Editing Impala

{{Short description|Medium-sized antelope found in Africa}}
{{other uses|Impala (disambiguation)}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2016}}
{{Speciesbox
| name                  = Impala
| status                = LC
| status_system         = IUCN3.1
| status_ref            = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group |date=2016 |title=''Aepyceros melampus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T550A50180828 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T550A50180828.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| image                 = {{CSS image crop
| Image                 = Impala (Aepyceros melampus) male Kruger.jpg
| bSize                 = 400
| cWidth                = 220
| cHeight               = 240
| oTop                  = 20
| oLeft                 = 80
}}
| image_caption         = Male
| image2                = Impalas (Aepyceros melampus) female and young (11421993164).jpg
| image2_caption        = Female with calf<br> both in [[Kruger National Park]], South Africa
| taxon                 = Aepyceros melampus
| authority             = ([[Martin Hinrich Carl Lichtenstein|Lichtenstein]], 1812)
| display_parents       = 2
| subdivision_ranks     = Subspecies
| subdivision           = 
* ''A. m. melampus'' <small>Lichtenstein, 1812</small>
* ''A. m. petersi'' <small>[[José Vicente Barbosa du Bocage|Bocage]], 1879</small>
| synonyms_ref          = <ref name=MSW3 />
| synonyms              = {{collapsible list|List=
|''A. holubi'' <small>Lorenz, 1894</small>
|''A. johnstoni'' <small>[[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], 1893</small>
|''A. katangae'' <small>[[Einar Lönnberg|Lönnberg]], 1914</small>
|''A. pallah'' <small>([[Paul Gervais|Gervais]], 1841)</small>
|''A. rendilis'' <small>Lönnberg, 1912</small>
|''A. typicus'' <small>Thomas, 1893</small>
}}
| range_map             = Aepyceros melampus.svg
| range_map_caption     = Distribution:
<div style="text-align:left; ">{{Legend2|green|Black-faced impala|border=1px solid #aaa}}<br /> {{Legend2|blue|Common impala|border=1px solid #aaa}} </div>
}}

The '''impala''' or '''rooibok''' ('''''Aepyceros melampus''''', lit. 'black-footed high-horn' in [[Ancient Greek]]) is a medium-sized [[antelope]] found in [[East Africa|eastern]] and [[southern Africa]]. The [[monotypic taxon|only]] [[Extant taxon|extant]] member of the [[genus]] ''[[Aepyceros]]'', and tribe [[Aepycerotini]], it was first [[scientific description|described]] to Europeans by German zoologist [[Hinrich Lichtenstein]] in 1812. Two [[subspecies]] are recognised—the grassland-dwelling '''common impala''' (sometimes referred to as the '''Kenyan impala'''), and the larger and darker '''black-faced impala''', which lives in slightly more arid, scrubland environments. The impala reaches {{cvt|70|–|92|cm}} at the shoulder and weighs {{cvt|40|–|76|kg|lb}}. It features a glossy, reddish brown [[coat (animal)|coat]]. The male's slender, [[lyre]]-shaped [[Horn (anatomy)|horns]] are {{cvt|45|–|92|cm}} long.

Active mainly [[diurnality|during the day]], the impala may be [[gregarious]] or [[Territory (animal)|territorial]] depending upon the climate and geography. Three distinct social groups can be observed: the territorial males, bachelor herds and female herds. The impala is known for two characteristic leaps that constitute an anti-[[predation|predator]] strategy. [[Browsing (herbivory)|Browsers]] as well as grazers, impala feed on [[monocot]]s, [[dicot]]s, [[forb]]s, [[fruit]]s and [[Acacieae|acacia]] pods (whenever available). An annual, three-week-long [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]] takes place toward the end of the wet season, typically in May. Rutting males fight over [[Dominance (ethology)|dominance]], and the victorious male courts females in [[oestrus]]. [[Gestation]] lasts six to seven months, following which a single calf is born and immediately concealed in cover. Calves are [[lactation|suckled]] for four to six months; young males—forced out of the all-female groups—join bachelor herds, while females may stay back.

The impala is found in woodlands and sometimes on the interface ([[ecotone]]) between woodlands and [[savanna]]hs; it inhabits places near water. While the black-faced impala is confined to southwestern [[Wildlife of Angola|Angola]] and [[Kaokoland]] in northwestern [[Wildlife of Namibia|Namibia]], the common impala is widespread across its range and has been reintroduced in [[Wildlife of Gabon|Gabon]] and southern Africa. The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) classifies the impala as a [[least concern|species of least concern]]; the black-faced subspecies has been classified as a [[vulnerable species]], with fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining in the wild as of 2008.

==Etymology==
The first attested English name, in 1802, was palla or pallah, from the [[Tswana language|Tswana]] ''{{lang|tn|phala}}'' 'red antelope';<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', 3rd edition, March 2005, [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/136375 ''s.v.'' ''pallah'']</ref> the name ''impala'', also spelled ''impalla'' or ''mpala'', is first attested in 1875, and is directly from [[Zulu language|Zulu]].<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' Supp., 1933, [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/92056 ''s.v.'']</ref> Its [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] name, ''{{lang|af|rooibok}}'' 'red buck', is also sometimes used in English.<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', 3rd edition, November 2010, [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/167268 ''s.v.'']</ref>

The [[Binomial nomenclature|scientific]] [[generic name (biology)|generic name]] ''Aepyceros'' ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} ‘high-horned’) comes from [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|{{linktext|αἰπύς}}}} (''{{Transliteration|grc|aipus}}'', 'high, steep') + {{lang|grc|κέρας}} (''{{Transliteration|grc|keras}}'', 'horn');<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Aepyceros|access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1 = Briggs |first1 = M. |last2 = Briggs |first2 = P. |title = The Encyclopedia of World Wildlife |date = 2006 |publisher = Parragon Publishers |location = Somerset, UK |isbn = 978-1-4054-8292-9 |page = 114 |url = {{Google Books|id=LEZfe9Xxm1wC|page=114|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref> the [[specific name (zoology)|specific name]] ''melampus'' ({{abbr|lit.|literally}} ‘black-foot’) from {{lang|grc|μελάς}} (''{{Transliteration|grc|melas}}'', 'black') + {{lang|grc|πούς}} (''{{Transliteration|grc|pous}}'', 'foot').<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Huffman |first1 = B. |title = Impala (''Aepyceros melampus'') |url = http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/aepyceros_melampus.html |website = Ultimate Ungulate |access-date = 10 April 2016 }}</ref>

