=1988 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330760211}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kazeroony |first1=Hamid H. |title=Decoloniality Praxis |publisher=Emerald |isbn=978-1-80262-953-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KIvXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1981 |date=2023 |chapter=2. Postcoloniality: Colonialism Roots and Scope}}
* {{cite book |last=Keay |first=John |author-link=John Keay |url=http://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay |title=India: A History |date=2000 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2}}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=5 |title=Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conflict, 500 CE–1500 CE |editor1-last=Kedar |editor1-first=Benjamin |editor1-link=Benjamin Z. Kedar |editor2-first=Merry |editor2-last=Wiesner-Hanks |editor2-link=Merry Wiesner-Hanks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jv9tCAAAQBAJ |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-521-19074-9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=18 November 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=Kelly |first=Christopher |title=The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-280391-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eUgSDAAAQBAJ |access-date=16 November 2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Kennedy |title=The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-394-54674-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofgreatp00kenn/ |publisher=Random House}}
* {{cite book |last=Kent |first=Susan Kingsley |author-link=Susan Kingsley Kent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cYYEEAAAQBAJ |title=Gender: A World History |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-062197-1 |access-date=12 August 2023}}
* {{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds |year=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor1-last=Kiernan |editor1-first=Ben |editor1-link=Ben Kiernan |editor2-last=Lemos |editor2-first=T. M. |editor3-last=Taylor |editor3-first=Tristan S. |isbn=978-1-108-65598-9 |doi=10.1017/9781108655989}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kinzel |first1=Moritz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S6QGEAAAQBAJ |title=Monumentalizing Life in the Neolithic: Narratives of Change and Continuity |last2=Clare |first2=Lee |publisher=Oxbow |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78925-495-2 |editor-last=Gebauer |editor-first=Anne Birgitte |chapter=Monumental – Compared to What? A Perspective from Göbekli Tepe |editor-last2=Sørensen |editor-first2=Lasse |editor-last3=Teather |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Valera |editor-first4=António Carlos |access-date=9 September 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kirch |first1=Patrick Vinton |last2=Green |first2=Roger C. |title=Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University press |isbn=978-0-521-78879-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRapfjQ_iTEC&pg=PA87 |access-date=10 January 2021}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Koch |first1=Paul L. |last2=Barnosky |first2=Anthony D. |date=2006 |title=Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the Debate |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=215–250 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132415 |s2cid=16590668}}
* {{cite book |last=Kolbert |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ra9RAQAAQBAJ |title=The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History |date=2014 |publisher=Henry Holt & Co. |isbn=978-0-8050-9979-9 |access-date=18 November 2023}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Kolbert |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth Kolbert |date=2023 |title=Phosphorus Saved Our Way of Life—and Now Threatens to End It |magazine=The New Yorker |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/03/06/phosphorus-saved-our-way-of-life-and-now-threatens-to-end-it |access-date=18 November 2023 |issn=0028-792X |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128112301/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2023/03/06/phosphorus-saved-our-way-of-life-and-now-threatens-to-end-it |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |first1=Cynthia |last1=Kosso |first2=Anne |last2=Scott |title=The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTkXFLfmLTkC&q=hellenistic%20mathematics%20science%20technology&pg=PA51 |isbn=978-9004173576 |access-date=5 February 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kte'pi |first1=Bill |chapter=Chronology |editor-last1=Ainsworth |editor-first1=James |title=Sociology of Education: An A-to-Z Guide |date=2013 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5063-5473-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yub3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63 |access-date=3 May 2023}}
* {{cite book |title=A History of India |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |publisher=Dorset |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia0000kulk/page/60/mode/2up |isbn=0-88029-577-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kunertova |first1=Dominika |editor1-last=Olsen |editor1-first=John Andreas |title=Routledge Handbook of NATO |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-04-002626-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwYDEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT182 |chapter=9 Transatlantic Burden Sharing |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kuran |first1=Timur |title=Freedoms Delayed: Political Legacies of Islamic Law in the Middle East |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-00-932001-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tTHEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |date=2023}}
* {{cite web |last1=Lal |first1=Vinay |url=https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html |title=The Mughal Empire |work=Manas: India and its Neighbors |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |date=2001 |access-date=12 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430003224/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html |archive-date=30 April 2015}}
* {{cite book |last=Landes |first=David S. |author-link=David Landes |url=https://archive.org/details/unboundprometheu0000land_a8r2 |title=The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present |year=1969 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-07200-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lang |first1=Michael |editor1-last=Christian |editor1-first=David |title=The Cambridge World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76333-2 |chapter=Evolution, Rupture, and Periodization |date=2015}}
