Editing Information system

{{Short description|System that supports business decisions}}
{{Redirect|Business Information System|the Finnish government service|Business Information System (government service)}}
An '''information system''' ('''IS''') is a formal, [[sociotechnical]], organizational system designed to collect, process, [[Information Processing and Management|store]], and [[information distribution|distribute]] [[information]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Piccoli |first1=Gabriele |last2=Pigni |first2=Federico |title=Information systems for managers: with cases|publisher=Prospect Press |isbn=978-1-943153-50-3 |pages=28 |edition=4.0 |url=https://prospectpressvt.com/titles/piccoli-information-systems-for-managers/ |access-date=25 November 2018|date=July 2018 }}</ref> From a sociotechnical perspective, information systems comprise four components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology.<ref name="Ohara et al.">{{cite journal |last1=O'Hara |first1=Margaret |last2=Watson |first2=Richard |last3=Cavan |first3=Bruce |title=Managing the three levels of change |journal=Information Systems Management |volume=16 |issue=3 |date=1999 |page=64 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220630523 |access-date=25 November 2018|doi=10.1201/1078/43197.16.3.19990601/31317.9 }}</ref> Information systems can be defined as an integration of components for collection, storage and [[data processing|processing]] of [[data]], comprising [[digital product]]s that process data to facilitate [[decision making]]<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|date=2020-11-12|title=Information Systems|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/information-system|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> and the data being used to provide information and contribute to knowledge.

A '''computer information system''' is a system, which consists of people and computers that process or interpret information.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information-system.html| title=information system| work=BusinessDictionary.com| access-date=2014-09-21| archive-date=2020-08-11| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811225424/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information-system.html| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Information Systems| work=Principia Cybernetica Web| url= http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/INFORM_SYSTE.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia| url= http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/287895/information-system |title=Information system| encyclopedia=Britannica | author= Vladimir Zwass |date=2016-02-10}}</ref><ref>D'Atri A., De Marco M., Casalino N. (2008). "Interdisciplinary Aspects of Information Systems Studies", Physica-Verlag, Springer, Germany, pp. 1–416, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-7908-2010-2}} {{ISBN|978-3-7908-2009-6}}</ref> The term is also sometimes used to simply refer to a computer system with software installed.

"'''Information systems'''" is also an academic field of study about systems with a specific reference to information and the complementary networks of [[computer hardware]] and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also [[Distributed computing|distribute]] [[data (computing)|data]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-16|title=Information Technology vs Information Systems: What's The Difference?|url=https://www.cityu.edu/information-technology-vs-information-systems/|access-date=2021-11-13|website=CityU of Seattle|language=en-US}}</ref> An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned communication networks.<ref>Jessup, Leonard M.; Joseph S. Valacich (2008). ''Information Systems Today'' (3rd ed.). Pearson Publishing. Glossary p. 416</ref>

In many organizations, the department or unit responsible for information systems and [[data processing]] is known as "'''information services'''".<ref>{{cite web | title=What is Information Systems or Information Services (IS)? | website=Definition from Techopedia | url=https://www.techopedia.com/definition/1027/information-systems-or-information-services-is | access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=What is IS (information system or information services)? | website=WhatIs.com | url=https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/IS-information-system-or-information-services | access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.directory.gov.au/portfolios/agriculture-water-and-environment/department-agriculture-water-and-environment/enabling-services-group/information-services| title=Information Services| website=Directory| date=2 June 2017| publisher=[[Australian Government]]| access-date=6 March 2021| archive-date=27 March 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327213354/https://www.directory.gov.au/portfolios/agriculture-water-and-environment/department-agriculture-water-and-environment/enabling-services-group/information-services| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Information Services | website=Ramsey County | date=12 September 2015 | url=https://www.ramseycounty.us/your-government/departments/information-and-public-records/information-services| access-date=6 March 2021}}</ref>

Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and [[decision-making]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2013|title= The first phase of creating a standardised international innovative technological implementation framework/Software application|url=http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=55312|journal= International Journal of Business and Systems Research|volume=7|issue=3|page=250|doi=10.1504/IJBSR.2013.055312|last1=Bulgacs|first1=Simon|access-date=2015-11-02|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sei.cmu.edu/publications/documents/03.reports/03tr002/03tr002glossary.html |title=SEI Report, "Glossary" |access-date=2013-04-02 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070903115947/http://www.sei.cmu.edu/publications/documents/03.reports/03tr002/03tr002glossary.html |archive-date=September 3, 2007 }}</ref> An information system is the [[information and communication technology]] (ICT) that an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes.<ref>Kroenke, D M. (2008). Experiencing MIS. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ</ref>

Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, [[computer system]]s, and [[business process]]es. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the end-use of [[information technology]]. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes.<ref>O'Brien, J A. (2003). Introduction to information systems: essentials for the e-business enterprise. McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA</ref>

Alter<ref>Alter, S. (2003). [https://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol12/iss1/23/ "18 Reasons Why IT-Reliant Work Systems Should Replace 'The IT Artifact' as the Core Subject Matter of the IS Field"], ''Communications of the Association for Information Systems'', 12(23), Oct., pp. 365–394.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Alter | first1 = S | year = 2013 | title = Work System Theory: Overview of Core Concepts, Extensions, and Challenges for the Future | url =https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1034&context=at | journal = Journal of the Association for Information Systems | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 72–121 | doi = 10.17705/1jais.00323 | doi-access = free }}</ref> argues that viewing an information system as a special type of [[work system]] has its advantages. A work system is a system in which humans or machines perform processes and activities using resources to produce specific products or services for customers. An information system is a work system in which activities are devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying information.<ref>Alter, S. (2006) The Work System Method: Connecting People, Processes, and IT for Business Results. Works System Press, CA</ref>

As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bacon|first1=C. James|last2=Fitzgerald|first2=Brian|date=2001-04-01|title=A systemic framework for the field of information systems|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/506732.506738|journal=ACM SIGMIS Database: The DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems|volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=46–67 |doi=10.1145/506732.506738|s2cid=15687595|issn=0095-0033|url-access=subscription}}</ref> An information system is a form of [[communication]] system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-[[formal language]] which supports human decision making and action.

Information systems are the primary focus of study for organizational informatics.<ref>Beynon-Davies P. (2009). Business Information Systems. Palgrave, Basingstoke</ref>

==Overview==
Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on IS that includes software, hardware, data, people, and procedures.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Marc S. Silver, M. Lynne Markus, [[Cynthia Mathis Beath]]|title=The Information Technology Interactive Model: A Foundation for the MBA Core Course|journal=MIS Quarterly|date=Sep 1995|pages=361–390|url=http://misq.org/the-information-technology-interaction-model-a-foundation-for-the-mba-core-course.html?SID=k2fh85s9nd5a2ne85qh5a3art7}}</ref>

The [[Association for Computing Machinery]] defines "Information systems specialists [as] focus[ing] on integrating [[information technology]] solutions and business processes to meet the information needs of businesses and other enterprises."<ref name="curricula">The Joint Task Force for Computing Curricula 2005. [http://www.acm.org/education/curric_vols/CC2005-March06Final.pdf Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report (pdf)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021153204/http://www.acm.org/education/curric_vols/CC2005-March06Final.pdf |date=2014-10-21 }}</ref>

There are various types of information systems, : including [[transaction processing system]]s, [[decision support system]]s, [[knowledge management system]]s, [[learning management system]]s, [[database management system]]s, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes.

Information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to executives.<ref>Rockart et al. (1996) Eight imperatives for the new IT organization Sloan Management review.</ref> Many companies have created a position of [[chief information officer]] (CIO) that sits on the executive board with the [[chief executive officer]] (CEO), [[chief financial officer]] (CFO), [[chief operating officer]] (COO), and [[chief technical officer]] (CTO). The CTO may also serve as CIO, and vice versa. The [[chief information security officer]] (CISO) focuses on [[information security]] management.

===Six components===
The ''six components'' that must come together in order to produce an information system are:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stair |first=Ralph |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1305839544 |title=Principles of Information Systems |date=2020 |publisher=Cengage |others=George Reynolds |isbn=978-0-357-11252-6 |edition=14th |location=Mason, OH |oclc=1305839544}}</ref>
# ''Hardware'': The term hardware refers to machinery and equipment. In a modern information system, this category includes the computer itself and all of its support equipment. The support equipment includes input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices. In pre-computer information systems, the hardware might include ledger books and ink.
# ''Software'': The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape. The "software" for pre-computer information systems included how the hardware was prepared for use (e.g., column headings in the ledger book) and instructions for using them (the guidebook for a card catalog).
# ''Data'': Data are facts that are used by systems to produce useful information. In modern information systems, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs them. In pre-computer information systems, the data were generally stored in human-readable form.
# ''Procedures'': Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of an information system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a system.
# ''People'': Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most overlooked element of the system is the people, probably the component that most influences the success or failure of information systems. This includes "not only the users, but those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support the network of computers".<ref>Kroenke, D. M. (2015). MIS Essentials. Pearson Education</ref>
# ''Internet'': The internet is a combination of data and people. (Although this component is not necessary for functionality.)

