Editing Humid continental climate

{{Short description|Category in the Köppen climate classification system}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2019}}[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_D_1991–2020.svg|thumb|''Humid continental climate'' worldwide, utilizing the [[Köppen climate classification]]
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
{{legend|#FF00FE|Dsa}}
{{legend|#C600C7|Dsb}}
{{legend|#ABB1FF|Dwa}}
{{legend|#5A77DB|[[#Koppen_Dwb|Dwb]]}}
{{legend|#00FFFF|[[#Koppen_Dfa|Dfa]]}}
{{legend|#38C7FF|[[#Koppen_Dfb|Dfb]]}}
{{div col end}}|400x400px]]
A '''humid continental climate''' is a [[climate|climatic]] region defined by Russo-German [[climatologist]] [[Wladimir Köppen]] in 1900,<ref name="2014revisit">{{cite journal |last1=Belda |first1=M |last2=Holtanová |first2=E |last3=Halenka |first3=T |last4=Kalvová |first4=J |title=Climate classification revisited: from Köppen to Trewartha |journal=Climate Research |date=4 February 2014 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.3354/cr01204 |bibcode=2014ClRes..59....1B |doi-access=free }}</ref> typified by four distinct seasons and large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers, and cold (sometimes severely cold in the northern areas) and snowy winters.  Precipitation is usually distributed throughout the year, but often these regions do have dry seasons. The definition of this climate in terms of temperature is as follows: the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below {{convert|0|°C|1}} or {{convert|−3|°C|1}} depending on the isotherm,<ref name="kottek2006">{{cite journal |last1=Kottek |first1=Markus |last2=Grieser |first2=Jürgen |last3=Beck |first3=Christoph |last4=Rudolf |first4=Bruno |last5=Rubel |first5=Franz |title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated |journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift |date=10 July 2006 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=259–263 |doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130 |bibcode=2006MetZe..15..259K |url=https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bvb:384-opus4-400838 }}</ref> and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above {{convert|10|°C}}. In addition, the location in question must not be [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] or [[desert climate|arid]]. The cooler ''Dfb'', ''Dwb'', and ''Dsb'' subtypes are also known as [[hemiboreal]] climates. Although amount of snowfall is not a factor used in defining the humid continental climate, snow during the winter in this type of climate is almost a guarantee, either intermittently throughout the winter months near the southern or coastal margins, or persistently throughout the winter months elsewhere in the climate zone.

Humid continental climates are generally found between latitudes [[40th parallel north|40°&nbsp;N]] and [[60th parallel north|60°&nbsp;N]],<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c10/E5-02-04-01.pdf|title=Cultivated Plants, Primarily As Food Sources -- Vol II -- Fruit in Northern Latitudes|author=Béla Berényi|page=1|publisher=[[Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems]]|access-date=2015-02-23}}</ref> within the central and northeastern portions of [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Asia]]. Occasionally, they can also be found at higher elevations above other more temperate climate types. They are rare in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], limited to isolated high altitude locations, due to the larger ocean area at that latitude, smaller land mass, and the consequent greater maritime moderation.

In the Northern Hemisphere, some of the humid continental climates, typically in around [[Hokkaido]], [[Sakhalin Island]], northeastern mainland [[Europe]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] are closer to the sea and heavily maritime-influenced and comparable to [[oceanic climate]]s, with relatively cool summers, significant year-round precipitation (including high amounts of snow) and winters being just below the freezing mark (too cold for such a classification).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=59317&cityname=Halifax-Nova-Scotia-Canada|title=Halifax, Nova Scotia Temperature Averages|publisher=Weatherbase|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref> More extreme and inland humid continental climates, sometimes known as "hyper-continental" climates, are found in northeast [[China]], southern [[Siberia]], [[Mongolia]], [[Kazakhstan]], most of the southern interior of [[Canada]], and the [[Upper Midwest]], where temperatures in the winter resemble those of adjacent [[subarctic climate]]s (with long, drier, generally very cold winters) but have longer and generally warmer summers (in occasional cases, hot summers). A more moderate variety, found in places like [[Honshu]], east-central China, the [[Korean Peninsula]], parts of [[Eastern Europe]], parts of southern [[Ontario]], much of the [[Midwestern United States|American Midwest]], and the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast US]], the climate combines hotter summer maxima and greater humidity (similar to those found in adjacent [[humid subtropical climate]]s) and moderately cold winters and more intermittent snow cover (averaging somewhat below freezing, too cold for a more temperate classification), and is less extreme than the most inland hyper-continental variety.

