Editing Indirect election

{{short description|Type of election}}
{{Elections}}{{More citations needed|date=June 2022}}
An '''indirect election''' or ''hierarchical voting,''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/2110.02298.pdf |title=Tradeoffs is a voting systems, Lucas Böttcher, Georgia Kernell }}</ref> is an [[election]] in which voters do not choose directly among [[candidate]]s or parties for an office ([[Voting system|direct voting system]]), but elect people who in turn choose candidates or parties. It is one of the oldest forms of elections and is used by many countries for [[heads of state]] (such as [[president (government title)|president]]s), [[cabinet (government)|cabinets]], [[heads of government]] (such as [[prime minister]]s), and/or [[upper house]]s. It is also used for some [[supranational legislature]]s.

Positions that are indirectly elected may be chosen by a permanent body (such as a [[parliament]]) or by a special body convened solely for that purpose (such as an [[electoral college]]).

In nearly all cases the body that controls the federal [[executive government|executive branch]] (such as a [[cabinet (politics)|cabinet]]) is elected indirectly.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} This includes the cabinets of most [[parliamentary system]]s; members of the public elect the parliamentarians, who then elect the cabinet. Upper houses, especially in federal republics, are often indirectly elected, either by the corresponding [[lower house]] or cabinet. An election can be partially indirect, for example in the case of [[indirect single transferable voting]], where only eliminated candidates select other candidates to transfer their vote share to. Similarly, supranational legislatures can be indirectly elected by constituent countries' legislatures or [[Executive (government)|executive governments]].

== Heads of state ==
A head of state is the official leader and representative of a country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Head of state |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/head-of-state |access-date=April 11, 2023 |website=Cambridge Dictionary}}</ref> The head of state position can vary from ceremonial [[figurehead]] with limited power to powerful leader depending on the government structure and historical legacy of the country.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Strohmeier |first1=Gerd |last2=Wittlinger |first2=Ruth |date=2010-03-01 |title=Parliamentary Heads of State: Players or Figureheads? The Case of Horst Köhler |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01402380903538856 |journal=West European Politics |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=237–257 |doi=10.1080/01402380903538856 |s2cid=154522953 |issn=0140-2382|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For instance, in some cases heads of state inherit the position through a [[monarchy]] whereas others are indirectly or directly elected such as presidents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prindle |first=David F. |date=1991 |title=Head of State and Head of Government in Comparative Perspective |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27550663 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=55–71 |jstor=27550663 |issn=0360-4918}}</ref> Several examples are included below.

=== United States ===
The [[President of the United States]] is elected indirectly. In a [[United States presidential election|US presidential election]], eligible members of the public vote for the [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|electors]] of an [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]], who have previously pledged publicly to support a particular presidential candidate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=Robert |date=2016 |title=Federalism and the Electoral College: The Development of the General Ticket Method for Selecting Presidential Electors |url=https://academic.oup.com/publius/article-abstract/46/2/147/2494081 |journal=Publius: The Journal of Federalism |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=147–169|doi=10.1093/publius/pjv043 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> When the Electoral College sits, soon after the election, it formally elects the candidate that has won a majority of the members of the Electoral College. Members of the federal cabinet, including the vice president, are in practice nominated by the president, and are thus elected indirectly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Uscinski |first=Joseph |date=January 2012 |title=Smith (and Jones) Go to Washington: Democracy and Vice-Presidential Selection |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ps-political-science-and-politics/article/abs/smith-and-jones-go-to-washington-democracy-and-vicepresidential-selection/197A1E7EB858D9F70F2B56E469FC40D9 |journal=PS: Political Science & Politics |language=en |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=58–66 |doi=10.1017/S1049096511001715 |s2cid=155697464 |issn=1537-5935|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Electoral College is a controversial issue in U.S. politics, especially following presidential elections when voting is polarized geographically in such a way that the electoral college [[List of United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote|elects a candidate who did not win an absolute majority of the popular vote]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Waller |first=Allyson |date=2021-01-05 |title=The Electoral College Explained |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/the-electoral-college.html |access-date=2023-04-10 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The [[National Popular Vote Interstate Compact]], if enacted, would effectively replace the indirect election via the Electoral College with a ''de facto'' [[Plurality voting|plurality]]-based direct election.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The National Popular Vote, Explained |url=https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/national-popular-vote-explained |access-date=2023-04-11 |website=www.brennancenter.org |date=21 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