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323964111 |title=Current Perspectives and the Future of Domestication Studies |journal=PNAS |volume=111 |issue=17 |pages=6139–6146 |year=2014 |last1=Larson |first1=G. |last2=Piperno |first2=D. R. |last3=Allaby |first3=R. G. |last4=Purugganan |first4=M. D. |last5=Andersson |first5=L. |last6=Arroyo-Kalin |first6=M. |last7=Barton |first7=L. |last8=Climer Vigueira |first8=C. |last9=Denham |first9=T. |last10=Dobney |first10=K. |last11=Doust |first11=A. N. |last12=Gepts |first12=P. |last13=Gilbert |first13=M. T. P. |last14=Gremillion |first14=K. J. |last15=Lucas |first15=L. |last16=Lukens |first16=L. |last17=Marshall |first17=F. B. |last18=Olsen |first18=K. M. |last19=Pires |first19=J. C. |last20=Richerson |first20=P. J. |last21=Rubio De Casas |first21=R. |last22=Sanjur |first22=O. I. |last23=Thomas |first23=M. G. |last24=Fuller |first24=D. Q. |doi-access=free |pmid=24757054 |pmc=4035915 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6139L}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lewin |first1=Roger |author-link1=Roger Lewin |orig-date=1984 |title=Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xryuw8sqNsoC |edition=5th |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5614-1 |date=2009 |access-date=24 August 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Mark Edward |title=China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03306-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ4PrgBOVwgC |access-date=15 September 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lewton |first1=Kristi L. |editor1-last=Fuentes |editor1-first=Agustín |title=The International Encyclopedia of Primatology, 3 Volume Set |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-67337-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTwuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |chapter=Bipedalism |date=2017}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Feng |last2=Petraglia |first2=Michael |last3=Roberts |first3=Patrick |last4=Gao |first4=Xing |title=The northern dispersal of early modern humans in eastern Eurasia |journal=Science Bulletin |volume=65 |issue=20 |date=2020 |pages=1699–1701 |doi=10.1016/j.scib.2020.06.026 |pmid=36659239 |bibcode=2020SciBu..65.1699L |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/65133131/Li_et_al._Northern_Dispersal_China.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Victor B. |title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, Volume 1, Integration on the Mainland |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80496-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-01JisWpJbEC |author-link=Victor Lieberman |access-date=24 June 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=Lorge |first=Peter |title=The Reunification of China: Peace Through War Under the Song Dynasty |year=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-08475-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UTjCgAAQBAJ |access-date=22 June 2022}}
* {{cite journal |title=Macassans and the Aboriginal Past |last=MacKnight |first=C. C. |journal=Archaeology in Oceania |year=1986 |volume=21 |pages=69–75 |doi=10.1002/j.1834-4453.1986.tb00126.x}}
* {{cite book |last1=Manning |first1=Patrick |editor1-last=Bentley |editor1-first=Jerry H. |title=The Oxford Handbook of World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-968606-3 |chapter=Epistemology |date=2013}}
* {{cite book |last1=Manning |first1=Patrick |title=Methods for Human History: Studying Social, Cultural, and Biological Evolution |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-53882-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuv_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |date=2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Martell |first1=Luke |title=The Sociology of Globalization |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-0-7456-3674-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGfy7s_CfPsC&pg=PA52 |date=2010}}
* {{cite book |last1=Martikainen |first1=Tuomas |editor1-last=Nynas |editor1-first=Peter |title=Post-Secular Society |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-49761-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpsuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |chapter=The Global Political Economy, Welfare State Reforms, and the Governance of Religion |date=2017}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Thomas |title=Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenic Times |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2000 |edition=Revised |orig-date=1996 |isbn=978-0-300-08493-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientgreecefro00mart_1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mathew |first1=Oommen P. |last2=Bhatia |first2=Jatinder |title=Innovations in Neonatal-perinatal Medicine: Innovative Technologies and Therapies that Have Fundamentally Changed the Way We Deliver Care for the Fetus and the Neonate |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4280-04-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykvlALiqW6YC&pg=PA8 |date=2010}}
* {{cite book |last=Matsuda |first=Matt |year=2012 |title=Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88763-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvy2VITgvCIC |access-date=5 July 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=McClellan |first1=James E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aJgp94zNwNQC |title=Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction |last2=Dorn |first2=Harold |date=2006 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-8360-6 |access-date=11 October 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=McEvedy |first=Colin |title=The Penguin Atlas of Medieval History |publisher=Penguin |year=1961}}
* {{cite book |last=McNeill |first=William H. |author-link=William H. McNeill (historian) |title=A World History |orig-date=1967 |edition=4th |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511616-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistory0000mcne_e1t4}}
* {{cite book |last=McNeill |first=William H. |title=History of Western Civilization: A Handbook |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-226-56162-2 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=McNeill |first1=William Hardy |title=The Global Condition: Conquerors, Catastrophes, and Community |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8510-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IwxpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |date=2017}}