==Taxonomy and evolution==
{{see also|List of bovids}}
The impala is the [[monotypic species|sole member]] of the genus ''Aepyceros'' and belongs to the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Bovidae]]. It was first [[scientific description|described]] by German zoologist [[Martin Hinrich Carl Lichtenstein]] in 1812.<ref name =MSW3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla | id = 14200488 | pages = 673}}</ref> In 1984, palaeontologist [[Elisabeth Vrba]] opined that the impala is a [[sister taxon]] to the [[Alcelaphinae|alcelaphines]], given its resemblance to the [[hartebeest]].<ref name="vrba">{{cite book |last1 = Vrba |first1 = E.S. |editor1-last = Eldredge |editor1-first = N. |editor2-last = Stanley |editor2-first = S.M. |title = Living Fossils |date = 1984 |publisher = Springer |location = New York, USA |isbn = 978-1-4613-8271-3 |chapter = Evolutionary pattern and process in the sister-group Alcelaphini-Aepycerotini (Mammalia: Bovidae) |oclc = 10403493}}</ref> A 1999 [[phylogenetic]] study by Alexandre Hassanin (of the [[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|National Centre for Scientific Research, Paris]]) and colleagues, based on [[mtDNA|mitochondrial]] and [[nuclear DNA|nuclear]] analyses, showed that the impala forms a [[clade]] with the [[suni]] (''Neotragus moschatus''). This clade is sister to another formed by the [[bay duiker]] (''Cephalophus dorsalis'') and the [[klipspringer]] (''Oreotragus oreotragus'').<ref name="Hassanin">{{cite journal |last1 = Hassanin |first1 = A. |last2 = Douzery |first2 = E.J.P. |title = Evolutionary affinities of the enigmatic saola (''Pseudoryx nghetinhensis'') in the context of the molecular phylogeny of Bovidae |journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]] |date = 1999 |volume = 266 |issue = 1422 |pages = 893–900 |doi = 10.1098/rspb.1999.0720 |pmid = 10380679 |pmc = 1689916 }} {{open access}}</ref> An [[rRNA]] and [[spectrin|β-spectrin]] nuclear sequence analysis in 2003 also supported an association between ''Aepyceros'' and ''[[Neotragus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Kuznetsova |first1 = M.V. |last2 = Kholodova |first2 = M.V. |title = Revision of phylogenetic relationships in the Antilopinae subfamily on the basis of the mitochondrial rRNA and β-spectrin nuclear gene sequences |journal = Doklady Biological Sciences |year = 2003 |volume = 391 |issue = 1–6 |pages = 333–6 |doi = 10.1023/A:1025102617714 |pmid = 14556525 |s2cid = 30920084 |issn = 1608-3105 }}</ref> The following cladogram is based on the 1999 study:<ref name="Hassanin" />

{{clade | style=font-size:90%;line-height:100%;
|1={{clade
  |1={{clade
  |1={{clade
  |1={{clade
  |1=[[Sheep]] (''Ovis aries'')
  |2={{clade
  |1=[[Bontebok]] (''Damaliscus pygargus'')
  |2=[[Sable antelope]] (''Hippotragus niger'')
                 }}
             }}
  |2={{clade
  |1={{clade
  |1={{clade
  |1=[[Klipspringer]] (''Oreotragus oreotragus'')
  |2=[[Bay duiker]] (''Cephalophus dorsalis'')
                    }}
  |2={{clade
  |1='''Impala''' ('''''Aepyceros melampus''''')
  |2=[[Suni]] (''Neotragus moschatus'')
                    }}
                }}
             }}
          }}
  |2={{clade
  |1=[[Grant's gazelle]] (''Nanger granti'')
  |2=[[Mountain reedbuck]] (''Redunca fulvorufula'')
          }}
        }}
      }}
   }}

Up to six [[subspecies]] have been described, although only two are generally recognised on the basis of mitochondrial data.<ref name="Nersting">{{cite journal |first1 = L.G. |last1 = Nersting |first2 = P. |last2 = Arctander |title = Phylogeography and conservation of impala and greater kudu |journal = Molecular Ecology |volume = 10 |issue = 3 |pages = 711–9 |year = 2001 |doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01205.x |pmid = 11298982 |bibcode = 2001MolEc..10..711N |s2cid = 23102044 }}</ref> Though morphologically similar,<ref name=kingdon /> the subspecies show a significant [[genetic distance]] between them, and no [[hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] between them have been reported.<ref name=kingdon /><ref name="Lorenzen">{{cite journal |last1 = Lorenzen |first1 = E.D. |last2 = Arctander |first2 = P. |last3 = Siegismund |first3 = H.R. |title = Regional genetic structuring and evolutionary history of the impala (''Aepyceros melampus'') |journal = [[Journal of Heredity]] |date = 2006 |volume = 97 |issue = 2 |pages = 119–32 |doi = 10.1093/jhered/esj012 |pmid = 16407525 |doi-access = free }} {{open access}}</ref>
* ''A. m. melampus'' <small>Lichtenstein, 1812</small>: Known as the common impala, it occurs across eastern and southern Africa. The range extends from central [[Wildlife of Kenya|Kenya]] to [[Wildlife of South Africa|South Africa]] and westward into southeastern [[Wildlife of Angola|Angola]].
* ''A. m. petersi'' <small>[[José Vicente Barbosa du Bocage|Bocage]], 1879</small>: Known as the black-faced impala, it is restricted to southwestern Africa, occurring in northwestern [[Wildlife of Namibia|Namibia]] and southwestern Angola.