Data is the bridge between hardware and people. This means that the data we collect is only data until we involve people. At that point, data becomes information.

==Types==
[[File:Four-Level-Pyramid-model.png|thumb|A four level hierarchy |250px]]

The "classic" view of Information systems found in textbooks<ref>Laudon, K.C. and Laudon, J.P. Management Information Systems, Macmillan, 1988.</ref> in the 1980s was a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually [[transaction processing systems]] at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by [[management information systems]], [[decision support systems]], and ending with [[executive information systems]] at the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful since it was first formulated, a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model.

Some examples of such systems are:
{{div col}}
* [[Artificial intelligence]] system
* [[Computing platform]]
* [[Data warehouses]]
* [[Decision support system]]
* [[Enterprise resource planning]]
* [[Enterprise systems]]
* [[Expert systems]]
* [[Geographic information system]]
* [[Global information system]]
* [[Management information system]]
* [[Multimedia database|Multimedia information system]]
* [[Office automation]]
* [[Process control system]]
* [[Search engines]]
* [[Social information system]]s
{{div col end}}

A computer(-based) information system is essentially an IS using computer technology to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. The basic components of computer-based information systems are:
* ''Hardware'' are the devices like the monitor, processor, printer, and keyboard, all of which work together to accept, process, show data, and information.
* ''Software'' are the programs that allow the hardware to process the data.
* ''Databases'' are the gathering of associated files or tables containing related data.
* ''Networks'' are a connecting system that allows diverse computers to distribute resources.
* ''Procedures'' are the commands for combining the components above to process information and produce the preferred output.

The first four components (hardware, software, database, and network) make up what is known as the information technology platform.
Information technology workers could then use these components to create information systems that watch over safety measures, risk and the management of data. These actions are known as information technology services.<ref>Rainer, R. Kelly Jr, and Casey G. Cegielski. Introduction to Information System: Support and Transforming Business Fourth Edition. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2012. Print.</ref>

Certain information systems support parts of organizations, others support entire organizations, and still others, support groups of organizations. Each department or functional area within an organization has its own collection of application programs or information systems. These functional area information systems (FAIS) are supporting pillars for more general IS namely, [[business intelligence]] systems and [[dashboard]]s.{{Citation needed|date=May 2013}} As the name suggests, each FAIS supports a particular function within the organization, e.g.: accounting IS, finance IS, production-operation management (POM) IS, marketing IS, and human resources IS. In finance and accounting, managers use IT systems to forecast revenues and business activity, to determine the best sources and uses of funds, and to perform audits to ensure that the organization is fundamentally sound and that all financial reports and documents are accurate.

Other types of organizational information systems are FAIS, [[transaction processing system]]s, [[enterprise resource planning]], [[office automation]] system, [[management information system]], [[decision support system]], [[expert system]], executive dashboard, [[supply chain management system]], and [[electronic commerce]] system. Dashboards are a special form of IS that support all managers of the organization. They provide rapid access to timely information and direct access to structured information in the form of reports. Expert systems attempt to duplicate the work of human experts by applying reasoning capabilities, knowledge, and expertise within a specific domain.

==Development==
Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence the development, use, and application of information technology in the business.
A series of methodologies and processes can be used to develop and use an information system. Many developers use a systems engineering approach such as the [[system development life cycle]] (SDLC), to systematically develop an information system in stages. The stages of the system development lifecycle are planning, system analysis, and requirements, system design, development, integration and testing, implementation and operations, and maintenance.
Recent research aims at enabling<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neumann|first1=Gustaf|last2=Sobernig|first2=Stefan|last3=Aram|first3=Michael|title=Evolutionary Business Information Systems|journal=Business & Information Systems Engineering|date=February 2014|volume=6|issue=1|pages=33–36|doi=10.1007/s12599-013-0305-1|s2cid=15979292}}</ref> and measuring<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aram|first1=Michael|last2=Neumann|first2=Gustaf|title=Multilayered analysis of co-development of business information systems|journal=Journal of Internet Services and Applications|date=2015-07-01|volume=6|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s13174-015-0030-8|s2cid=16502371|url=http://www.jisajournal.com/content/pdf/s13174-015-0030-8.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> the ongoing, collective development of such systems within an organization by the entirety of human actors themselves.
An information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system.<ref>{{cite book|title=Using MIS|year=2009|publisher=Kroenke|isbn=978-0-13-713029-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/usingmis00kroe}}</ref> A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team ([[offshoring]], [[global information system]]).