==Definition==
[[File:Odori Park Sapporo Snow Festival 2007.JPG|thumb|upright|The snowy city of [[Sapporo]], Japan, has a humid continental climate ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Dfa'').]]
Using the [[Köppen climate classification]], a climate is classified as humid continental when the temperature of the coldest month is below {{convert|0|°C|1|disp=sqbr}} or {{convert|-3|°C|1|disp=sqbr}}  and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above {{convert|10|°C}}.<ref name="Peel" /> These temperatures were not arbitrary.  In Europe, the {{convert|−3|°C}} average temperature [[isotherm (contour line)|isotherm]] (line of equal temperature) was near the southern extent of winter [[snowpack]]. In the United States, it is more common to use the {{convert|0|°C|1|disp=sqbr}} isotherm instead.  The {{convert|10|°C}} average temperature was found to be roughly the minimum temperature necessary for tree reproduction and growth.<ref name="MetToday">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Dx-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT516|pages=491–492|title=Meteorology Today|author1=C. Donald Ahrens |author2=Robert Henson |date=2015|isbn=978-1305480629|edition=11|publisher=Cengage Learning}}</ref>  Wide temperature ranges are common within this climate zone.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ceVBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA413|page=419|title=Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere|author1=Steven Ackerman |author2=John Knox |date=2006|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-305-14730-0}}</ref>

Second letter in the classification symbol defines seasonal rainfall as follows:<ref name=Peel>{{cite journal |last1=Peel |first1=M. C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B. L. |last3=McMahon |first3=T. A. |title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |date=11 October 2007 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=1633–1644 |doi=10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P }}</ref>
* ''s'': A dry summer&mdash;the driest month in the high-sun half of the year (April to September in the Northern Hemisphere, October to March in the Southern Hemisphere) has less than {{convert|30|mm|2|abbr=}}/{{convert|40|mm|2|abbr=}} of rainfall and has exactly or less than {{fraction|3}} the precipitation of the wettest month in the low-sun half of the year (October to March in the Northern Hemisphere, April to September in the Southern Hemisphere).
* ''w'': A dry winter&mdash;the driest month in the low-sun half of the year has exactly or less than one‑tenth of the precipitation found in the wettest month in the summer half of the year.
* ''f'': No dry season&mdash;does not meet either of the alternative specifications above; precipitation and humidity are often high year-round.
while the third letter denotes the extent of summer heat:<ref name=Peel />
* ''a'': Hot summer, warmest month averages at least {{convert|22|°C|1}},
* ''b'': Warm summer, warmest month averages below {{convert|22|°C|1}} but at least four months averages above {{convert|10|°C|1}}.

===Associated precipitation===
Within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the [[Great Lakes]], [[Gulf of Mexico]] and adjacent western subtropical [[Atlantic]].<ref name="env">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yANwmTjf588C&pg=PA30|title= Environmental Hydrology, Second Edition|author1=Andy D. Ward |author2=Stanley W. Trimble |pages=30–34|isbn=978-1-56670-616-2|publisher=CRC Press|date=2003}}</ref> [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate (''f''), while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation,<ref name="MetToday"/> which increases the chances of a wintertime [[drought]] (''w'').<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=y6r9jUTzJiYC&pg=PA349|page=349|title=Monitoring and Predicting Agricultural Drought : A Global Study: A Global Study|author1=Vijendra K. Boken |author2=Arthur P. Cracknell |author3=Ronald L. Heathcote |date=2005|isbn=978-0-19-803678-4|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>  [[Snow]]fall occurs in all areas with a humid continental climate and in many such places is more common than [[rain]] during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the snow cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during [[thunderstorm]]s,<ref name="MetToday"/> and in North America and Asia an occasional [[tropical cyclone]] (or the remnants thereof). Though [[humidity]] levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the "humid" designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as [[semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] or [[desert climate|arid]].