According to Vrba, the impala evolved from an alcelaphine ancestor. She noted that while this ancestor has [[Genetic divergence|diverged]] at least 18 times into various morphologically different forms, the impala has continued in its basic form for at least five million years.<ref name=vrba /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Arctander|first1=P.|last2=Kat|first2=P.W.|last3=Simonsen|first3=B.T.|last4=Siegismund|first4=H.R.|editor1-last=Smith|editor1-first=T.B.|editor2-last=Wayne|editor2-first=R.K.|title=Molecular Genetic Approaches in Conservation|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-0-19-534466-0|pages=399–412|chapter=Population genetics of Kenyan impalas – consequences for conservation|chapter-url={{Google Books|id=QI8sdCHszY0C|page=399|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 666957480}}</ref> Several [[fossil]] species have been discovered, including ''[[Aepyceros datoadeni|A. datoadeni]]'' from the [[Pliocene]] of [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="Geraads2012">{{cite journal |last1 = Geraads |first1 = D. |last2 = Bobe |first2 = R. |last3 = Reed |first3 = K. |title = Pliocene Bovidae (Mammalia) from the Hadar Formation of Hadar and Ledi-Geraru, Lower Awash, Ethiopia |journal = [[Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology]] |date = 2012 |volume = 32 |issue = 1 |pages = 180–97 |doi = 10.1080/02724634.2012.632046 |bibcode = 2012JVPal..32..180G |s2cid = 86230742 }}</ref> The oldest fossil discovered suggests its ancient ancestors were slightly smaller than the modern form, but otherwise very similar in all aspects to the latter. This implies that the impala has efficiently adapted to its environment since prehistoric times. Its gregarious nature, variety in diet, positive population trend, defence against [[tick]]s and [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with the tick-feeding [[oxpecker]]s could have played a role in preventing major changes in morphology and behaviour.<ref name=vrba />

==Description==
[[File:ImpalaSerengetiNationalParkMar2011.jpg|thumbnail|upright|alt=A grooming male at Serengeti National Park|Close view of a male, with characteristic lyre-shaped horns, white tail and several black markings]]

The impala is a medium-sized, slender-bodied [[antelope]], comparable to the [[kob]], [[puku]] and [[Grant's gazelle]] in size and build.<ref name="estes">{{cite book |last = Estes |first = R.D. |author-link = Richard Despard Estes |title = The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates |year = 2004 |publisher = University of California Press |location = Berkeley, US |isbn = 978-0-520-08085-0 |pages = 158–66 |edition = 4th |url = {{Google Books|page=158|id=g977LsZHpcsC|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 19554262}}</ref> The head-and-body length is around {{convert|130|cm|in}}.<ref name="Liebenberg">{{cite book|last1 = Liebenberg |first1 = L. |title = A Field Guide to the Animal Tracks of Southern Africa |date = 1990 |publisher = D. Philip |location = Cape Town, South Africa |isbn = 978-0-86486-132-0 |pages = 275–6 |url = {{Google Books|id=3Aco4wVvpdUC|page=275|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 24702472}}</ref> Males reach approximately {{cvt|75|-|92|cm|in}} at the shoulder, while females are {{cvt|70|-|85|cm|in}} tall. Males typically weigh {{convert|53|-|76|kg|lb}} and females {{cvt|40|-|53|kg|lb}}. [[Sexual dimorphism|Sexually dimorphic]], females are hornless and smaller than males. Males grow slender, lyre-shaped horns {{cvt|45|-|92|cm|in}} long.<ref name="estes" /> The horns, strongly ridged and divergent, are circular in section and hollow at the base. Their arch-like structure allows interlocking of horns, which helps a male throw off his opponent during fights; horns also protect the skull from damage.<ref name="kingdon" /><ref name="estes" />

The glossy coat of the impala shows two-tone colouration{{snds}}the reddish brown back and the tan flanks; these are in sharp contrast to the white underbelly. Facial features include white rings around the eyes and a light chin and [[snout]]. The ears, {{cvt|17|cm|in}} long, are tipped with black.<ref name="kingdon" /><ref name=Stuart /> Black streaks run from the buttocks to the upper hindlegs. The bushy white tail, {{cvt|30|cm|in}} long, features a solid black stripe along the midline.<ref name="Stuart">{{cite book|last1 = Stuart |first1 = C. |last2 = Stuart |first2 = T. |title = Field Guide to Mammals of Southern Africa |date = 2001 |publisher = Struik Publishers |location = Cape Town, South Africa |isbn = 978-1-86872-537-3 |page = 210 |edition = 3rd |url = {{Google Books|id=sdY_sa1FPw0C|page=210|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 46643659}}</ref> The impala's colouration bears a strong resemblance to the [[gerenuk]], which has shorter horns and lacks the black thigh stripes of the impala.<ref name=kingdon /> The impala has [[scent gland]]s covered by a black tuft of hair on the hindlegs. 2-Methylbutanoic Acid and 2-Nonanone have been identified from this gland.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wood | first1 = William F. | year = 1997 | title = 2-Methylbutanoic Acid and 2-Nonanone from the Metatarsal Glands of Impala, Aepyceros melampus | journal = Biochemical Systematics and Ecology | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 275 | doi=10.1016/S0305-1978(97)00011-2| bibcode = 1997BioSE..25..275W }}</ref> [[Sebaceous gland]]s concentrated on the forehead and dispersed on the torso of dominant males<ref name="estes" /><ref name="cavendish">{{cite book |last = Armstrong |first = M. |title = Wildlife and Plants |volume = 9| year = 2007 |publisher = Marshall Cavendish |location = New York, US |isbn = 978-0-7614-7693-1 |edition = 3rd |pages = 538–9 |url = {{Google Books|id=W7TJGrHh0yIC|page=538|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 229311414}}</ref> are most active during the mating season, while those of females are only partially developed and do not undergo seasonal changes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Welsch |first1 = U. |last2 = van Dyk |first2 = G. |last3 = Moss |first3 = D. |last4 = Feuerhake |first4 = F. |title = Cutaneous glands of male and female impalas (''Aepyceros melampus''): seasonal activity changes and secretory mechanisms |journal = [[Cell and Tissue Research]] |date = 1998 |volume = 292 |issue = 2 |pages = 377–94 |doi = 10.1007/s004410051068|pmid = 9560480 |s2cid = 3127722 }}</ref> There are four [[mammary gland|nipples]].<ref name="estes" />