A computer-based information system, following a definition of [[Langefors]],<ref>{{cite book|last= Börje Langefors|author-link= Börje Langefors|title=Theoretical Analysis of Information Systems|year=1973|publisher=Auerbach|isbn=978-0-87769-151-8}}</ref> is a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions, as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions.

[[Geographic information systems in geospatial intelligence|Geographic information systems]], land information systems, and disaster information systems are examples of emerging information systems, but they can be broadly considered as spatial information systems.
System development is done in stages which include:<ref>{{cite book|title=Computer Studies|year=2008|publisher=Frederick Nyawaya|isbn=978-9966-781-24-6}}</ref>
* Problem recognition and specification
* Information gathering
* Requirements specification for the new system
* System design
* System construction
* System implementation
* Review and maintenance

==As an academic discipline==
{{See also|Information engineering|Information science|Information technology|Information management}}

The field of study called ''information systems'' encompasses a variety of topics including systems analysis and design, computer networking, information security, database management, and decision support systems. ''[[Information management]]'' deals with the practical and theoretical problems of collecting and analyzing information in a business function area including business productivity tools, applications programming and implementation, electronic commerce, digital media production, data mining, and decision support. ''Communications and networking'' deals with telecommunication technologies.
Information systems bridges [[business]] and [[computer science]] using the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] to study various business models and related [[algorithm]]ic processes <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swinburne.edu.au/study/courses/units/Computer-and-Logic-Essentials-COS10003/local|title=Computer and Logic Essentials – Units of study – Swinburne University of Technology – Melbourne, Australia}}</ref> on building the IT systems <ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www1.rmit.edu.au/courses/049802 | title=Building IT Systems – RMIT University}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swinburne.edu.au/study/courses/units/Systems-Development-INF60003/local|title=Systems Development – Units of study – Swinburne University of Technology – Melbourne, Australia|access-date=2015-12-06|archive-date=2022-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705191352/https://www.swinburne.edu.au/study/courses/units/Systems-Development-INF60003/local|url-status=dead}}</ref> within a computer science discipline.<ref name="Kelly 1999 1–27">{{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Sue |last2=Gibson |first2=Nicola |last3=Holland |first3=Christopher |last4=Light |first4=Ben |date=July 1999 |title=Focus Issue on Legacy Information Systems and Business Process Engineering: a Business Perspective of Legacy Information Systems |journal=Communications of the AIS |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=1–27}}</ref><ref name="Archibald1975">{{cite journal |last=Archibald |first=J.A. |date=May 1975 |title=Computer Science education for majors of other disciplines |journal=AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences |pages=903–906 |quote=Computer science spreads out over several related disciplines, and shares with these disciplines certain sub-disciplines that traditionally have been located exclusively in the more conventional disciplines}}</ref><ref name="Denning1999">{{cite journal |last=Denning |first=Peter |date=July 1999 |title=Computer Science: The Discipline |journal=Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition) |quote=The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines}}</ref><ref name="Coy 2004 7–10">{{cite journal |last=Coy |first=Wolfgang |date=June 2004 |title=Between the disciplines |journal=ACM SIGCSE Bulletin |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=7–10 |issn= 0097-8418 |quote=Computer science may be in the core of these processes. The actual question is not to ignore disciplinary boundaries with its methodological differences but to open the disciplines for collaborative work. We must learn to build bridges, not to start in the gap between disciplines |doi=10.1145/1024338.1024340|s2cid=10389644 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoganson |first=Ken |date=December 2001 |title=Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=313–325 |issn= 1937-4771 |quote=... Information Systems grew out of the need to bridge the gap between business management and computer science ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Timothy |last2=Geist |first2=Robert |last3=Matzko |first3=Sarah |last4=Westall |first4=James |date=March 2004 |title=Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education {{!}} τ´εχνη: A First Step |pages=125–129 |isbn= 978-1-58113-798-9 |quote=In 1999, Clemson University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoganson |first=Ken |date=December 2001 |title=Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=313–325 |issn= 1937-4771 |quote=The field of information systems as a separate discipline is relatively new and is undergoing continuous change as technology evolves and the field matures}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Khazanchi |first=Deepak |author2=Bjorn Erik Munkvold |date=Summer 2000 |title=Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline |journal=ACM SIGMIS Database |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=24–42 |issn=0095-0033 |doi=10.1145/381823.381834 |s2cid=52847480 |quote=From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Denning |first=Peter |date=June 2007 |title=Ubiquity a new interview with Peter Denning on the great principles of computing |volume=2007 |issue=June |pages=1 |quote=People from other fields are saying they have discovered information processes in their deepest structures and that collaboration with computing is essential to them.}}</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html New Jersey Institute of Technology], Gutenberg Information Technologies {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915210456/http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html |date=September 15, 2008 }}</ref><ref>"''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203190237/http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum/ |date=2007-02-03 }}, Saint John's University</ref><ref>"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619125916/http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 |date=2006-06-19 }}</ref><ref>Pearson Custom Publishing & West Chester University, Custom Program for Computer Information Systems, Pearson Custom Publishing, (2009) Glossary p. 694</ref> ''Computer information systems'' (CIS) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Polack |first=Jennifer |date=December 2009 |title=Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=100–106 |issn= 1937-4771}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hayes |first=Helen |author2=Onkar Sharma |date=February 2003 |title=A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=217–227 |issn=1937-4771 |quote=In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach}}</ref><ref>CSTA Committee, Allen Tucker, et alia, A Model Curriculum for K-12 Computer Science (Final Report), (Association for Computing Machinery, Inc., 2006) Abstraction & p.&nbsp;2</ref> whereas IS emphasizes functionality over design.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Peter |last2=Hart |first2=David |date=August 2004 |title=A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=19–21 |issn= 0001-0782 |quote=Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically |doi=10.1145/1012037.1012054|s2cid=14331332 }}</ref>

Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of information systems which have its roots in other reference disciplines such as [[computer science]], [[engineering]], [[mathematics]], [[management science]], [[cybernetics]], and others.<ref>Culnan, M. J. Mapping the Intellectual Structure of MIS, 1980–1985: A Co-Citation Analysis, ''MIS Quarterly'', 1987, pp. 341–353.</ref><ref>Keen, P. G. W. MIS Research: Reference Disciplines and A Cumulative Tradition, in ''Proceedings of the First International Conference on Information Systems'', E. McLean (ed.), Philadelphia, PA, 1980, pp. 9–18.</ref><ref>Lee, A. S. Architecture as A Reference Discipline for MIS, in ''Information Systems Research: Contemporary Approaches and Emergent Traditions'', H.-E. Nisen, H. K. Klein, and R. A. Hirschheim (eds.), North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1991, pp. 573–592.</ref><ref>Mingers, J., and Stowell, F. (eds.). Information Systems: An Emerging Discipline?, McGraw- Hill, London, 1997.</ref> Information systems also can be defined as a collection of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce quality information.

===Related terms===
[[File:IS-Relationships-Chart.jpg|thumb|Information systems relationship to [[information technology]], [[computer science]], [[information science]], and [[business]].]]

Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related and foundation disciplines of IS. The domain of study of IS involves the study of theories and practices related to the social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use, and effects of information systems in organizations and society.<ref>John, W., and Joe, P. (2002) "Strategic Planning for Information System." 3rd Ed. West Sussex. John Wiley & Sons Ltd</ref> But, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose, and orientation of their activities.<ref name="dogpile.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.booksbw.com/books/computers/leslie-j/2006/files/informationsystems2006.pdf#page=30|title=Scoping the Discipline of Information Systems|access-date=2017-12-04|archive-date=2016-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731075131/http://booksbw.com/books/computers/leslie-j/2006/files/informationsystems2006.pdf#page=30|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In a broad scope, ''information systems'' is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial, and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing, and use of information and its associated technologies in society and organizations.<ref name="dogpile.com"/> The term ''information systems'' is also used to describe an organizational function that applies IS knowledge in the industry, government agencies, and not-for-profit organizations.<ref name="dogpile.com"/>

''Information systems'' often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information system is a technology an organization uses and also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organization's business processes. Information systems are distinct from [[information technology]] (IT) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes' components.