===Vegetation===
[[File:Vermont_fall_foliage_hogback_mountain.JPG|thumb|left|Mixed forest in [[Vermont]] during autumn]]
By definition, [[forest]]s thrive within this climate. [[Biome]]s within this climate regime include temperate woodlands, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous or evergreen forests,<ref name="env"/> coniferous forests, and coniferous swamps.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMMMlPReRm4C&pg=PA14|page=14|title=Prehistoric Europe|author1=Timothy Champion |author2=Clive Gamble |author3=Stephen Shennan |author4=Alisdair Whittle |publisher=Left Coast Press|date=2009|isbn=978-1-59874-463-7}}</ref> Within wetter areas, [[maple]], [[spruce]], [[pine]], [[fir]], and [[oak]] can be found. Fall foliage is noted during the autumn of deciduous forests.<ref name="MetToday"/>

===Neighboring climates===
In the poleward direction, these climates transition into [[subarctic climates]] featuring short summers (and usually very cold winters) allowing only [[conifer]] trees. Moving equatorword, the hot-summer continental climates grade into [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical climates]] (chiefly in North America and Asia) while the warm-summer continental climates grade into [[oceanic climate|oceanic climates]] (chiefly in Europe), both of which have milder winters where average temperatures stay above 0°C (or -3°C). Some continental climates with lower precipitation (chiefly in Central Asia and the Western United States) grade into [[semi-arid climate|semi-arid climates]] with similar temperatures but low precipitation.
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== {{Anchor|Koppen_Dfa}}{{Anchor|Koppen_Dwa}}{{Anchor|Koppen_Dsa}} Hot summer subtype ==
[[File:Koppen World Map Dfa Dwa Dsa.png|thumb|Regions with hot-summer humid continental climates]]
A hot summer version of a continental climate features an average temperature of at least 22 °C (71.6 °F) in its warmest month.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bonan |first1=Gordon B. |title=Ecological Climatology: Concepts and Applications |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-26886-9 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref> Since these regimes are restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, the warmest month is usually July or August. High temperatures during the warmest month tend to be in the high 20s to low 30s °C (80s °F), while average January afternoon temperatures are near or well below freezing. Frost-free periods typically last 4 to 7 months in this climate regime.<ref name="MetToday" /> Within [[North America]], this climate includes portions of the central and eastern United States from east of [[100th meridian west|100°W]] to south of about the [[44th parallel north|44°N]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]. Precipitation increases further eastward in this zone and is less seasonally uniform in the west. The western states of the western [[United States]] (namely [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], parts of southern [[Idaho]], most of [[Lincoln County, Washington|Lincoln County]] in [[Eastern Washington]], parts of [[Colorado]], parts of [[Utah]], isolated parts of northern [[New Mexico]], western [[Nebraska]], and parts of western [[North Dakota|North]] and [[South Dakota]]) have thermal regimes which fit the ''Dfa'' climate type, but are quite dry, and are generally grouped with the steppe (''BSk'') climates. In the eastern and Midwestern United States, [[Minnesota]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Ohio]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], southern [[New York (state)|New York]], most of [[Connecticut]] and [[Rhode Island]], and eastern [[Massachusetts]] fall into the hot-summer humid continental climate. In Canada, this climate type exists only over portions of Southern [[Ontario]].