Of the subspecies, the black-faced impala is significantly larger and darker than the common impala; [[melanism]] is responsible for the black colouration.<ref name="Hoven">{{cite book|last1=Hoven|first1=W.|editor1-last=van der Duim|editor1-first=R.|editor2-last=Lamers|editor2-first=M.|editor3-last=van Wijk|editor3-first=J.|title=Institutional Arrangements for Conservation, Development and Tourism in Eastern and Southern Africa|date=2015|publisher=Springer|location=Dordrecht, Netherlands|isbn=978-94-017-9528-9|pages=101–18|chapter=Private game reserves in southern Africa|chapter-url={{Google Books|id=Tn5qBQAAQBAJ|page=101|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 895661132}}</ref> Distinctive of the black-faced impala is a dark stripe, on either side of the nose, that runs upward to the eyes and thins as it reaches the forehead.<ref name=Liebenberg /><ref name=Stuart /> Other differences include the larger black tip on the ear, and a bushier and nearly 30% longer tail in the black-faced impala.<ref name="kingdon">{{cite book |last1 = Kingdon |first1 = J. |author1-link = Jonathan Kingdon |last2 = Happold |first2 = D. |last3 = Butynski |first3 = T. |last4 = Happold |first4 = M. |last5 = Hoffmann |first5 = M. |last6 = Kalina |first6 = J. |title = Mammals of Africa |year = 2013 |publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |location = London, UK |isbn = 978-1-4081-8996-2 |pages = 479–84 |url={{Google Books|id=B_07noCPc4kC|page=RA4-PA479|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 854973585}}</ref>

The impala has a special dental arrangement on the front lower jaw similar to the [[toothcomb]] seen in [[Strepsirrhini|strepsirrhine primates]],<ref name="mckenzie">{{cite journal |last = McKenzie |first = A.A. |title = The ruminant dental grooming apparatus |journal = [[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]] |date = 1990 |volume = 99 |issue = 2 |pages = 117–28 |doi = 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1990.tb00564.x }}</ref> which is used during [[allogrooming]] to comb the fur on the head and the neck and remove [[ectoparasite]]s.<ref name="kingdon" /><ref name="Mills">{{cite book |last1 = Mills |first1 = G. |last2 = Hes |first2 = L. |title = The Complete Book of Southern African Mammals |date = 1997 |publisher = Struik Publishers |location = Cape Town, South Africa |isbn = 978-0-947430-55-9 |page = 271 |edition = 1st |url = {{Google Books|id=CavgCweI1nMC|page=271|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 37480533}}</ref>

==Ecology and behaviour==
[[File:Impala AdeFrias.jpg|thumbnail|alt=An impala mid-air during a leap|Impala can leap up to {{cvt|3|m|ft}}]]

The impala is [[Diurnality|diurnal]] (active mainly during the day), though activity tends to cease during the hot midday hours; they feed and rest at night.<ref name=estes /> Three distinct social groups can be observed{{snds}}the [[Territory (animal)|territorial]] males, bachelor herds and female herds.<ref name=schenkel>{{cite journal |last = Schenkel |first = R. |title = On sociology and behaviour in impala (''Aepyceros melampus'') Lichtenstein |journal = [[African Journal of Ecology]] |year = 1966 |volume = 4 |issue = 1 |pages = 99–114 |doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1966.tb00887.x |bibcode = 1966AfJEc...4...99S }}</ref> The territorial males hold territories where they may form [[Harem (zoology)|harems]] of females; territories are demarcated with urine and faeces and defended against juvenile or male intruders.<ref name=estes /> Bachelor herds tend to be small, with less than 30 members. Individuals maintain distances of {{cvt|2.5|-|3|m|ft}} from one another; while young and old males may interact, middle-aged males generally avoid one another except to spar. Female herds vary in size from 6 to 100; herds occupy [[home range]]s of {{cvt|80|-|180|ha|acre sqmi}}. The mother–calf bond is weak, and breaks soon after weaning; juveniles leave the herds of their mothers to join other herds. Female herds tend to be loose and have no obvious leadership.<ref name=estes /><ref name=murray>{{cite journal|last = Murray |first = M.G. |title = Structure of association in impala, ''Aepyceros melampus'' |journal = [[Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology]] |date = 1981 |volume = 9 |issue = 1 |pages = 23–33 |doi = 10.1007/BF00299849|bibcode = 1981BEcoS...9...23M |s2cid = 24117010 }}</ref> Allogrooming is an important means of social interaction in bachelor and female herds; in fact, the impala appears to be the only [[ungulate]] to display self-grooming as well as allogrooming. In allogrooming, females typically groom related impalas, while males associate with unrelated ones. Each partner grooms the other six to twelve times.<ref name="hart">{{cite journal |last1 = Hart |first1 = B.L. |last2 = Hart |first2 = L.A. |title = Reciprocal allogrooming in impala, ''Aepyceros melampus'' |journal = [[Animal Behaviour (journal)|Animal Behaviour]] |year = 1992 |volume = 44 |issue = 6 |pages = 1073–1083 |doi = 10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80319-7 |s2cid = 53165208 }}</ref>
[[File:Impala-stotting.jpg|thumb|left|An impala [[stotting]]]]
Social behaviour is influenced by the climate and geography; as such, the impala are territorial at certain times of the year and gregarious at other times, and the length of these periods can vary broadly among populations. For instance, populations in southern Africa display territorial behaviour only during the few months of the [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]], whereas in eastern African populations, territoriality is relatively minimal despite a protracted mating season. Moreover, territorial males often tolerate bachelors, and may even alternate between bachelorhood and territoriality at different times of the year. A study of impala in the [[Serengeti National Park]] showed that in 94% of the males, territoriality was observed for less than four months.<ref name=estes />