One problem with that approach is that it prevents the IS field from being interested in non-organizational use of ICT, such as in social networking, computer gaming, mobile personal usage, etc. A different way of differentiating the IS field from its neighbours is to ask, "Which aspects of reality are most meaningful in the IS field and other fields?"<ref name="ref-basden-2010">[http://aisel.aisnet.org/ukais2009/10 Basden, A. (2010) On Using Spheres of Meaning to Define and Dignify the IS Discipline. ''International Journal of Information Management'', 30, 13–20.] It employs the philosophy of the late [[Herman Dooyeweerd]] to differentiate distinct aspects or 'spheres of meaning'. The paper suggests that while computer science finds the [http://www.dooy.info/formative.html formative] aspect, of shaping, structuring, processing, of central interest, and business and organizational fields find the [http://www.dooy.info//economic.html economic] and [http://www.dooy.info/social.html social] aspects of central interest, the Information Systems field can find the [http://www.dooy.info/lingual.html lingual aspect] of central interest while making links with the aspects of the neighbouring disciplines.</ref> This approach, based on philosophy, helps to define not just the focus, purpose, and orientation, but also the dignity, destiny and, responsibility of the field among other fields.<ref>
''International Journal of Information Management'', 30, 13–20.</ref>

[[Business informatics]] is a related discipline that is well-established in several countries, especially in Europe. While ''Information systems'' has been said to have an "explanation-oriented" focus, ''business informatics'' has a more "solution-oriented" focus and includes [[information technology]] elements and construction and implementation-oriented elements.

==Career pathways==

Information systems workers enter a number of different careers:
* Information system strategy
* [[Management information system]]s – A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization.
* [[Project management]] – Project management is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria at the specified time.
* [[Enterprise architecture]] – A well-defined practice for conducting enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation, using a comprehensive approach at all times, for the successful development and execution of strategy.
* [[Software development|IS development]]
* IS organization
* [[Information technology consulting|IS consulting]]
* IS security
* IS auditing

There is a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue."<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Sloan Career Cornerstone Center; Alfred P. Sloan Foundation|year=2008|url=http://www.careercornerstone.org/infosys/infosys.htm|title=Information Systems|access-date=June 2, 2008}}</ref>

Information technology is important to the operation of contemporary businesses, it offers many employment opportunities. The information systems field includes the people in organizations who design and build information systems, the people who use those systems, and the people responsible for managing those systems.
The demand for traditional IT staff such as programmers, business analysts, systems analysts, and designer is significant. Many well-paid jobs exist in areas of Information technology. At the top of the list is the chief information officer (CIO).

The CIO is the executive who is in charge of the IS function. In most organizations, the CIO works with the chief executive officer (CEO), the chief financial officer (CFO), and other senior executives. Therefore, he or she actively participates in the organization's strategic planning process.

===Bachelor of Business Information Systems===
{{Excerpt|Bachelor of Business Information Systems}}

==Research==
Information systems research is generally [[interdisciplinary]] concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behaviour of individuals, groups, and organizations.<ref>Galliers, R.D., [[M. Lynne Markus|Markus, M.L.]], & Newell, S. (Eds) (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=brOkAAAACAAJ ''Exploring Information Systems Research Approaches.''] New York, NY: Routledge.</ref><ref>[[Claudio Ciborra|Ciborra, C.]] (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=jb-vrAHmG0wC ''The Labyrinths of Information: Challenging the Wisdom of Systems.''] Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press</ref> Hevner et al. (2004)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hevner | last2 = March | last3 = Park | last4 = Ram | year = 2004 | title = Design Science in Information Systems Research | journal = MIS Quarterly | volume = 28 | issue = 1| pages = 75–105 | doi = 10.2307/25148625| jstor = 25148625| s2cid = 13553735 }}</ref> categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including ''behavioural science'' which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and'' design science'' which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts.

Salvatore March and Gerald Smith<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = March | first1 = S. | last2 = Smith | first2 = G. | year = 1995 | title = Design and natural science in Information Technology (IT) | journal = Decision Support Systems | volume = 15 | issue = 4| pages = 251–266 | doi=10.1016/0167-9236(94)00041-2| title-link = Information Technology | s2cid = 2625498 }}</ref> proposed a framework for researching different aspects of information technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows:

# ''Constructs'' which are concepts that form the [[domain knowledge|vocabulary of a domain]]. They constitute a [[conceptualization]] used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions.
# A ''model'' which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs.
# A ''method'' which is a set of steps (an [[algorithm]] or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a [[knowledge representation|representation]] (model) of the solution space.
# An ''instantiation'' is the realization of an artefact in its environment.