=== China ===
The [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] specifies a system of indirect democracy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=中国人大网 |url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/ |access-date=2023-04-11 |website=www.npc.gov.cn}}</ref> The [[National People's Congress]] elects the [[President of the People's Republic of China|president]], also known as the state chairman, who serves as [[List of state representatives of the People's Republic of China|state representative]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Path to 'True' Indirect Democracy in China |url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/a-path-to-true-indirect-democracy-in-china/ |access-date=2023-04-11 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref> The power of the presidency is largely ceremonial and has no real power in China's [[Politics of China|political system]], the vast majority of power stems from the president's position as [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] and [[Supreme command of the armed forces in the People's Republic of China|commander-in-chief]] of the [[Central Military Commission (China)|military]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ruwitch |first=John |date=March 10, 2023 |title=China's Xi Jinping, as expected, gets 5 more years as state president |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/03/10/1162128750/chinas-xi-jinping-5-more-years-as-president |access-date=April 11, 2023 |website=NPR.org}}</ref>

=== European Union ===
The president of the [[European Commission]] is nominated by the [[European Council]] and confirmed or denied by the directly elected [[European Parliament]] (see [[Elections to the European Parliament#Commission President|Elections to the European Parliament]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Elections and appointments - institutions {{!}} European Union |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/leadership/elections-and-appointments_en |access-date=2023-04-11 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>

=== Parliamentary systems ===
Republics with [[parliamentary system]]s usually elect their [[head of state]] indirectly (e.g. [[President of Germany|Germany]], [[President of Italy|Italy]], [[President of Estonia|Estonia]], [[President of Latvia|Latvia]], [[President of Malta|Malta]], [[President of Hungary|Hungary]], [[President of India|India]], [[President of Israel|Israel]], [[President of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sargentich |first=Thomas O. |date=1993 |title=The Presidential and Parliamentary Models of National Government |url=https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/auilr/vol8/iss2/19/ |journal=American University International Law Review |volume=8 |issue=2/3 |pages=579–592}}</ref> Several parliamentary republics, such as [[President of Ireland|Ireland]], [[President of Austria|Austria]], [[President of Croatia|Croatia]], [[President of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] and the [[President of Czechia|Czech Republic]], operate using a semi-presidential system with a directly elected president distinct from the prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-04 |title=Parliamentary System |url=https://www.annenbergclassroom.org/glossary_term/parliamentary-system/ |access-date=2023-04-11 |website=Annenberg Classroom |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Government ==
A head of government is in charge of the daily business of government and overseeing central government institutions. In presidential systems the president is the head of government and head of state. In parliamentary systems the head of government is usually the leader of the party with the most seats in the legislature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=head of government |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20111011220319709 |access-date=2023-04-17 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en }}</ref> Several examples of heads of government who are chosen through indirect elections are summarized below.

=== Prime minister ===
The most prominent position in parliamentary democracies is the prime ministership.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Glasgow |first1=Garrett |last2=Golder |first2=Matt |last3=Golder |first3=Sona N. |date=October 2011 |title=Who "Wins"? Determining the Party of the Prime Minister: WHO "WINS"? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00524.x |journal=American Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=937–954 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00524.x|s2cid=154083816 }}</ref>

Under the [[Westminster system]], named after and typified by the [[parliament of the United Kingdom]], a prime minister (or first minister, premier, or chief minister) is the person that can command the largest coalition of supporters in parliament. In almost all cases, the prime minister is the leader of a political party (or [[coalition]]) that has a majority in the parliament, or the [[lower house]] (such as the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]), or in the situation that no one party has a majority then the largest party or a coalition of smaller parties may attempt to form a minority government. The prime minister is thus indirectly elected as political parties elect their own leader through internal democratic process, while the general public choose from amongst the local candidates of the various political parties or independents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harding |first=Andrew |date=January 2004 |title=The 'Westminster Model' Constitution Overseas: Transplantation, Adaptation and Development in Commonwealth States |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14729342.2004.11421442 |journal=Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=143–166 |doi=10.1080/14729342.2004.11421442 |s2cid=147155846 |issn=1472-9342|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The Westminster model continues to be used in a number of [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries including [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], [[Singapore]] and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-10 |title=The Westminster system |url=https://www.parliament.act.gov.au/visit-and-learn/resources/factsheets/the-westminster-system |access-date=2023-04-17 |website=www.parliament.act.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> Additionally many nations colonized by the British Empire inherited the Westminster model following their independence.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/41335/chapter/352410134 |access-date=2023-04-17 |website=academic.oup.com |doi=10.1093/law/9780198793045.003.0006 |title=The Commonwealth Caribbean and the Westminster Model |year=2020 |last1=o'Brien |first1=Derek |pages=131–161 |isbn=978-0198793045 }}</ref>