* {{cite book |last1=McNeill |first1=J. R. |last2=McNeill |first2=William |author-link1=J. R. McNeill |author-link2=William H. McNeill (historian) |url=https://archive.org/details/humanwebbirdseye0000mcne_d8z9 |title=The Human Web: A Bird's-eye View of World History |publisher=Norton |year=2003 |isbn=0-393-05179-X}}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=7 |title=Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making |editor1-last=McNeill |editor1-first=J. R. |editor1-link=J. R. McNeill |editor2-last=Pomeranz |editor2-first=Kenneth |editor2-link=Kenneth Pomeranz |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015a |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139196079 |isbn=978-1-108-40775-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRL0CAAAQBAJ |access-date=26 January 2023}}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=7 |title=Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750–Present, Part 2, Shared Transformations? |editor1-last=McNeill |editor1-first=J. R. |editor2-last=Pomeranz |editor2-first=Kenneth |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015b |issue=2 |isbn=978-0-521-19964-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBuzCAAAQBAJ |access-date=26 January 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=McNiven |first1=Ian J. |editor1-last=Benjamin |editor1-first=Craig |title=The Cambridge World History: Volume 4, A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE-900 CE |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-40771-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oqlTtAEACAAJ |chapter=22. Australasia and the Pacific |date=2017}}
* {{cite journal |last1=McPherron |first1=Shannon P. |last2=Alemseged |first2=Zeresenay |last3=Marean |first3=Curtis W. |last4=Wynn |first4=Jonathan G. |last5=Reed |first5=Denné |last6=Geraads |first6=Denis |last7=Bobe |first7=René |last8=Béarat |first8=Hamdallah A. |title=Evidence for Stone-tool-assisted Consumption of Animal Tissues Before 3.39&nbsp;million Years Ago at Dikika, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |date=2010 |volume=466 |issue=7308 |pages=857–860 |doi=10.1038/nature09248 |pmid=20703305 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..857M |s2cid=4356816}}
* {{cite book |last1=Merrill |first1=Ronald T. |title=The Earth's magnetic field: Its history, origin and planetary perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/earthsmagneticfi00merr |url-access=registration |year=1983 |publisher=Academic |isbn=0-12-491242-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earthsmagneticfi00merr/page/1 1] |edition=2nd printing |last2=McElhinny |first2=Michael W.}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IyD00vXZlfkC |last=Meyer-Fong |first=Tobie S. |year=2013 |title=What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in 19th Century China |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5425-5 |access-date=19 September 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=Meyerowitz |first=Eva L. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3lyAAAAMAAJ |title=The Early History of the Akan States of Ghana |date=1975 |publisher=Red Candle Press |isbn=978-0-608-39035-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mirsepassi |first1=Ali |last2=Fernée |first2=Tadd Graham |title=Islam, Democracy, and Cosmopolitanism: At Home and in the World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-05397-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zibeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA182 |date=2014}}
* {{Cite book |last=Morley |first=Iain |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=eWhBAQAAQBAJ}} |title=The Prehistory of Music: Human Evolution, Archaeology, and the Origins of Musicality |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-923408-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Morys |first1=Matthias |title=The Economic History of Central, East and South-East Europe: 1800 to the Present |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-41411-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IX0IEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 |date=2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=John |title=Gods & Goddesses of the Inca, Maya, and Aztec Civilizations |date=2014 |publisher=Rosen |isbn=978-1-62275-396-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aX9hDwAAQBAJ |access-date=3 May 2023}}
* {{cite journal |last=Naughton |first=John |date=2016 |title=The Evolution of the Internet: From Military Experiment to General Purpose Technology |journal=Journal of Cyber Policy |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=5–28 |doi=10.1080/23738871.2016.1157619 |issn=2373-8871}}
* {{cite web |url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1075074&cid=40942&categoryId=33373 |script-title=ko:남북국시대 |trans-title=North-South States Period |language=ko |website=Encyclopedia |publisher=Naver |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140110225333/http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1075074&cid=40942&categoryId=33373 |archive-date=10 January 2014 |url-status=live |author=Naver}}
* {{cite book |last1=Neel |first1=Carolyn |title=World History Encyclopedia |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1-85109-930-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |chapter=Introduction |volume=1 |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nichols |first1=Deborah L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AHWarqdXsfIC |title=The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology |last2=Pool |first2=Christopher A. |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-999634-6 |access-date=5 June 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ning |first1=Liu |editor1-last=Liu |editor1-first=Yuejin |title=Concise Reader of Chinese Literature History |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-99-5814-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJ3fEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 |chapter=Literature in the Heyday of the Tang Dynasty |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Njoku |first=Raphael Chijioke |title=The History of Somalia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C&pg=PA41 |year=2013 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-37857-7 |access-date=13 July 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nohr |first1=Ellen Aagaard |last2=Olsen |first2=Jorn |editor1-last=Boslaugh |editor1-first=Sarah |title=Encyclopedia of Epidemiology |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4522-6559-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A1F2AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA637 |chapter=Maternal and Child Health Epidemiology |date=2007}}