The impala is an important prey species for Africa's large [[carnivore]]s, such as [[cheetah]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[African wild dog|wild dogs]], [[lion]]s, [[Spotted hyena|hyenas]], [[nile crocodile|crocodiles]] and [[Southern African rock python|pythons]]. The antelope displays two characteristic leaps{{snds}}it can jump up to {{cvt|3|m|ft}}, over vegetation and even other impala, covering distances of up to {{cvt|10|m|ft}}; the other type of leap involves a series of jumps in which the animal lands on its forelegs, moves its hindlegs mid-air in a kicking fashion, lands on all fours ([[stotting]]) and then rebounds. It leaps in either manner in different directions, probably to confuse [[predator]]s.<ref name=kingdon /><ref>{{cite web|url = http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/impala/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100207175127/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/impala/ |url-status = dead |archive-date = 7 February 2010 |title = Impala: ''Aepyceros melampus'' |date = 11 April 2010 |publisher = [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] |access-date = 6 May 2014}}</ref> At times, the impala may also conceal itself in vegetation to escape the eye of the predator.<ref name=Nowak>{{cite book |last = Nowak |first = R.M. |title = Walker's Mammals of the World |volume= 2 |year = 1999 |publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press |location = Baltimore, USA |isbn = 978-0-8018-5789-8 |pages = 1194–6 |edition = 6th |oclc = 39045218}}</ref> The most prominent vocalisation is the loud [[roar]], delivered through one to three loud snorts with the mouth closed, followed by two to ten deep grunts with the mouth open and the chin and tail raised; a typical roar can be heard up to {{cvt|2|km|mi}} away.<ref name=estes /> Scent gland secretions identify a territorial male.<ref name="Kingdon1989">{{cite book|last1 = Kingdon |first1 = J. |author-link = Jonathan Kingdon |title = East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa |volume = 3 |date = 1989 |publisher = Academic Press |location = London, UK |isbn = 978-0-226-43725-5 |pages = 462–74 |url = {{Google Books|id=JiHqC9ROZTQC|page=462|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 48864096}}</ref> Impalas are sedentary; adult and middle-aged males, in particular, can hold their territories for years.<ref name="estes" />

===Parasites===
[[File:Red-billed oxpecker (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) on impala (Aepyceros melampus).jpg|thumb|Impala have a symbiotic relationship with [[oxpecker]]s]]

Common [[Ixodidae|ixodid]] ticks collected from impala include ''[[Amblyomma hebraeum]]'', ''[[Boophilus decoloratus]]'', ''[[Hyalomma marginatum]]'', ''[[Ixodes cavipalpus]]'', ''[[Rhipicephalus appendiculatus]]'' and ''[[Rhipicephalus evertsi|R. evertsi]]''.<ref name=Mooring1995>{{cite journal |last1 = Mooring |first1 = M.S. |title = The effect of tick challenge on grooming rate by impala |journal = Animal Behaviour |date = 1995 |volume = 50 |issue = 2 |pages = 377–92 |doi = 10.1006/anbe.1995.0253 |s2cid = 53185353 |url = http://www.pointloma.edu/sites/default/files/filemanager/Biology/Faculty/Mooring/Publications/1995-Tick_challenge_impala_grooming_Anim_Behav.pdf |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161012005200/http://www.pointloma.edu/sites/default/files/filemanager/Biology/Faculty/Mooring/Publications/1995-Tick_challenge_impala_grooming_Anim_Behav.pdf |archive-date = 12 October 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Gallivan |first1 = G.J. |last2 = Culverwell |first2 = J. |last3 = Girdwood |first3 = R. |last4 = Surgeoner |first4 = G.A. |title = Ixodid ticks of impala (''Aepyceros melampus'') in Swaziland: effect of age class, sex, body condition and management |journal = South African Journal of Zoology |date = 1995 |volume = 30 |issue = 4 |pages = 178–86 |doi = 10.1080/02541858.1995.11448385 |doi-access = free }} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Horak |first1 = I.G. |title = Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XV. The seasonal prevalence of ectoparasites on impala and cattle in the Northern Transvaal |journal = The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research |date = 1982 |volume = 49 |issue = 2 |pages = 85–93 |pmid = 7177586 }}</ref> In [[Wildlife of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]], heavy infestation by ticks such as ''R. appendiculatus'' has proved to be a major cause behind the high mortality of ungulates, as they can lead to [[tick paralysis]]. Impala have special adaptations for grooming, such as their characteristic dental arrangement, to manage ticks before they engorge; however, the extensive grooming needed to keep the tick load under control involves the risk of dehydration during summer, lower vigilance against predators and gradual wearing out of the teeth. A study showed that impala adjust the time devoted to grooming and the number of grooming bouts according to the seasonal prevalence of ticks.<ref name=Mooring1995 />

Impala are symbiotically related to [[oxpecker]]s,<ref>Mikula P, Hadrava J, Albrecht T, Tryjanowski P. (2018) Large-scale assessment of commensalistic–mutualistic associations between African birds and herbivorous mammals using internet photos. PeerJ 6:e4520 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4520</ref> which feed on ticks from those parts of the antelope's body which the animal cannot access by itself (such as the ears, neck, eyelids, forehead and underbelly). The impala is the smallest ungulate with which oxpeckers are associated. In a study it was observed that oxpeckers selectively attended to impala despite the presence of other animals such as [[Coke's hartebeest]], Grant's gazelle, [[Thomson's gazelle]] and [[topi]]. A possible explanation for this could be that because the impala inhabits woodlands (which can have a high density of ticks), the impala could have greater mass of ticks per unit area of the body surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Hart |first1 = B.L. |last2 = Hart |first2 = L.A. |last3 = Mooring |first3 = M.S. |title = Differential foraging of oxpeckers on impala in comparison with sympatric antelope species |journal = African Journal of Ecology |date = 1990 |volume = 28 |issue = 3 |pages = 240–9 |doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1990.tb01157.x |bibcode = 1990AfJEc..28..240H |url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229520029 }} {{open access}}</ref> Another study showed that the oxpeckers prefer the ears over other parts of the body, probably because these parts show maximum tick infestation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Mooring |first1 = M.S. |last2 = Mundy |first2 = P.J. |title = Interactions between impala and oxpeckers at Matobo National Park, Zimbabwe |journal = African Journal of Ecology |date = 1996 |volume = 34 |issue = 1 |pages = 54–65 |doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1996.tb00594.x |bibcode = 1996AfJEc..34...54M |url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227814876 }} {{open access}}</ref> The bird has also been observed to perch on the [[udders]] of a female and pilfer its [[milk]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hussain Kanchwala |title=How Did We Start Drinking Milk Of The Ruminants? Are We The Only Species To Drink Milk Of Other Species? |journal=ScienceABC |date=2022 |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/species-drink-milk-another-species.html}}</ref>