In the Eastern Hemisphere, this climate regime is found within interior [[Eurasia]] and east-central Asia. Within Europe, the ''Dfa'' climate type is present near the [[Black Sea]] in southern [[Ukraine]], the [[Southern Federal District]] of [[Russia]], southern [[Moldova]], [[Serbia]], parts of southern [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]],<ref name="Fundy"/><ref name="Explore">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=28VpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|title=Exploring Europe, Grades 5 - 8|author=Michael Kramme|page=12|isbn=978-1-58037-670-9|date=2012|publisher= Carson-Dellosa Publishing}}</ref> but tends to be drier and can be even semi-arid in these places. In East Asia, this climate exhibits a [[monsoon]]al tendency with much higher precipitation in summer than in winter, and due to the effects of the strong [[Siberian High]] much colder winter temperatures than similar latitudes around the world, however with lower snowfall, the exception being western Japan with its heavy snowfall.  [[Tōhoku]], between [[Tokyo]] and [[Hokkaidō]] and Western coast of Japan also has a climate with Köppen classification ''Dfa'', but is wetter even than that part of North America with this climate type. A variant which has dry winters and hence relatively lower snowfall with monsoonal type summer rainfall is to be found in northern [[People's Republic of China|China]] including [[Manchuria]] and parts of [[North China]], south-east [[Russia]], and over much of the [[Korean Peninsula]]; it has the Köppen classification ''Dwa''. Much of [[central Asia]], [[northwestern China]], and southern [[Mongolia]] has a thermal regime similar to that of the ''Dfa'' climate type, but these regions receive so little precipitation that they are more often classified as steppes (''BSk'') or deserts (''BWk'').

''Dsa'' climates are rare; they are generally restricted to elevated areas adjacent to mid-latitude [[Mediterranean climate]] regions with a ''Csa'' climate well inland to ensure hot summers and cold winters. They are generally found in the highly elevated areas of south-eastern Turkey ([[Hakkâri Province|Hakkâri]]), north-western Iran, northern Iraq, parts of [[Central Asia]], parts of the [[High Atlas]] mountain range in central Morocco and very small parts of the [[Intermountain West]] in the United States.