Also research activities including:
# ''Build'' an artefact to perform a specific task.
# ''Evaluate'' the artefact to determine if any progress has been achieved.
# Given an artefact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why and how the artefact worked or did not work within its environment. Therefore, ''theorize'' and ''justify'' theories about IT artefacts.

Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Avgerou | first1 = C | year = 2000 | title = Information systems: what sort of science is it? | journal = Omega | volume = 28 | issue = 5| pages = 567–579 | doi=10.1016/s0305-0483(99)00072-9| citeseerx = 10.1.1.203.4718 }}</ref> the core focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Benbasat | first1 = I. | last2 = Zmud | first2 = R. | year = 2003 | title = The identity crisis within the IS discipline: defining and communicating the discipline's core properties | journal = MIS Quarterly | volume = 27 | issue = 2| pages = 183–194 | doi = 10.2307/30036527 | jstor = 30036527 | s2cid = 6017797 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Agarwal | first1 = R. | last2 = Lucas | first2 = H. | year = 2005 | title = The information systems identity crisis: focusing on high- visibility and high-impact research | journal = MIS Quarterly | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 381–398 | doi = 10.2307/25148689 | jstor = 25148689 | s2cid = 15537428 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = El Sawy | first1 = O | year = 2003 | title = The IS core –IX: The 3 faces of IS identity: connection, immersion, and fusion | journal = Communications of the Association for Information Systems| volume = 12 | pages = 588–598 | doi = 10.17705/1cais.01239 | doi-access = free }}</ref> There are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of IT that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context.<ref>Mansour, O., Ghazawneh, A. (2009) Research in Information Systems: Implications of the constant changing nature of IT capabilities in the social computing era, in Molka-Danielsen, J. (Ed.):'' Proceedings of the 32nd Information Systems Research Seminar in Scandinavia'', IRIS 32, Inclusive Design, Molde University College, Molde, Norway, August 9–12, 2009. {{ISBN|978-82-7962-120-1}}.</ref> A third view<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Orlikowski | first1 = W. | last2 = Iacono | first2 = C. | year = 2001 | title = Research commentary: desperately seeking the "IT" in IT research—a call to theorizing about the IT artifact | journal = Information Systems Research | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 121–134 | doi=10.1287/isre.12.2.121.9700| s2cid = 10833059 }}</ref> calls on IS scholars to pay balanced attention to both the IT artifact and its context.

Since the study of information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. This is not always the case however, as information systems researchers often explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kock | first1 = N. | author-link = Ned Kock | author-link4 = Heinz Klein | last2 = Gray | first2 = P. | last3 = Hoving | first3 = R. | last4 = Klein | first4 = H. | last5 = Myers | first5 = M. | last6 = Rockart | first6 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Information Systems Research Relevance Revisited: Subtle Accomplishment, Unfulfilled Promise, or Serial Hypocrisy? | journal = Communications of the Association for Information Systems | volume = 8 | issue = 23| pages = 330–346 | doi = 10.17705/1CAIS.00823 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

In the last ten years, the business trend is represented by the considerable increase of Information Systems Function (ISF) role, especially with regard to the enterprise strategies and operations supporting. It became a key factor to increase [[productivity]] and to support [[value creation]].<ref>Casalino, N., Mazzone, G. (2008): Externalization of a banking information systems function. Features, regulatory and critical aspects, ''in Interdisciplinary Aspects of Information Systems Studies'', D'Atri A., De Marco M., Casalino N. (Eds.), Physica-Verlag, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 89–96, {{ISBN|978-3-7908-2009-6}}, {{doi|10.1007/978-3-7908-2010-2_12}}</ref> To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as [[EATPUT]].

The international body of Information Systems researchers, the [[Association for Information Systems]] (AIS), and its Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals (202), proposed a list of 11 journals that the AIS deems as 'excellent'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research - Association for Information Systems (AIS) |url=https://aisnet.org/page/SeniorScholarListofPremierJournals |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=aisnet.org}}</ref> According to the AIS, this list of journals recognizes topical, methodological, and geographical diversity. The review processes are stringent, editorial board members are widely-respected and recognized, and there is international readership and contribution. The list is (or should be) used, along with others, as a point of reference for promotion and tenure and, more generally, to evaluate scholarly excellence.