[[Louse|Lice]] recorded from impala include ''[[Damalinia aepycerus]]'', ''[[Damalinia elongata|D. elongata]]'', ''[[Linognathus aepycerus]]'' and ''[[Linognathus nevilli|L. nevilli]]''; in a study, [[ivermectin]] (a medication against parasites) was found to have an effect on ''Boophilus decoloratus'' and ''Linognathus'' species, though not on ''Damalinia'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Horak |first1 = I.G. |last2 = Boomker |first2 = J. |last3 = Kingsley |first3 = S.A. |last4 = De Vos |first4 = V. |title = The efficacy of ivermectin against helminth and arthropod parasites of impala |journal = Journal of the South African Veterinary Association |date = 1983 |volume = 54 |issue = 4 |pages = 251–3 |pmid = 6689430 }}</ref> In a study of impala in South Africa, the number of [[worm]]s in juveniles showed an increase with age, reaching a peak when impala turned a year old. This study recorded worms of genera such as ''[[Cooperia (nematode)|Cooperia]]'', ''[[Cooperoides]]'', ''[[Fasciola]]'', ''[[Gongylonema]]''. ''[[Haemonchus]]'', ''[[Impalaia]]'', ''[[Longistrongylus]]'' and ''[[Trichostrongylus]]''; some of these showed seasonal variations in density.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Horak |first1 = I.G. |title = Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. X. Helminths in impala |journal = The Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research |date = 1978 |volume = 45 |issue = 4 |pages = 221–8 |pmid = 572950 }}</ref>

Impala show high frequency of [[defensive behaviour]]s towards flying insects.<ref name="Auty-et-al-2016">{{cite journal | last1=Auty | first1=Harriet | last2=Morrison | first2=Liam J. | last3=Torr | first3=Stephen J. | last4=Lord | first4=Jennifer | title=Transmission Dynamics of Rhodesian Sleeping Sickness at the Interface of Wildlife and Livestock Areas | journal=[[Trends in Parasitology]] | publisher=[[Cell Press]] | volume=32 | issue=8 | year=2016 | issn=1471-4922 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2016.05.003 | pages=608–621| pmid=27262917 | url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/215396/1/215396.pdf }}</ref> This is probably the reason for Vale 1977 and Clausen et al 1998 only finding [[trace levels]] of feeding by ''Glossina'' ([[tsetse fly]]) upon impala.<ref name="Auty-et-al-2016" />

''[[Theileria]]'' of impala in [[Kenya]] are not [[cross infection|cross infectious]] to [[cattle]]: Grootenhuis et al 1975 were not able to induce cattle infection and Fawcett et al 1987 did not find it naturally occurring.<ref name="Grootenhuis-Olubayo-1993">{{cite journal | last1=Grootenhuis | first1=J.G. | last2=Olubayo | first2=R.O. | title=Disease research in the wildlife-livestock interface in Kenya | journal=[[Veterinary Quarterly]] | publisher=[[Royal Netherlands Veterinary Association]]+[[Flemish Veterinary Association]] ([[Taylor & Francis|T&F]]) | volume=15 | issue=2 | year=1993 | issn=0165-2176 | doi=10.1080/01652176.1993.9694372 | pages=55–59| pmid=8372423 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Diet===
[[File:Aepyceros melampus (Masai Mara, Kenya).jpg|thumbnail|alt= |A herd grazing in [[Maasai Mara]]]]

Impala [[browsing (herbivory)|browse]] as well as graze; either may predominate, depending upon the availability of resources.<ref name="Skinner">{{cite book |last1 = Skinner |first1 = J.D. |last2 = Chimimba |first2 = C.T. |title = The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion |date = 2005 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |location = Cambridge, UK |isbn = 978-0-521-84418-5 |pages = 703–8 |edition = 3rd |oclc = 62703884}}</ref> The diet comprises [[monocot]]s, [[dicot]]s, [[forb]]s, fruits and ''[[Acacieae|acacia]]'' pods (whenever available). Impala prefer places close to water sources, and resort to [[succulent plant|succulent vegetation]] if water is scarce.<ref name=estes /> An analysis showed that the diet of impala is composed of 45% monocots, 45% dicots and 10% fruits; the proportion of grasses in the diet increases significantly (to as high as 90%) after the first rains, but declines in the [[dry season]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Meissner |first1 = H.H. |last2 = Pieterse |first2 = E. |last3 = Potgieter |first3 = J.H.J. |title = Seasonal food selection and intake by male impala ''Aepyceros melampus'' in two habitats |journal = South African Journal of Wildlife Research |year = 1996 |volume = 26 |issue = 2 |pages = 56–63 |issn = 0379-4369 }}</ref> Browsing predominates in the late wet and dry season, and diets are nutritionally poor in the mid-dry season, when impala feed mostly on woody dicots.<ref name="kingdon" /><ref>{{cite journal |last = Dunham |first = K. M. |title = The diet of impala (''Aepyceros melampus'') in the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Rhodesia |journal = [[Journal of Zoology]] |date = 2009 |volume = 192 |issue = 1 |pages = 41–57 |doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb04218.x }}</ref> Another study showed that the dicot proportion in the diet is much higher in bachelors and females than in territorial males.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = van Rooyen |first1 = A.F. |last2 = Skinner |first2 = J.D. |title = Dietary differences between the sexes in impala |journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa |date = 1989 |volume = 47 |issue = 2 |pages = 181–5 |doi = 10.1080/00359198909520161 }}</ref>