* {{cite book |last1=Norberg |first1=Matilda Baraibar |last2=Deutsch |first2=Lisa |title=The Soybean Through World History: Lessons for Sustainable Agrofood Systems |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-00-090347-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VXGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Northrup |first1=David R. |editor1-last=Christian |editor1-first=David |title=The Cambridge World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76333-2 |chapter=From Divergence to Convergence: Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces in History |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nugent |first1=Jeffrey B. |editor1-last=Hakimian |editor1-first=Hassan |title=The Routledge Handbook on the Middle East Economy |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-59668-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlUuEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA347 |chapter=Refugees in the Mena Region: Historical Overview, Effects and Challenges |date=2021}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=O'Brien |editor1-first=Patrick Karl |title=Atlas of World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-521921-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA99 |date=2002}}
* {{cite journal |first1=J. F. |last1=O'Connell |first2=J. |last2=Allen |first3=M. A. J. |last3=Williams |first4=A. N. |last4=Williams |first5=C. S. M. |last5=Turney |first6=N. A. |last6=Spooner |first7=J. |last7=Kamminga |first8=G. |last8=Brown |first9=A. |last9=Cooper |year=2018 |title=When Did ''Homo Sapiens'' First Reach Southeast Asia and Sahul? |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=115 |issue=34 |pages=8482–8490 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1808385115 |pmid=30082377 |pmc=6112744 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.8482O |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=O'Rourke |first1=Kevin H. |first2=Jeffrey G. |last2=Williamson |s2cid=15767303 |year=2002 |title=When Did Globalization Begin? |journal=European Review of Economic History |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=23–50 |doi=10.1017/S1361491602000023}}
* {{cite web |last=Oreskes |first=Naomi |author-link=Naomi Oreskes |date=2022 |title=New Nuclear Power Plants Are Unlikely to Stop the Climate Crisis |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-nuclear-power-plants-are-unlikely-to-stop-the-climate-crisis/ |access-date=18 November 2023 |website=Scientific American |archive-date=18 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118123050/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-nuclear-power-plants-are-unlikely-to-stop-the-climate-crisis/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Osborne |first=Eric W. |date=3 July 2020 |title=The Ulcer of the Mughal Empire: Mughals and Marathas, 1680–1707 |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=992, 1005 |doi=10.1080/09592318.2020.1764711 |s2cid=221060782 |issn=0959-2318}}
* {{cite book |last=Pääbo |first=Svante |chapter=The Mosaic That Is Our Genome |editor1-last=Clayton |editor1-first=Julie |editor2-last=Dennis |editor2-first=Carina |title=50 Years of DNA |date=2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-1479-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/50yearsofdna00clay/page/95}}
* {{cite book |last1=Paine |first1=Lincoln P. |editor1-last=Andrea |editor1-first=Alfred J. |title=World History Encyclopedia |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1-85109-930-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=RA3-PA273 |chapter=The Promotion of Trade through Buddhist Sanghas |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last=Paine |first=Lincoln P. |url=http://archive.org/details/seacivilizationm0000pain |title=The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World |date=2013 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-1-4000-4409-2}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Pettersson E, Lundeberg J, Ahmadian A |title=Generations of Sequencing Technologies |journal=Genomics |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=105–111 |date=2009 |pmid=18992322 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2008.10.003 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Phillips |first=William |date=2017 |title=Critical Readings on Global Slavery |url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004346611/BP000028.xml |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-34661-1 |access-date=17 September 2021}}
* {{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/10/buddhism-and-islam-in-asia-a-long-and-complicated-history/ |title=Buddhism and Islam in Asia: A Long and Complicated History |last=Pillalamarri |first=Akhilesh |date=2017 |publisher=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=23 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123010309/https://thediplomat.com/2017/10/buddhism-and-islam-in-asia-a-long-and-complicated-history/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pollack |first1=Henry |title=A World Without Ice |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-101-52485-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jV47VHRpmisC&pg=PA93 |date=2010}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik A, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, Valentin F, Thevenet C, Furtwängler A, Wißing C, Francken M, Malina M, Bolus M, Lari M, Gigli E, Capecchi G, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Flas D, Germonpré M, van der Plicht J, Cottiaux R, Gély B, Ronchitelli A, Wehrberger K, Grigorescu D, Svoboda J, Semal P, Caramelli D, Bocherens H, Harvati K, Conard NJ, Haak W, Powell A, Krause J |display-authors=6 |title=Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=827–833 |date=2016 |pmid=26853362 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037 |bibcode=2016CBio...26..827P |hdl-access=free |s2cid=140098861 |hdl=2440/114930|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/79384808/Pleistocene_Mitochondrial_Genomes_Suggest_a_Single_Major_Dispersal_of_Non_Africans.pdf }}