This climate zone does not exist at all in the Southern Hemisphere, where the continents either do not penetrate low enough in latitude or [[Southern Cone|taper too much]] to have any place that gets the combination of snowy winters and hot summers. Marine influences are very strong around 40°S and such preclude ''Dfa'', ''Dwa'', and ''Dsa'' climates from existing in the southern hemisphere.
{{climate chart
|[[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[United States]]
|-6.9| 0.4|58
|-5.1| 2.7|54
| 0.0| 8.8|68
| 5.4|15.6|105
|11.3|21.9|121
|17.1|27.3|115
|20.1|29.6|102
|19.4|28.4|104
|15.1|24.7|85
| 8.2|17.6|98
| 1.8| 9.8|69 
|-3.7| 3.2|59
|float=left
|clear=left
|source=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USC00111577&format=pdf|publisher = National Climatic Data Center|title = Station: Chicago Midway AP 3SW, IL|work = U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991–2020)|access-date = May 14, 2021}}</ref>}}
{{climate chart
|[[Shenyang]], [[Liaoning]], [[China]]
|−16.5 |−4.9 | 6.9
|−11.9 |−0.3 | 8.6
|− 3.9 | 7.0 | 20.6
| 4.5 |16.9 | 39.5
| 11.6 |23.4 | 53.1
| 17.1 |27.5 | 92.5
| 20.6 |29.0 |173.6
| 19.4 |28.6 |169.2
| 12.3 |24.0 | 64.6
| 4.4 |16.2 | 39.4
|− 4.5 | 5.6 | 20.3
|−12.7 |−2.2 | 10.2
|float=left
|clear=none
|source = China Meteorological Administration <ref name= CMA >{{cite web  | url = http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3  | script-title = zh:中国地面国际交换站气候标准值月值数据集（1971－2000年）  | access-date = 2010-05-04  | publisher = [[China Meteorological Administration]]  | language = zh   | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055035/http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3  | archive-date = 2013-09-21  | url-status = dead  }}</ref>}}
{{climate chart
|[[Rostov-on-Don]], [[Russia]]
| -5.2 | -0.1 | 58
| -5.0 | 1.2 | 48
| -0.3 | 7.8 | 50
| 6.1 | 16.7 | 38
| 11.3 | 22.9 | 58
| 15.7 | 27.5 | 59
| 17.9 | 30.2 | 50
| 17.5 | 29.6 | 43
| 12.1 | 23.6 | 43
| 6.5 | 15.2 | 48
| 0.4 | 6.6 | 51
| -3.6 | 1.4 | 58
|float=left
|clear=right
|source== Pogoda.ru.net<ref>{{Cite web |title=Погода и Климат – Климат Ростова-на-Дону |url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/34730.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817092448/http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/34730.htm |archive-date=August 17, 2013 |access-date=8 November 2021 |publisher=Weather and Climate (Погода и климат) |language=ru}}</ref>}}
{{climate chart
|[[Muş]], [[Turkey]]
| -9.9 | -2.8 | 93.9
| -8.5 | -0.7 | 106.0
| -1.8 | 6.8 | 112.2
| 4.9 | 15.4 | 102.1
| 9.2 | 21.7 | 73.9
| 13.4 | 28.3 | 28.5
| 17.8 | 33.6 | 10.0
| 17.9 | 33.9 | 4.8
| 12.9 | 28.6 | 17.2
| 7.6 | 20.5 | 59.7
| 0.6 | 10.2 | 81.6
| -5.3 | 1.0 | 92.0
|float=left
|clear=left
|source=[[Turkish State Meteorological Service]]<ref>
{{cite web| url = https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=H&m=MUS| title = Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Mevism Normalleri (1991–2020)| publisher = Turkish State Meteorological Service| language = tr| access-date = 2 May 2021}}</ref>}}
{{climate chart
|[[Sapporo]], [[Japan]]
| -6.4 | -0.4 | 108.4
| -6.2 | 0.4 | 91.9
| -2.4 | 4.5 | 77.6
| 3.4 | 11.7 | 54.6
| 9.0 | 17.9 | 55.5
| 13.4 | 21.8 | 60.4
| 17.9 | 25.4 | 90.7
| 19.1 | 26.4 | 126.8
| 14.8 | 22.8 | 142.2
| 8.0 | 16.4 | 109.9
| 1.6 | 8.7 | 113.8
| -4.0 | 2.0 | 114.5
|float=left
|clear=none
|source=Japan Meteorological Agency<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/nml_sfc_ym.php?prec_no=14&block_no=47412&year=&month=1&day=&view=h0 |script-title=ja:気象庁 / 平年値（年・月ごとの値） |publisher=[[Japan Meteorological Agency]] |access-date=May 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208031439/https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/nml_sfc_ym.php?prec_no=14&block_no=47412&year=&month=1&day=&view=h0 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name = "extremes">{{cite web |url=https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/rank_s.php?prec_no=14&block_no=47412&year=&month=13&day=&view=h0 |script-title=ja:観測史上1～10位の値（年間を通じての値） |publisher=[[Japan Meteorological Agency]] |access-date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=March 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301142224/https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/rank_s.php?prec_no=14&block_no=47412&year=&month=13&day=&view=h0 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
{{clear}}

== {{Anchor|Koppen_Dwb|Koppen_Dfb}}Warm summer subtype ==
[[File:Koppen World Map Dfb Dwb Dsb.png|thumb|Regions with warm-summer humid continental climates]]
Also known as '''[[Hemiboreal|hemiboreal climate]]''', areas featuring this subtype of the continental climate have an average temperature in the warmest month below {{convert|22|°C}}. Summer high temperatures in this zone typically average between {{convert|21|-|28|C|F}} during the daytime and the average temperatures in the coldest month are generally well or far below the {{convert|-3|°C|°F|abbr=on}} (or {{convert|0|°C|1}}) isotherm.  Frost-free periods typically last 3–5&nbsp;months. Heat spells lasting over a week are rare.<ref name="MetToday"/>