In [[Spain]], the [[Congress of Deputies]] votes on a [[motion of confidence]] of the [[Monarchy of Spain|king's]] nominee ([[Constitutional convention (political custom)|customarily]] the party leader whose party controls the Congress) and the nominee's [[political manifesto]], an example of an indirect election of the [[prime minister of Spain]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heywood |first=Paul |date=1991-04-01 |title=Governing a new democracy: The power of the prime minister in Spain |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01402389108424847 |journal=West European Politics |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=97–115 |doi=10.1080/01402389108424847 |issn=0140-2382|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Federal Chancellor ===
In [[Germany]], the [[Chancellor of Germany|federal chancellor]] - the most powerful position on the federal level - is elected indirectly by the [[Bundestag]], which in turn is elected by the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Germany – EU member country profile {{!}} European Union |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/country-profiles/germany_en |access-date=2023-04-17 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> The [[President of Germany|federal president]], the head of state, proposes candidates for the chancellor's office. Although this has never happened, the Bundestag may in theory also choose to elect another person into office, which the president has to accept.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany |url=https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gg/englisch_gg.html#p0295 |website=www.gesetze-im-internet.de}}</ref>

=== Appointment ===
Some countries have nonpartisan heads of government who are appointed by the president, such as the [[Prime Minister of Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Political structure |url=https://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=532048636&Country=Singapore&topic=Summary&subtopic=Political+structure |access-date=2023-04-11 |website=country.eiu.com}}</ref>

== Upper houses ==
Members of the [[German Bundesrat]] are appointed (delegated) by the ''[[Landtag]]'' of the various [[States of Germany|states]].

In [[France]], election to the upper house of Parliament, the {{Lang|fr|[[French Senate|Sénat]]|italic=no}}, is indirect. Electors (called "[[Grands électeurs]]") are locally elected representatives.

Members of the Indian [[Rajya Sabha]] (upper house of parliament) are largely elected directly by the [[Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) of the various [[States and union territories of India|states and Union territories]]; some are appointed by the [[President of India|president]].

[[Indirect single transferable voting]] is used to elect some members of the [[Senate of Pakistan]].<ref name="waqar">Waqar, M. (2020). Gender Quotas and Political Dynasties: Explaining Women's Substantive Representation in Pakistan's National Assembly (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University)</ref>

==Legislatures==

===China===
The [[National People's Congress]] of China is elected by lower level of the [[system of people's congress]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Truex |first=Rory |title=Making Autocracy Work: Representation and Responsiveness in Modern China |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2016 |isbn=9781107172432 |doi=}}</ref>

===Supranational===
Some examples of indirectly elected [[International parliament|supranational legislatures]] include: the parliamentary assemblies of the [[Council of Europe]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] and [[NATO]] – in all of these cases, voters elect national parliamentarians, who in turn elect some of their own members to the assembly. The same applies to bodies formed by representatives chosen by a national government, e.g. the [[United Nations General Assembly]] – assuming the national governments in question are [[democratically elected]] in the first place.

==Historical==
The [[Control Yuan]] of [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|China]], formerly a parliamentary chamber, was elected by its respective legislatures across the country: five from each province, two from each directly administered municipality, eight from Mongolia (by 1948 only the Inner Mongolian provinces were represented), eight from Tibet and eight from the overseas Chinese communities. As originally envisioned both the President and Vice President of the Control Yuan were to be elected by and from the members like the speaker of many other parliamentary bodies worldwide. The Control Yuan became a sole auditory body in Taiwan in 1993 after [[democratization]].

Members of the [[United States Senate]] were elected by the [[State legislature (United States)|Legislature]] of the various [[U.S. state|states]] until ratification of the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] in 1913. Since that time they have been elected by direct popular vote.

==Accountability==
Indirect elections can have a lower political [[accountability]] and [[Political efficacy|responsiveness]] compared to [[direct election]]s.<ref name="b817">{{cite journal | last=Rogers | first=Steven | title=The Responsiveness of Direct and Indirect Elections | journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly | volume=37 | issue=4 | date=2012 | issn=0362-9805 | doi=10.1111/j.1939-9162.2012.00060.x | pages=509–532}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Democratic deficit]]
* [[Double direct election]]
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
* [[Multi-level governance]]
* [[Partisan primary]]
* [[Proxy voting]]
* [[Liquid democracy]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Elections by type]]
[[Category:Indirect elections| ]]