* {{cite book |last1=Price |first1=Simon |last2=Thonemann |first2=Peter |title=The Birth of Classical Europe: A History from Troy to Augustine |publisher=Penguin |year=2010 |url=https://archive.org/details/birthofclassical00pric |isbn=978-0-670-02247-2}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Radivojevic |first1=M |last2=Rehren |first2=T |last3=Kuzmanovic-Cvetkovic |first3=J |last4=Jovanovic |first4=M |last5=Northover |first5=JP |year=2013 |title=Tainted Ores and the Rise of Tin Bronzes in Eurasia, c. 6500 years ago |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1420706/ |journal=Antiquity |volume=87 |issue=338 |pages=1030–1045 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X0004984X |doi-access=free |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119084854/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1420706/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rael |first1=Ronald |title=Earth Architecture |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |isbn=978-1-56898-767-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BsLAeifqe4EC&pg=PA113 |date=2009}}
* {{cite book |last1=Reagan |first1=Timothy |title=Non-Western Educational Traditions: Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8058-4857-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCGRAgAAQBAJ |access-date=17 May 2023}}
* {{cite web |last=Regulski |first=Ilona |date=2016 |title=The Origins and Early Development of Writing in Egypt |work=Oxford Handbooks Online |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935413-e-61 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.61 |isbn=978-0-19-993541-3 |access-date=19 April 2020}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Reich D, Green RE, Kircher M, Krause J, Patterson N, Durand EY, Viola B, Briggs AW, Stenzel U, Johnson PL, Maricic T, Good JM, Marques-Bonet T, Alkan C, Fu Q, Mallick S, Li H, Meyer M, Eichler EE, Stoneking M, Richards M, Talamo S, Shunkov MV, Derevianko AP, Hublin JJ, Kelso J, Slatkin M, Pääbo S |display-authors=6 |title=Genetic History of an Archaic Hominin Group from Denisova Cave in Siberia |journal=Nature |volume=468 |issue=7327 |pages=1053–1060 |date=2010 |pmid=21179161 |pmc=4306417 |doi=10.1038/nature09710 |bibcode=2010Natur.468.1053R |hdl=10230/25596 |author-link1=David Reich (geneticist)}}
* {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_s3o0 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200 |date=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-4479-9}}
* {{cite web |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |title=The World Solved Acid Rain. We Can Also Solve Climate Change |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-solved-acid-rain-we-can-also-solve-climate-change/ |website=Scientific American |access-date=23 May 2024 |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=J. M. |last2=Westad |first2=Odd Arne |title=The Penguin History of the World |edition=6th |publisher=Penguin |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84614-443-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2cfZkU5aQgC |access-date=25 August 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Andrew |title=Writing and Script: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-157916-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcXH52jICOEC&pg=PA38 |date=2009}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Chase F. |title=The New Cambridge History of Islam |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-83823-8}}
* {{cite magazine |last1=Roivainen |first1=Eka |title=I Gave ChatGPT an IQ Test. Here's What I Discovered |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/i-gave-chatgpt-an-iq-test-heres-what-i-discovered/ |magazine=Scientific American |access-date=23 May 2024 |date=2023}}
* {{cite book |last=Ropp |first=Paul S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0u4YGxog3QC |title=China in World History |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979876-6 |access-date=1 October 2023}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rosas |first1=Antionio |last2=Bastir |first2=Markus |date=2020 |title=An Assessment of the Late Middle Pleistocene Occipital from Apidima 1 Skull (Greece) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003552120300042 |journal=L'Anthropologie |volume=124 |issue=1 |page=102745 |doi=10.1016/j.anthro.2020.102745 |s2cid=216223477 |issn=0003-5521 |access-date=17 August 2022 |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807122749/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003552120300042 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-Shek, 1943: The Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences |first=Keith |last=Sainsbury |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-19-285172-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/turningpointroos0000sain/page/14/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last=Schoppa |first=R. Keith |title=The Twentieth Century: A World History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-19-049735-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aX0_EAAAQBAJ |access-date=2 December 2023}}
* {{cite book |last1=Schulman |first1=Alex |title=The Secular Contract: The Politics of Enlightenment |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4411-8467-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4vOoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |date=2011}}
* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=William |last2=Vare |first2=Paul |title=Learning, Environment and Sustainable Development: A History of Ideas |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-020802-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k1YAEAAAQBAJ |access-date=3 May 2023}}
* {{cite journal |last=Scranton |first=Philip |date=2006 |title=Urgency, Uncertainty, and Innovation: Building Jet Engines in Postwar America |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1177/1744935906064096 |journal=Management & Organizational History |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=131 |doi=10.1177/1744935906064096 |s2cid=143813033 |issn=1744-9359 |access-date=15 September 2022}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Seow |first1=Victor |title=A Tradition of Invention: The Paradox of Glorifying Past Technological Breakthroughs |journal=East Asian Science, Technology and Society |date=3 July 2022 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=349–366 |doi=10.1080/18752160.2022.2095103 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Serle |first=Percival |author-link=Percival Serle |year=1949 |chapter=Tasman, Abel |title=Dictionary of Australian Biography |publisher=Angus & Robertson |url=https://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks15/1500721h/0-dict-biogT-V.html#tasman1}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shady Solis |first1=Ruth |author1-link=Ruth Shady |last2=Haas |first2=Jonathan |last3=Creamer |first3=Winifred |date=2001 |title=Dating Caral, a Preceramic Site in the Supe Valley on the Central Coast of Peru |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059519 |journal=Science |volume=292 |issue=5517 |pages=723–726 |doi=10.1126/science.1059519 |pmid=11326098 |bibcode=2001Sci...292..723S |s2cid=10172918 |issn=0036-8075 |access-date=13 November 2022 |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112102739/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059519 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Stanford |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume I: Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280–1808 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-521-29163-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofottoman00stan}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shelley |first1=Fred M. |title=Examining Education Around the World |date=2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4408-6448-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gErEEAAAQBAJ |access-date=31 August 2023}}