The warm summer version of the humid continental climate covers a much larger area than the hot subtype. In North America, the climate zone covers from about [[42nd parallel north|42°N]] to [[50th parallel north|50°N]] latitude mostly east of [[100th meridian west|100°W]], including parts of [[Southern Ontario]], the southern half of [[Quebec]], [[The Maritimes]], and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], as well as the northern United States from eastern [[North Dakota]] east to [[Maine]]. However, it can be found as far north as [[54th parallel north|54°N]], and further west in the Canadian [[Prairie Provinces]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=B. W. |last2=Proctor |first2=H. C. |last3=Clayton |first3=T. |date=2011 |title=Range Extension of the Northern Crayfish, Orconectes Virilis (decapoda, Cambaridae), in the Western Prairie Provinces of Canada |journal=Crustaceana |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=451–460 |doi=10.1163/001121611X563995 |jstor=23034238 }}</ref> and below [[40th parallel north|40°N]] in the high [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]]. In Europe, this subtype reaches its most northerly latitude in [[Bodø]] at the [[67th parallel north|67°N]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.yr.no/en/statistics/table/5-82290/Norway/Nordland/Bod%C3%B8/Bod%C3%B8?q=last-13-months |website=Yr |title=Bodø - Statistics as a table - Last 13 months |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926104050/https://www.yr.no/en/statistics/table/5-82290/Norway/Nordland/Bod%C3%B8/Bod%C3%B8?q=last-13-months |archive-date= Sep 26, 2022 }}</ref>

High-altitude locations such as [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], [[Aspen, Colorado]] and [[Los Alamos, New Mexico]] in the western United States exhibit local ''Dfb'' climates. The south-central and southwestern [[Prairie Provinces]] also fits the ''Dfb'' criteria from a thermal profile, but because of semi-arid precipitation portions of it are grouped into the ''BSk'' category.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Warm-summer Humid Continental Climate (Dfb)  |url=https://skybrary.aero/articles/warm-summer-humid-continental-climate-dfb-0 |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=SKYbrary Aviation Safety |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022040255/https://skybrary.aero/articles/warm-summer-humid-continental-climate-dfb-0 |archive-date= Oct 22, 2023 }}</ref>

In [[Europe]], it is found in much of [[Central Europe]]: [[Germany]] (in the east and southeast part of the country), [[Austria]] (generally below {{cvt|700.|m}}), [[Poland]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], [[Hungary]] (generally above {{cvt|100.|m}}), [[Croatia]] (mostly [[Slavonia]] region), in much of [[Eastern Europe]]: [[Ukraine]] (the whole country except the [[Black Sea]] coast), [[Belarus]], [[Russia]] (mostly central part of [[European Russia]]), south and central parts of the [[Nordic countries]] not bathed by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] or [[North Sea]]: [[Sweden]] (historical regions of [[Svealand]] and [[Götaland]]), [[Denmark]], [[Finland]] (south end, including the [[List of Finnish municipalities|three largest cities]]),<ref name="Explore" /> [[Norway]] (most populated area),<ref name=Peel /> all [[Baltic States]]:  [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] and also in parts of: [[Romania]] (generally above {{cvt|100.|m}}), [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Turkey]] and in the [[Cairngorm Mountains]] of [[Scotland]], (generally above {{cvt|100.|m}}).<ref name="Fundy">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfMKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76|title=Fundamentals of World Regional Geography|author=Joseph Hobbs|page=76|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-40221-5|date=2012}}</ref><ref name="MGM">{{cite book|url=https://www.mgm.gov.tr/FILES/iklim/iklim_siniflandirmalari/koppen.pdf|title= Köppen İklim Sınıflandırmasına göre Türkiye İklimi|author=Erdoğan Bölük|page=18|publisher=Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü|date=2016}}</ref> It has little warming or precipitation effects from the northern Atlantic.<ref name="Explore"/> The cool summer subtype is marked by mild summers, long cold winters and less [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] than the hot summer subtype; however, short periods of extreme heat are not uncommon. Northern [[Japan]] has a similar climate.<ref>{{Cite web |title= General Information on Climate of Japan |url=https://www.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/cpd/longfcst/en/tourist.html#:~:text=Northern%20Japan%20has%20warm%20summers,side%20and%20in%20mountainous%20areas. |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=Japan Meteorological Agency }}</ref>