A number of annual [[:Category:Information systems conferences|information systems conferences]] are run in various parts of the world, the majority of which are peer reviewed. The AIS directly runs the [[International Conference on Information Systems]] (ICIS) and the [[Americas Conference on Information Systems]] (AMCIS), while AIS affiliated conferences<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.aisnet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=34|title=AIS affiliated conferences|access-date=2012-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215044835/http://home.aisnet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=34|archive-date=2012-02-15|url-status=dead}}</ref> include the [[Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems]] (PACIS), [[European Conference on Information Systems]] (ECIS), the Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), the International Conference on Information Resources Management (Conf-IRM) and the Wuhan International Conference on E-Business (WHICEB). AIS chapter conferences<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ais.affiniscape.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=478|title=AIS chapter conferences|website=affiniscape.com|access-date=2012-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227105218/http://ais.affiniscape.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=478|archive-date=2012-02-27|url-status=dead}}</ref> include [[Australasian Conference on Information Systems]] (ACIS), [[Information Systems Research in Scandinavia|Scandinavian Conference on Information Systems]] (SCIS), [[Information Systems International Conference]] (ISICO), Conference of the Italian Chapter of AIS (itAIS), Annual Mid-Western AIS Conference (MWAIS) and Annual Conference of the Southern AIS (SAIS). EDSIG,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edsig.org|title=EDSIG Information Systems Educators}}</ref> which is the special interest group on education of the AITP,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aitp.org|title=Association of Information Technology Professionals}}</ref> organizes the Conference on Information Systems and Computing Education<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edsigcon.org|title=ISCAP Conferences – EDSIGCON & CONISAR|first=ISCAP and|last=EDSIG}}</ref> and the Conference on Information Systems Applied Research<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conisar.org|title=ISCAP Conferences – EDSIGCON & CONISAR|first=ISCAP and|last=EDSIG}}</ref> which are both held annually in November.

==See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
; Related subjects
* [[Formative context]]
* [[Human–computer interaction]]
* [[Informatics]]
** [[Bioinformatics]]
** [[Business informatics]]
** [[Cheminformatics]]
** [[Disaster informatics]]
** [[Geoinformatics]]
** [[Health informatics]]
* [[Information science]]
* [[Library science]]
* [[Web science]]s
{{Col-break}}
; Components
* [[Data architect]]
* [[Data modeling]]
* [[Data processing system]]
* [[Data Reference Model]]
* [[Database]]
* [[EATPUT]]
* [[Metadata]]
* [[Predictive Model Markup Language]]
* [[Semantic translation]]
* [[Three schema approach]]
{{Col-break}}
; Implementation
* [[Enterprise information system]]
* [[Environmental Modeling Center]]
* [[Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences]] (INFORMS)

{{col-end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Rainer, R. Kelly and Cegielski, Casey G. (2009). [http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-EHEP000323.html "Introduction to Information Systems: Enabling and Transforming Business, 3rd Edition"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628201559/http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-EHEP000323.html |date=2010-06-28 }}
* Kroenke, David (2008). [http://www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke/ ''Using MIS – 2nd Edition''].
* Lindsay, John (2000). [http://www.oturn.net/isfi/index.html ''Information Systems – Fundamentals and Issues'']. Kingston University, School of Information Systems
* Dostal, J. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090319234044/http://mict.upol.cz/skolni_informacni_systemy.pdf School information systems (Skolni informacni systemy).] In Infotech 2007 – modern information and communication technology in education. Olomouc, EU: Votobia, 2007. s. 540 – 546. {{ISBN|978-80-7220-301-7}}.
* O'Leary, Timothy and Linda. (2008). ''Computing Essentials Introductory 2008.'' McGraw-Hill on [https://web.archive.org/web/20171117143609/http://www.computing2008.com/ Computing2008.com]
* Sage, S.M. "Information Systems: A brief look into history", Datamation, 63–69, Nov. 1968. – Overview of the early history of IS.

==External links==
{{commons category|Information systems}}
* [https://aisnet.org/ Association for Information Systems (AIS)]
* [https://ishistory.aisnet.org/ IS History website by AIS]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091215035654/http://mitsloan.mit.edu/cisr/ Center for Information Systems Research – Massachusetts Institute of Technology]
* [https://www.ercis.org/ European Research Center for Information Systems]

{{Informatics}}
{{Computer science}}
{{Systems}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Business computing|*]]
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