* {{cite book |first=John R. |last=Short |title=An Introduction to Urban Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10 |publisher=Routledge |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-7102-0372-4 |access-date=30 July 2022}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Showalter |first1=Dennis E. |last2=Royde-Smith |first2=John Graham |title=World War I |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I/Killed-wounded-and-missing |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=9 August 2024 |date=2024}}
* {{cite book |last=Siler |first=Julia Flynn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BA-TSRWOnIcC |title=Lost Kingdom: Hawaii's Last Queen, the Sugar Kings, and America's First Imperial Adventure |date=2012 |publisher=Grove |isbn=978-0-8021-9488-6 |access-date=3 July 2023}}
* {{Cite book |last=Simmons |first=Beth A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EfQfAwAAQBAJ |title=Mobilizing for Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48348-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Patwant |title=The Sikhs |publisher=Knopf |isbn=0-375-40728-6 |date=2000}}
* {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC |publisher=Pearson |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |access-date=25 October 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=Spielvogel |first=Jackson J. |title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715 |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-305-63347-6 |publisher=Cengage}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Spoor |first1=Fred |last2=Gunz |first2=Philipp |last3=Neubauer |first3=Simon |last4=Stelzer |first4=Stefanie |last5=Scott |first5=Nadia |last6=Kwekason |first6=Amandus |last7=Dean |first7=M. Christopher |year=2015 |title=Reconstructed ''Homo Habilis'' Type OH 7 Suggests Deep-rooted Species Diversity in Early ''Homo'' |journal=Nature |volume=519 |issue=7541 |pages=83–86 |doi=10.1038/nature14224 |pmid=25739632 |bibcode=2015Natur.519...83S |s2cid=4470282}}
* {{cite book |title=The Statesman's Yearbook 2024: The Politics, Cultures and Economies of the World |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-96076-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDvsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1157 |date=2023 |ref={{sfnref|Springer|2023}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |title=The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-395-65237-4 |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |title=World History in Documents: A Comparative Reader |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-4101-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bjgucmvp_-8C&pg=PA219 |date=2008}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Peter N. |title=World History: The Basics |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-88817-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMMtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 |date=2010}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Stearns |editor-first1=Peter N. |editor-link1=Peter Stearns |editor-first2=William L. |editor-last2=Langer |edition=6th |title=The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-395-65237-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_i2x5}}
* {{cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |author-link=Burton Stein |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 |access-date=21 July 2022}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stephens |first1=Lucas |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian |last3=Boivin |first3=Nicole |last4=Rick |first4=Torben |last5=Gauthier |first5=Nicolas |last6=Kay |first6=Andrea |last7=Marwick |first7=Ben |last8=Armstrong |first8=Chelsey Geralda |last9=Barton |first9=C. Michael |date=2019 |title=Archaeological Assessment Reveals Earth's Early Transformation Through Land Use |journal=Science |volume=365 |issue=6456 |pages=897–902 |doi=10.1126/science.aax1192 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=31467217 |hdl=10150/634688 |hdl-access=free |bibcode=2019Sci...365..897S |s2cid=201674203}}
* {{cite news |first=Tom |last=Stevenson |title=In the Grey Zone |newspaper=[[London Review of Books]] |volume=42 |issue=20 |date=2020 |pages=41–43 |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v42/n20/tom-stevenson/in-the-grey-zone |access-date=24 July 2022 |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729000125/https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v42/n20/tom-stevenson/in-the-grey-zone |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Strait |first=David |title=The Evolutionary History of the Australopiths |journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach |date=2010 |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=341 |doi=10.1007/s12052-010-0249-6 |s2cid=31979188 |issn=1936-6434 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |first=Barry |last=Strauss |title=The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece – and Western Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nQFtMcD5dOsC |year=2005 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-7453-1 |access-date=30 July 2022}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Stutz |first=Aaron Jonas |title=Paleolithic |date=2018 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0363 |encyclopedia=The International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology |pages=1–9 |editor-last=Trevathan |editor-first=Wenda |place=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |doi=10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0363 |isbn=978-1-118-58442-2 |s2cid=240083827 |editor2-last=Cartmill |editor2-first=Matt |editor3-last=Dufour |editor3-first=Darna |editor4-last=Larsen |editor4-first=Clark |access-date=4 August 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Suny |first1=Ronald Grigor |author-link=Ronald Grigor Suny |title="They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide |title-link=They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else |date=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6558-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Svard |first1=Lois |title=The Musical Brain: What Students, Teachers, and Performers Need to Know |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-758417-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mC6oEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |date=2023}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tamrat |first=Taddesse |chapter=Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn |date=1977 |title=The Cambridge History of Africa: From c.1050 to c.1600 |volume=3 |pages=98–182 |editor-last=Oliver |editor-first=Roland |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-africa/ethiopia-the-red-sea-and-the-horn/1518583A70723220B77296C39BC0F570 |access-date=2024-09-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Keith |author-link=Keith Taylor (historian) |chapter=The Rise of Đại Việt and the Establishment of Thăng-long |date=1976 |chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.19404.11 |title=Explorations in Early Southeast Asian History: The Origins of Southeast Asian Statecraft |editor-last=Hall |editor-first=Kenneth R. |series= |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-89148-011-2 |access-date=31 December 2022 |editor2-last=Whitmore |editor2-first=John K. |doi=10.3998/mpub.19404 |jstor=10.3998/mpub.19404 |s2cid=237194486 |url=https://www.doabooks.org/doab?func=search&query=rid:48459}}
* {{cite book |author=The Association of Korean History Teachers |title=Korea Through the Ages; Volume One: Ancient |date=2005 |publisher=The Center for Information on Korean Culture, The Academy of Korean Studies |isbn=978-89-7105-545-8}}
* {{cite news |title=Large, Creative AI Models Will Transform Lives and Labour Markets |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/interactive/science-and-technology/2023/04/22/large-creative-ai-models-will-transform-how-we-live-and-work |access-date=13 December 2023 |issn=0013-0613 |date=2023 |archive-date=12 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212165040/https://www.economist.com/interactive/science-and-technology/2023/04/22/large-creative-ai-models-will-transform-how-we-live-and-work |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|The Economist|2023}}}}
* {{cite news |title=Progress on Climate Change Has Been Too Slow. But It's Been Real |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2023/11/23/progress-on-climate-change-has-not-been-fast-enough-but-it-has-been-real |access-date=2 December 2023 |issn=0013-0613 |date=2023a |archive-date=2 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202010959/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2023/11/23/progress-on-climate-change-has-not-been-fast-enough-but-it-has-been-real |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|The Economist|2023a}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tignor |first1=Robert |last2=Adelman |first2=Jeremy |last3=Brown |first3=Peter |last4=Elman |first4=Benjamin |last5=Liu |first5=Xinru |last6=Pittman |first6=Holly |last7=Shaw |first7=Brent |url=http://archive.org/details/worldstogetherwo0001tign |title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Volume One: Beginnings Through the 15th Century |edition=4th |year=2014 |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-92208-0 |ref={{harvid|Tignor et al.|2014}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tiliouine |first1=Habib |last2=Renima |first2=Ahmed |last3=Estes |first3=Richard J. |editor1-last=Tiliouine |editor1-first=Habib |editor2-last=Estes |editor2-first=Richard J. |title=The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies: Social, Economic, Political, and Ideological Challenges |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-24774-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9f7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |chapter=The Islamic Golden Age: A Story of the Triumph of the Islamic Civilization |date=2016}}
* {{cite book |title=America: A Narrative History |volume=1 |edition=8th |ref={{harvid|Tindall & Shi 2010}} |year=2010 |last1=Tindall |first1=George |last2=Shi |first2=David |isbn=978-0-393-93406-9 |publisher=Norton}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Islamization of Central Asia in the Sāmānid Era and the Reshaping of the Muslim World |last=Tor |first=Deborah |date=2009 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=279–299 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/S0041977X09000524 |jstor=40379005 |s2cid=153554938}}
* {{cite book |first=Conrad |last=Totman |year=2002 |title=A History of Japan |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-2359-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACAAJ |access-date=22 July 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tozzo |first1=Brandon |title=American Hegemony after the Great Recession: A Transformation in World Order |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-57539-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iH86DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |date=2017}}
* {{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |isbn=0-7146-1731-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminethiopia0000trim_r6g6/page/86/mode/2up |publisher=Frank Cass & Co.}}
* {{cite book |last1=Trubek |first1=Anne |title=The History and Uncertain Future of Handwriting |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-62040-216-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRcLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT11 |date=2016}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Uhlig |editor-first=Siegbert |url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopiahistoryc0000unse |title=Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges |editor-last2=Appleyard |editor-first2=David |editor-last3=Bausi |editor-first3=Alessandro |editor-last4=Hahn |editor-first4=Wolfgang |editor-last5=Kaplan |editor-first5=Steven |date=2017 |publisher=LIT Verlag |isbn=978-3-643-90892-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Urata |first1=Shūjirō |last2=Kuroda |first2=Kazuo |last3=Tonegawa |first3=Yoshiko |title=Sustainable Development Disciplines for Humanity: Breaking Down the 5Ps—People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnerships |date=2022 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-19-4859-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdSgEAAAQBAJ |access-date=3 May 2023}}