In Asia, this climate type is found in northern [[Kazakhstan]], southern [[Siberia]], parts of [[Mongolia]], northern [[China]], and highland elevations in the [[Korea|Koreas]]. Like its hot-summer counterpart, these climates are typically dry in the winter and bitterly cold due to the [[Siberian High]] (often with winter temperatures comparable to their nearby [[subarctic climates]]), while summers are warm and long enough to avoid classification as a subarctic climate.

In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], it exists in well-defined areas only in the [[Southern Alps]] of [[New Zealand]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=James |first1=William H.M. |last2=Carrivick |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Quincey |first3=Duncan J. |last4=Glasser |first4=Neil F. |title=A geomorphology based reconstruction of ice volume distribution at the Last Glacial Maximum across the Southern Alps of New Zealand |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=September 2019 |volume=219 |pages=20–35 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.06.035 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019QSRv..219...20J |bibcode-access=free }}</ref> in the [[Snowy Mountains]] of [[Australia]] in [[Kiandra, New South Wales]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crosbie |first1=R. S. |last2=Pollock |first2=D. W. |last3=Mpelasoka |first3=F. S. |last4=Barron |first4=O. V. |last5=Charles |first5=S. P. |last6=Donn |first6=M. J. |title=Changes in Köppen-Geiger climate types under a future climate for Australia: hydrological implications |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |date=18 September 2012 |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=3341–3349 |doi=10.5194/hess-16-3341-2012 |bibcode=2012HESS...16.3341C |doi-access=free |bibcode-access=free }}</ref> and the [[Andes Mountains]] of [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://people.eng.unimelb.edu.au/mpeel/koppen.html|title=Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map of the world|website=Murray Peel's Home page |publisher=Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, The University of Melbourne |access-date=2019-03-06}}</ref>