Impala feed on soft and nutritious grasses such as ''[[Digitaria macroblephara]]''; tough, tall grasses, such as ''[[Heteropogon contortus]]'' and ''[[Themeda triandra]]'', are typically avoided.<ref name=Sinclair /> Impala on the periphery of the herds are generally more vigilant against predators than those feeding in the centre; a foraging individual will try to defend the patch it is feeding on by lowering its head.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Blanchard |first1 = P. |last2 = Sabatier |first2 = R. |last3 = Fritz |first3 = H. |title = Within-group spatial position and vigilance: a role also for competition? The case of impalas (''Aepyceros melampus'') with a controlled food supply |journal = Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |date = 2008 |volume = 62 |issue = 12 |pages = 1863–8 |doi = 10.1007/s00265-008-0615-3 |bibcode = 2008BEcoS..62.1863B |s2cid = 11796268 }}</ref> A study revealed that time spent in foraging reaches a maximum of 75.5% of the day in the late dry season, decreases through the rainy season, and is minimal in the early dry season (57.8%).<ref>{{cite journal |last = Wronski |first = T. |title = Feeding ecology and foraging behaviour of impala ''Aepyceros melampus'' in Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda |journal = [[African Journal of Ecology]] |date = September 2002 |volume = 40 |issue = 3 |pages = 205–11 |doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2028.2002.00348.x |bibcode = 2002AfJEc..40..205W }}</ref>

===Reproduction===
[[File:Fighting impalas brighten.jpg|thumbnail|alt=Males lock horns in a mating fight|Two males fighting for [[dominance (ethology)|dominance]]]]
Males are [[sexual maturity|sexually mature]] by the time they are a year old, though successful mating generally occurs only after four years. Mature males start establishing territories and try to gain access to females. Females can conceive after they are a year and a half old; [[oestrus]] lasts for 24 to 48 hours, and occurs every 12–29 days in non-pregnant females.<ref name="Nowak" /> The annual three-week-long rut (breeding season) begins toward the end of the [[wet season]], typically in May. [[Gonad]]al growth and [[hormone]] production in males begin a few months before the breeding season, resulting in greater aggressiveness and territoriality.<ref name="estes" /> The [[bulbourethral gland]]s are heavier, [[testosterone]] levels are nearly twice as high in territorial males as in bachelors,<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Bramley |first1 = P.S. |last2 = Neaves |first2 = W.B. |title = The relationship between social status and reproductive activity in male impala, ''Aepyceros melampus'' |journal = [[Reproduction (journal)|Journal of Reproduction and Fertility]] |year = 1972 |volume = 31 |issue = 1 |pages = 77–81 |pmid = 5078117 |doi = 10.1530/jrf.0.0310077|url=http://www.reproduction-online.org/content/31/1/77.full.pdf|doi-access = free }}</ref> and the neck of a territorial male tends to be thicker than that of a bachelor during the rut. Mating tends to take place between full moons.<ref name="estes" />
[[File:Impala (Aepyceros melampus) (W1CDR0000514 BD37).ogg|right|thumb|Sounds of rutting male]]
[[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|Rutting]] males fight over dominance, often giving out noisy roars and chasing one another; they walk stiffly and [[Display (zoology)|display]] their neck and horns. Males desist from feeding and allogrooming during the rut, probably to devote more time to garnering females in oestrus;<ref name=hart2/> the male checks the female's urine to ensure that she is in oestrus.<ref>Hart, Lynette A., and Benjamin L. Hart. "[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Benjamin_Hart4/publication/232525532_Species-specific_patterns_of_urine_investigation_and_flehmen_in_Grant%27s_gazelle_Gazella_granti_Thomson%27s_gazelle_G_thomsoni_impala_Aepyceros_melampus_and_eland_Taurotragus_oryx/links/554522870cf24107d397b00d.pdf Species-specific patterns of urine investigation and flehmen in Grant's gazelle (Gazella granti), Thomson's gazelle (G. thomsoni), impala (Aepyceros melampus), and eland (Taurotragus oryx)]." Journal of Comparative Psychology 101.4 (1987): 299.</ref><ref name=hart2>{{cite journal |last = Mooring |first = M. S. |author2 = Hart, B. L. |title = Differential grooming rate and tick load of territorial male and female impala |journal = [[Behavioral Ecology (journal)|Behavioral Ecology]] |year = 1995 |volume = 6 |issue = 1 |pages = 94–101 |doi = 10.1093/beheco/6.1.94 }}</ref> On coming across such a female, the excited male begins the [[Courtship display|courtship]] by pursuing her, keeping a distance of {{convert|3|-|5|m|ft}} from her. The male flicks his tongue and may nod vigorously; the female allows him to lick her vulva, and holds her tail to one side. The male tries mounting the female, holding his head high and clasping her sides with his forelegs. Mounting attempts may be repeated every few seconds to every minute or two. The male loses interest in the female after the first copulation, though she is still active and can mate with other males.<ref name="estes" /><ref name="schenkel" />

Gestation lasts six to seven months. Births generally occur in the midday; the female will isolate herself from the herd when labour pain begins.<ref name=jarman>{{cite book |last = Jarman |first = M.V. |title = Impala Social Behaviour: Territory, Hierarchy, Mating, and the Use of Space |year = 1979 |publisher = Parey |location = Berlin, Germany |isbn = 978-3-489-60936-0 |pages = 1–92 |oclc = 5638565}}</ref> The perception that females can delay giving birth for an additional month if conditions are harsh may however not be realistic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.londolozi.com/2016/11/can-impala-really-delay-their-births|first=Shaun|last=D'Araujo|title=Can Impala Really Delay Their Births?|website=Londolozi Blog|date=20 November 2016}}</ref> A single calf is born, and is immediately concealed in cover for the first few weeks of its birth. The fawn then joins a nursery group within its mother's herd. Calves are suckled for four to six months; young males, forced out of the group, join bachelor herds, while females may stay back.<ref name="estes" />