* {{cite web |last1=Vásquez |first1=Ian |title=Ending Mass Poverty |url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/ending-mass-poverty |website=Cato Institute |access-date=23 May 2024 |date=2001}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Villmoare |first1=Brian |last2=Kimbel |first2=William |last3=Seyoum |first3=Chalachew |last4=Campisano |first4=Christopher |last5=DiMaggio |first5=Erin |last6=Rowan |first6=John |last7=Braun |first7=David |last8=Arrowsmith |first8=J Ramón |last9=Reed |first9=Kaye |display-authors=6 |title=Paleoanthropology. Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia |journal=Science |volume=347 |issue=6228 |pages=1352–1355 |date=2015 |pmid=25739410 |doi=10.1126/science.aaa1343 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015Sci...347.1352V}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=Gerhard W. |last2=Hershkovitz |first2=Israel |last3=Gunz |first3=Philipp |last4=Neubauer |first4=Simon |last5=Ayalon |first5=Avner |last6=Latimer |first6=Bruce |last7=Bar-Matthews |first7=Miryam |last8=Yasur |first8=Gal |last9=Barzilai |first9=Omry |last10=May |first10=Hila |date=2020 |title=Before the Massive Modern Human Dispersal into Eurasia: A 55,000-year-old Partial Cranium from Manot Cave, Israel |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618219308080 |journal=Quaternary International |volume=551 |pages=29–39 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2019.10.009 |bibcode=2020QuInt.551...29W |s2cid=210628420 |issn=1040-6182 |access-date=17 August 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124220617/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1040618219308080 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Wengrow |first=David |chapter=The Invention of Writing in Egypt |title=Before the Pyramids: Origin of Egyptian Civilization |publisher=Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago |year=2011}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=Mary E. |title=Empires in Conflict and Cooperation: The "Bostonians" and the Russian-American Company |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=40 |issue=4 |year=1971 |page=441 |doi=10.2307/3637703 |jstor=3637703}}
* {{cite book |title=The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests, and Peasants |last=Whitecotton |first=Joseph W. |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1977 |no-pp=y}}
* {{cite book |last=Whitfield |first=Susan |author-link=Susan Whitfield |date=2004 |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War, and Faith |url=https://archive.org/details/aurelsteinonsilk0000whit |url-access=registration |publisher=Serendia |isbn=978-1-932476-13-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wiesner |first1=Merry E. |title=A Concise History of the World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02837-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oZiNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wiesner-Hanks |first1=Merry E. |title=What is Early Modern History? |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-5095-4058-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83UWEAAAQBAJ |date=2021}}
* {{cite book |first1=Stephen |last1=Williams |first2=Gerard |last2=Friell |title=Theodosius: The Empire at Bay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I8KRAgAAQBAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-78262-7 |access-date=30 July 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolfe |first=Audra J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mmR_eJYhPAwC |title=Competing with the Soviets: Science, Technology, and the State in Cold War America |date=2013 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-1-4214-0901-6 |access-date=13 September 2022}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |year=1997 |isbn=0-19-510030-1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |title=A New History of India |edition=5th}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woods |first1=Thomas E. |author-link1=Thomas E. Woods |last2=Canizares |first2=Antonio |year=2012 |title=How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization |edition=Reprint |publisher=Regnery History |isbn=978-1-59698-328-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYvmAgAAQBAJ |access-date=8 December 2014}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wragg-Sykes |first1=Rebecca |title=Big History: Our Incredible Journey, from Big Bang to Now |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-22590-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 |date=2016 |chapter=Humans Evolve |access-date=4 May 2024}}
* {{cite book |last=Xue |first=Zongzheng |date=1992 |title=A History of Turks |publisher=Chinese Social Sciences Press}}
* {{cite book |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=3 |title=Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE |editor1-last=Yoffee |editor1-first=Norman |editor1-link=Norman Yoffee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQS7BwAAQBAJ |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-521-19008-4 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=9 October 2023}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Yong E |date=2011 |title=Mosaic Humans, the Hybrid Species |journal=New Scientist |volume=211 |issue=2823 |pages=34–38 |bibcode=2011NewSc.211...34Y |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Zhu Z, Dennell R, Huang W, Wu Y, Qiu S, Yang S, Rao Z, Hou Y, Xie J, Han J, Ouyang T |display-authors=6 |title=Hominin Occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau Since About 2.1&nbsp;million Years Ago |journal=Nature |volume=559 |issue=7715 |pages=608–612 |date=2018 |pmid=29995848 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4 |bibcode=2018Natur.559..608Z |s2cid=49670311}}
* {{cite book |title=The History of the Seljuq Turks from the Jāmiʻ Al-tawārīkh: An Ilkhanid Adaptation of the Saljūq-nāma of Ẓahīr Al-Dīn Nīshāpūrī |last1=Ṭabīb |first1=Rashīd al-Dīn |last2=Faḍlallāh |first2=Rašīd-ad-Dīn |last3=Nishapuri |first3=Zahir al-Din |last4=Nīšāpūrī |first4=Ẓahīr-ad-Dīn |date=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jmMpaJZemk0C |isbn=978-0-7007-1342-4 |editor-last=Bosworth |editor-first=Clifford Edmund |translator-last=Luther |translator-first=Kenneth Allin |access-date=25 August 2023}}
{{refend}}

{{Subject bar
 |b=y
 |commons=Category:History
 |d=y
 |n=y
 |q=n
 |s=
 |species=n
 |v=
 |voy=n
 |wikt=n
 |portal1=History
 |portal2=Modern history
 |portal3=World
}}

{{World history|state=expanded}}

[[Category:World history]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]