{{climate chart
| [[Erzurum]], [[Turkey]]
| −15.9 | −4.0 | 16
| −14.7 | −2.4 | 19
| −7.5 | 3.9 | 35
| -0.7 | 12.1 | 56
| 3.4 | 17.6 | 72
| 6.1 | 22.9 | 42
| 9.9 | 27.7 | 22
| 10.0 | 28.5 | 17
| 4.4 | 23.7 | 23
| 0.3 |  16.4 | 47
| −6.0 | 7.3 | 26
| −12.4 | −1.2 | 21
|clear=left
|float=left
|source = [https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?k=H&m=ERZURUM mgm.gov.tr]
}}
{{climate chart
| [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]]
| −8.2 | −0.1 | 139
| −7.5 | 0.4 | 110
| −3.9 | 3.6 | 133
| 1 | 8.7 | 118
| 5.8 | 14.4 | 119
| 10.7 | 19.6 | 112
| 14.4 | 23.1 | 110
| 15.1 | 23.1 | 96
| 11.8 | 19.3 | 109
| 6.4 | 13.4 | 124
| 1.5 | 8.1 | 151
| −4.3 | 2.8 | 145
|clear=none
|float=left
|source = Environment Canada<ref>{{cite web
| work = Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010
| publisher = [[Environment Canada]]
| url = http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=6358&lang=e&dCode=1&province=NS&provBut=Go&month1=0&month2=12
| title = Halifax Stanfield INT'L A, Nova Scotia
| access-date = May 8, 2014| date = 2011-10-31}}</ref>
| date = March 2012
}}
{{climate chart
|[[Minsk]], [[Belarus]]
| -6.3 | -2.0 | 47
| -6.0 | -0.8 | 40
| -2.6 | 4.5 | 41
| 2.9 | 12.8 | 43
| 8.3 | 18.9 | 66
| 12.2 | 22.4 | 79
| 14.4 | 24.3 | 97
| 13.4 | 23.6 | 71
| 8.7 | 17.5 | 51
| 3.8 | 10.3 | 55
| -0.5 | 3.6 | 49
| -4.5 | -0.6 | 47
|clear=right
|float=left
|source= Pogoda.ru.net<ref name="pogoda.ru.net">{{cite web |title=Weather and Climate- The Climate of Minsk |url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/26850.htm |access-date=8 November 2021 |publisher=Weather and Climate (Погода и климат) |language=ru}}</ref>}}
{{climate chart
|[[Khabarovsk]], [[Russia]]
| -23.1 | -14.9 | 13
| -19.6 | -9.9 | 12
| -10.7 | -1.0 | 22
| -0.1 | 10.5 | 37
| 7.3 | 19.2 | 70
| 12.8 | 23.8 | 84
| 16.8 | 26.8 | 137
| 15.7 | 24.9 | 143
| 9.4 | 19.7 | 85
| 1.0 | 10.6 | 48
| -10.4 | -2.8 | 26
| -20.9 | -13.6 | 19
|clear=left
|float=left
|source= Pogoda.ru.net<ref name="pogoda">{{cite web |title=Pogoda.ru.net |url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/31735.htm |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=ru}}</ref>}}
{{climate chart
|[[Idaho Falls]], [[Idaho]], [[United States]]
| -11.1 | -1.8 | 17
| -9.1 | 1.2 | 14
| -3.7 | 8.4 | 21
| -0.3 | 14.2 | 26
| 3.6 | 19.6 | 40
| 7.0 | 24.6 | 28
| 9.6 | 30.3 | 12
| 8.6 | 29.8 | 15
| 4.8 | 23.8 | 25
| -0.7 | 15.1 | 22
| -5.6 | 6.1 | 17
| -10.3 | -0.9 | 20
|clear=none
|float=left
|source=National Weather Service<ref name=NOWData>{{cite web|url = https://www.weather.gov/wrh/climate?wfo=pih|publisher = National Weather Service|title = NOAA Online Weather Data|access-date = September 4, 2022
}}</ref>}}
{{climate chart
|[[Jermuk]], [[Armenia]]
| -12.1 | -2.5 | 66.5
| -11.5 | -1.7 | 67.1
| -7.4 | 2.0 | 84.2
| -1.4 | 7.1 | 104.8
| 3.0 | 13.4 | 100.1
| 5.7 | 17.7 | 63.5
| 8.7 | 21.6 | 42.2
| 8.8 | 22.9 | 23.4
| 5.2 | 19.3 | 32.8
| 1.9 | 13.4 | 59.5
| -3.9 | 5.6 | 59.5
| -8.6 | 0.4 | 61.5
|clear=right
|float=left
|source=[[NOAA]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Armenia/CSV/Jermuk_37883.csv |format=CSV | title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020 – Jermuk| publisher= [[NCEI]]| access-date = 6 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1981-2010/RA-II/Armenia/WMO%20Jermuk.xlsx |format=XLSX| title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1981-2010:Jermuk-37883| publisher= [[NCEI]]| access-date = 6 March 2024}}</ref>}}
{{clear}}

==Use in climate modeling==
Since climate regimes tend to be dominated by vegetation of one region with relatively homogenous ecology, those that project [[climate change]] remap their results in the form of climate regimes as an alternative way to explain expected changes.<ref name="2014revisit"/>

==See also==
*[[Continental climate]]
*[[Subarctic climate]]
*[[Hemiboreal]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30}}

{{Koppen}}

[[Category:Köppen climate types]]
[[Category:Climate of North America]]
[[Category:Climate of Europe]]
[[Category:Climate of Asia]]
[[Category:Trees of humid continental climate| ]]