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Aepyceros melampus Impala in Tanzania 3490 Nevit.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A herd in Tanzania|Impala inhabit woodlands]]
The impala inhabits woodlands due to its preference for shade; it can also be found on the interface (ecotone) between woodlands and savannahs. Places near water sources are preferred. In southern Africa, populations tend to be associated with ''[[Colophospermum mopane]]'' and ''Acacia'' woodlands.<ref name=estes /><ref name=Skinner /> Habitat choices differ seasonally{{snds}}''[[Acacia senegal]]'' woodlands are preferred in the wet season, and ''[[Acacia drepanolobium|A. drepanolobium]]'' savannahs in the dry season. Another factor that could influence habitat choice is vulnerability to predators; impala tend to keep away from areas with tall grasses as predators could be concealed there.<ref name=Sinclair>{{cite book |last1 = Jarman |first1 = P.J. |last2 = Sinclair |first2 = A.R.E. |editor1-last = Sinclair |editor1-first = A.R.E. |title = Serengeti, Dynamics of an Ecosystem |chapter = Feeding strategy and the pattern of resource partitioning in ungulates |year = 1984 |publisher = University of Chicago Press |location = Chicago, US |isbn = 978-0-226-76029-2 |pages = 130–63 |editor2-last = Norton-Griffths |editor2-first = M. |chapter-url = {{Google Books|id=ffLvZbZYpr0C|page=130|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 29118101}}</ref> A study found that the reduction of woodland cover and creation of shrublands by the [[African bush elephant]]s has favoured impala population by increasing the availability of more dry season browse. Earlier, the ''[[Baikiaea]]'' woodland, which has now declined due to elephants, provided minimum browsing for impala. The newly formed ''[[Capparis]]'' shrubland, on the other hand, could be a key browsing habitat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Rutina |first1 = L.P. |last2 = Moe |first2 = S.R. |last3 = Swenson |first3 = J.E. |title = Elephant ''Loxodonta africana'' driven woodland conversion to shrubland improves dry-season browse availability for impalas ''Aepyceros melampus'' |journal = Wildlife Biology |volume = 11 |issue = 3 |pages = 207–13 |doi = 10.2981/0909-6396(2005)11[207:ELADWC]2.0.CO;2 |year = 2005 |s2cid = 84372708 |doi-access = free }}</ref> Impala are generally not associated with [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|montane]] habitats;<ref name=kingdon /> however, in [[KwaZulu-Natal]], impala have been recorded at altitudes of up to {{convert|1,400|m|ft}} [[above sea level]].<ref name=Skinner />

The historical range of the impala – spanning across southern and eastern Africa – has remained intact to a great extent, although it has disappeared from a few places, such as [[Wildlife of Burundi|Burundi]]. The range extends from central and southern Kenya and northeastern [[Wildlife of Uganda|Uganda]] in the east to northern KwaZulu-Natal in the south, and westward up to Namibia and southern Angola. The black-faced impala is confined to southwestern Angola and [[Kaokoland]] in northwestern Namibia; the status of this subspecies has not been monitored since the 2000s. The common impala has a wider distribution, and has been introduced in protected areas in [[Wildlife of Gabon|Gabon]] and across southern Africa.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />

==Threats and conservation==
[[File:SA05279-Impale.jpg|thumb|Impalas of [[Kruger National Park]], RSA]]
[[file:Impala Tracks.jpg|thumb|right|Impala tracks]]
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]] (IUCN) classifies the impala as a [[species of least concern]] overall.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> The black-faced impala, however, is classified as a [[vulnerable species]]; as of 2008, fewer than 1,000 were estimated in the wild.<ref name=iucn2>{{cite iucn |author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group |date=2017 |title=''Aepyceros melampus'' ssp. ''petersi'' |volume=2017 |page=e.T549A50180804 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T549A50180804.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> Though there are no major threats to the survival of the common impala, poaching and natural calamities have significantly contributed to the decline of the black-faced impala. As of 2008, the population of the common impala has been estimated at around two million.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> According to some studies, [[Species translocation|translocation]] of the black-faced impala can be highly beneficial in its conservation.<ref name=green>{{cite journal |last1 = Green |first1 = W.C.H. |last2 = Rothstein |first2 = A. |title = Translocation, hybridisation, and the endangered black-faced impala |journal = [[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |year = 2008 |volume = 12 |issue = 2 |pages = 475–80 |doi = 10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.96424.x |s2cid = 85717262 }}</ref><ref name=matson>{{cite journal |last1 = Matson |first1 = T. |last2 = Goldizen |first2 = A.W. |last3 = Jarman |first3 = P.J. |title = Factors affecting the success of translocations of the black-faced impala in Namibia |journal = [[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]] |date = 2004 |volume = 116 |issue = 3 |pages = 359–65 |doi = 10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00229-5 |bibcode = 2004BCons.116..359M }}</ref>

Around a quarter of the common impala populations occur in protected areas, such as the [[Okavango Delta]] ([[Wildlife of Botswana|Botswana]]); [[Masai Mara]] and [[Kajiado]] (Kenya); [[Kruger National Park]] (South Africa); the [[Ruaha National Park|Ruaha]] and [[Serengeti National Park]]s and [[Selous Game Reserve]] ([[Wildlife of Tanzania|Tanzania]]); [[Luangwa Valley]] ([[Wildlife of Zambia|Zambia]]); [[Hwange National Park|Hwange]], [[Sebungwe]] and [[Zambezi Valley]] ([[Wildlife of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]). The rare black-faced impala has been introduced into private farms in Namibia and the [[Etosha National Park]]. Population densities vary largely from place to place; from less than one impala per square kilometre in [[Mkomazi National Park]] (Tanzania) to as high as 135 per square kilometre near [[Lake Kariba]] (Zimbabwe).<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /><ref name="East">{{cite book |last1 = East |first1 = R. |title = African Antelope Database 1998 |date = 1999 |publisher = IUCN Species Survival Commission |location = Gland, Switzerland |isbn = 978-2-8317-0477-7 |pages = 238–41 |url = {{Google Books|id=59Ci3C8BCmEC|page=238|plainurl=yes}} |oclc = 44634423}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Palla}}
{{commons category|Aepyceros melampus}}
{{Wikispecies|Aepyceros melampus}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/impala Impala: Summary from the African Wildlife Foundation]
* [https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=625076 ITIS Standard Report Page]

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[[Category:Antelopes of Sub-Saharan Africa]]
[[Category:Fauna of East Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of Southern Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1812]]