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{{Short description|Total amount of water on a planet}} [[File:Ocean_world_Earth.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[Earth]] captured in the [[Pacific Ocean]] side]] The '''hydrosphere''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|ὕδωρ}}'' ({{grc-transl|ὕδωρ}})|water||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|σφαῖρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαῖρα}})|sphere}})<ref>[https://wwwdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Du%28%2Fdwr ὕδωρ], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'', on [[Perseus Project|Perseus]]</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsfai%3Dra^ σφαῖρα], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'', on [[Perseus Project|Perseus]]</ref> is the combined mass of [[water]] found on, under, and above the [[Planetary surface|surface]] of a [[planet]], [[minor planet]], or [[natural satellite]]. Although [[Earth]]'s hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years,<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 'Hydrosphere': https://www.britannica.com/science/hydrosphere/Origin-and-evolution-of-the-hydrosphere</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Albarède |first1=Francis |last2=Blichert-Toft |first2=Janne |author2-link=Janne Blichert-Toft |title=The split fate of the early Earth, Mars, Venus, and Moon |journal=Comptes Rendus Geoscience |date=November 2007 |volume=339 |issue=14–15 |pages=917–927 |doi=10.1016/j.crte.2007.09.006 |bibcode=2007CRGeo.339..917A |url=https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/articles/10.1016/j.crte.2007.09.006/ }}</ref> it continues to change in shape. This is caused by [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]], which rearranges the land and ocean.<ref name="Our Changing Planet 2011, pp. 88">"Our Changing Planet: an Introduction to Earth System Science and Global Environmental Change." Our Changing Planet: an Introduction to Earth System Science and Global Environmental Change, by Fred T. Mackenzie, 2nd ed., Pearson Education, 2011, pp. 88–91.</ref> It has been estimated that there are 1.386 billion [[Cubic kilometer|cubic]] kilometres (333 million cubic miles) of water on Earth.<ref name="USGS">[https://web.archive.org/web/20131214091601/http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html Where is Earth's water?], [[United States Geological Survey]].</ref><ref>Eakins, B.W. and G.F. Sharman, [https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/etopo-global-relief-model Volumes of the World's Oceans from ETOPO1], [[NOAA]] [[National Geophysical Data Center]], [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder, CO]], 2010.</ref><ref>[https://www.academia.edu/902661/Water_in_Crisis_Chapter_2_Oxford_University_Press_1993 Water in Crisis: Chapter 2], Peter H. Gleick, Oxford University Press, 1993.</ref> This includes water in gaseous, liquid and frozen forms as soil moisture, [[groundwater]] and [[permafrost]] in the [[Earth's crust]] (to a depth of 2 km); [[ocean]]s and [[List of seas|seas]], [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and [[stream]]s, [[wetland]]s, [[glacier]]s, ice and snow cover on Earth's surface; vapour, droplets and crystals in the air; and part of living plants, animals and unicellular organisms of the biosphere. [[Saline water|Saltwater]] accounts for 97.5% of this amount, whereas [[fresh water]] accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water, 68.9% is in the form of [[ice]] and permanent snow cover in the Arctic, the Antarctic and mountain [[glacier]]s; 30.8% is in the form of fresh groundwater; and only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems.<ref name="Shiklomanov1998">{{cite report|url=http://webworld.unesco.org/water/ihp/publications/waterway/webpc/world_water_resources.html|title=World Water Resources: A New Appraisal and Assessment for the 21st Century|date=1998|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=13 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927160221/http://webworld.unesco.org/water/ihp/publications/waterway/webpc/world_water_resources.html|archive-date=27 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The total mass of Earth's hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 10<sup>18</sup> [[tonnes]], which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass. At any given time, about 2 × 10<sup>13</sup> tonnes of this is in the form of [[water vapor]] in the [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] (for practical purposes, 1 cubic metre of water weighs 1 tonne). Approximately 71% of Earth's surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometres (139.5 million square miles), is covered by [[ocean]]. The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of [[salt]] per kilogram of sea water (3.5%).<ref>{{cite book|first=Michael J.|last=Kennish|year=2001|title=Practical handbook of marine science|page=35|edition=3rd|publisher=CRC Press|series=Marine science series|isbn=0-8493-2391-6}}</ref> ==History== According to Merriam Webster, the word hydrosphere was brought into English in 1887, translating the German term ''hydrosphäre'', introduced by [[Eduard Suess]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hydrosphere|title=Definition of HYDROSPHERE}}</ref> ==Water cycle== {{Main|Water cycle}} [[File:Watercyclesummary.jpg|right|393x393px]] The ''water cycle'' refers to the transfer of water from one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs include [[Water vapor|atmospheric moisture]] (snow, rain and clouds), streams, oceans, rivers, lakes, [[groundwater]], [[wikt:subterranean#English|subterranean]] [[aquifer]]s, [[polar ice cap]]s and saturated soil. [[Solar energy]], in the form of heat and light ([[insolation]]), and [[gravity]] cause the transfer from one state to another over periods from hours to thousands of years. Most [[evaporation]] comes from the oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or rain.<ref name=deVilliersWater2003 />{{rp|27}}[[Sublimation (phase transition)|Sublimation]] refers to evaporation from snow and ice. Transpiration refers to the expiration of water through the minute pores or stomata of trees. [[Evapotranspiration]] is the term used by [[hydrology|hydrologists]] in reference to the three processes together, transpiration, sublimation and evaporation.<ref name=deVilliersWater2003 /> [[Marq de Villiers]] has described the hydrosphere as a [[closed system]] in which water exists. The hydrosphere is intricate, complex, interdependent, all-pervading, stable, and "seems purpose-built for regulating life."<ref name=deVilliersWater2003>{{cite book|author= Marq de Villiers|title= Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource|year=2003|publisher= McClelland & Stewart|location=Toronto, Ontario|isbn=978-0-7710-2641-6|oclc = 43365804|edition=2|pages=453}}, revised 2003|[[Governor General's Award for English-language non-fiction|Governor General's Award]] (1999)</ref>{{rp|26}} De Villiers claimed that, "On earth, the total amount of water has almost certainly not changed since geological times: what we had then we still have. Water can be polluted, abused, and misused but it is neither created nor destroyed, it only migrates. There is no evidence that water vapor escapes into space."<ref name=deVilliersWater2003 />{{rp|26}}<blockquote>Every year the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km<sup>3</sup> of water. This is water that evaporates from the oceanic surface (502,800 km<sup>3</sup>) and from land (74,200 km<sup>3</sup>). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km<sup>3</sup> on the ocean and 119,000 km<sup>3</sup> on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface (119,000 − 74,200 = 44,800 km<sup>3</sup>/year) represents the total runoff of the Earth's rivers (42,700 km<sup>3</sup>/year) and direct groundwater runoff to the ocean (2100 km<sup>3</sup>/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support life necessities and man's economic activities.<ref name="Shiklomanov1998" /></blockquote>Water is a basic necessity of life. Since two thirds of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet.<ref group=" notes">According to the planetary geologist, [[Ronald Greeley]], "Water is very common in the outer solar system."{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} Europa holds more water than earth's oceans.</ref> The hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became its present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved into the rain water. In turn, this further caused water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when [[cyanobacteria]] evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, Earth's atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of other planets and allowed for [[Evolutionary history of life|life to evolve on Earth]]. Human activity has had an impact on the water cycle. Infrastructure, like dams, have a clear, direct impact on the water cycle by blocking and redirecting water pathways. Human caused pollution has changed the biogeochemical cycles of some water systems, and climate change has significantly altered weather patterns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Western |first1=David |title=Human-Modified Ecosystems and Future Evolution |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2001 |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5458–5465 |doi=10.1073/pnas.101093598 |jstor=3055648 |pmid=11344294 |pmc=33234 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.5458W |doi-access=free }}</ref> Water withdrawals have exponentially increased because of agriculture, state and domestic use, and infrastructure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haddeland |first1=Ingjerd |last2=Heinke |first2=Jens |last3=Biemans |first3=Hester |last4=Eisner |first4=Stephanie |last5=Flörke |first5=Martina |last6=Hanasaki |first6=Naota |last7=Konzmann |first7=Markus |last8=Ludwig |first8=Fulco |last9=Masaki |first9=Yoshimitsu |last10=Schewe |first10=Jacob |last11=Stacke |first11=Tobias |last12=Tessler |first12=Zachary D. |last13=Wada |first13=Yoshihide |last14=Wisser |first14=Dominik |title=Global water resources affected by human interventions and climate change |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2014 |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=3251–3256 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1222475110 |jstor=23770678 |pmid=24344275 |pmc=3948259 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.3251H |doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Recharging reservoirs== According to [[Igor A. Shiklomanov]], it takes 2500 years for the complete recharge and replenishment of oceanic waters, 10,000 years for [[permafrost]] and ice, 1500 years for deep groundwater and mountainous glaciers, 17 years in lakes, and 16 days in rivers.<ref name=Shiklomanov1998 /> ==Specific fresh water availability== "Specific water availability is the residual (after use) per capita quantity of fresh water."<ref name=Shiklomanov1998 /> Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed in terms of space and time and can go from floods to water shortages within months in the same area. In 1998, 76% of the total population had a specific water availability of less than 5.0 thousand m<sup>3</sup> per year per capita. Already by 1998, 35% of the global population suffered "very low or catastrophically low water supplies," and Shiklomanov predicted that the situation would deteriorate in the twenty-first century with "most of the Earth's population living under the conditions of low or catastrophically low water supply" by 2025. Only 2.5% of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh water and only 0.25% of that water is accessible for our use. ==Human impact== The activities of modern humans have drastic effects on the hydrosphere. For instance, water diversion, human development, and pollution all affect the hydrosphere and natural processes within. Humans are withdrawing water from aquifers and diverting rivers at an unprecedented rate. The [[Ogallala Aquifer]] is used for agriculture in the United States; if the aquifer goes dry, more than $20 billion worth of food and fiber will vanish from the world's markets.<ref>{{cite journal |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-ogallala-aquifer/ |title= The Ogallala Aquifer: Saving a Vital U.S. Water Source |last= Braxton |first= Jane |date= March 1, 2009 |website= Scientific American |doi= 10.1038/scientificamericanearth0309-32 |doi-broken-date= 1 November 2024 |access-date= March 26, 2020|url-access= subscription }}</ref> The aquifer is being depleted so much faster than it is replenished that, eventually, the aquifer will run dry. Additionally, only one third of [[rivers]] are free-flowing due to the extensive use of dams, levees, [[hydropower]], and habitat degradation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=May 8, 2019|title=Only a third of world's great rivers remain free-flowing, analysis finds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/08/only-a-third-of-worlds-great-rivers-remain-free-flowing-analysis-finds|access-date=March 26, 2020|website=The Guardian}}</ref> Excessive water use has also caused intermittent streams to become more dry, which is dangerous because they are extremely important for water purification and habitat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stokstad |first1=Erik |title=Streams that flow only part of the year are getting even drier |journal=Science |date=13 August 2021 |volume=373 |issue=6556 |pages=724 |doi=10.1126/science.373.6556.724 |pmid=34385373 |bibcode=2021Sci...373..724S |s2cid=236998854 }}</ref> Other ways humans impact the hydrosphere include [[eutrophication]], [[acid rain]], and [[ocean acidification]]. Humans also rely on the health of the hydrosphere. It is used for water supply, navigation, fishing, agriculture, energy, and recreation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klige |first=R. K. |title=Global Studies Encyclopedic Dictionary |publisher=Value Inquiry Book Series |year=2014 |pages=267–269}}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col|small=yes}} * [[Aquatic ecosystem]] * [[Biosphere]] * [[Climate system]] * [[Cryosphere]] * [[Lithosphere]] * [[World ocean]] * [[Pedosphere]] * [[Water cycle]] * {{section link|Water vapor|Extraterrestrial}} * [[Extraterrestrial liquid water]] * [[List of largest lakes and seas in the Solar System]] * [[Ocean world]] {{Div col end}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=notes}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} * [http://capp.water.usgs.gov/GIP/gw_gip/index.html Ground Water - USGS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509072507/http://capp.water.usgs.gov/GIP/gw_gip/index.html |date=2008-05-09 }} {{Natural resources}} {{Water}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aquatic ecology]] [[Category:Hydrology]] [[Category:Physical geography]] [[Category:Global natural environment]] [[Category:Water]] [[Category:Hydrogeology]]
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