Editing Intimate relationship

{{Short description|Physical or emotional intimacy}}
[[File:Couple in love (8175382088).jpg|alt=A young couple sits on a bench. The woman is lying down with her head resting on the man's lap.|thumb|Intimate relationships involve emotional or physical closeness.]]
{{Redirect|Intimacy|other uses|Intimacy (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Sexual relationship|sexual relationships between non-human animals|Mating system}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Close relationships|emotions}}
An '''intimate relationship''' is an [[interpersonal relationship]] that involves emotional or physical closeness between people and may include sexual intimacy and feelings of [[Romance (love)|romance]] or love.<ref name="Wong">{{cite book|last1=Wong|first1=D. W.|last2=Hall|first2=K. R.|last3=Justice|first3=C.A.|last4=Wong|first4=L.|title =Counseling Individuals Through the Lifespan|isbn =978-1-4833-2203-2|publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|year=2014|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dnYcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA326 326]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnYcBgAAQBAJ|quote=Intimacy: As an intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical or emotional intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by romantic or passionate attachment or sexual activity.}}</ref> Intimate relationships are [[Interdependence theory|interdependent]], and the members of the relationship mutually influence each other.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rusbult |first=Caryl E. |title=Interdependence in Close Relationships |date=2003 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470998557.ch14 |work=Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Interpersonal Processes |pages=357–387 |editor-last=Fletcher |editor-first=Garth J. O. |access-date=2023-10-30 |edition=1 |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470998557.ch14 |isbn=978-0-631-21228-7 |editor2-last=Clark |editor2-first=Margaret S.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The [[Relationship Quality|quality]] and nature of the relationship depends on the interactions between individuals, and is derived from the unique context and history that builds between people over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Finkel |first1=Eli J. |last2=Simpson |first2=Jeffry A. |last3=Eastwick |first3=Paul W. |date=2017-01-03 |title=The Psychology of Close Relationships: Fourteen Core Principles |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044038 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=383–411 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044038 |pmid=27618945 |s2cid=207567096 |issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wiecha |first1=Jan |title=Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior |date=2023 |publisher=[[Springer, Cham]] |isbn=978-3-031-08956-5 |pages=1–11 |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_1240-1 |language=en |chapter=Intimacy |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_1240-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jankowiak |first1=William |title=Intimacy |journal=The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality |date=2015 |pages=583–625 |doi=10.1002/9781118896877.wbiehs242}}</ref> Social and legal institutions such as [[marriage]] acknowledge and uphold intimate relationships between people. However, intimate relationships are not necessarily [[Monogamy|monogamous]] or sexual, and there is wide social and [[Culture|cultural]] variability in the [[Social norm|norms]] and practices of intimacy between people.

The course of an intimate relationship includes a formation period prompted by [[interpersonal attraction]] and a growing sense of closeness and familiarity. Intimate relationships evolve over time as they are maintained, and members of the relationship may become more invested in and committed to the relationship. Healthy intimate relationships are beneficial for psychological and physical well-being and contribute to overall happiness in life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Proulx |first1=Christine M. |last2=Helms |first2=Heather M. |last3=Buehler |first3=Cheryl |date=2007 |title=Marital Quality and Personal Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00393.x |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |language=en |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=576–593 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00393.x |issn=0022-2445}}</ref> However, challenges including relationship conflict, external stressors, insecurity, and jealousy can disrupt the relationship and lead to distress and [[Breakup|relationship dissolution]].{{Love sidebar|types}}
== Intimacy ==
Intimacy is the feeling of being in close, personal association with another person.<ref name="Mashek">{{cite book|last1=Mashek|first1=D.J.|last2=Aron|first2=A.|title=Handbook of Closeness and Intimacy|isbn =978-1-135-63240-3|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|year=2004|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=viZ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]–6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viZ5AgAAQBAJ}}</ref> [[Emotional intimacy]] is built through [[self-disclosure]] and responsive communication between people,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Forest |first1=Amanda L. |last2=Sigler |first2=Kirby N. |last3=Bain |first3=Kaitlin S. |last4=O'Brien |first4=Emily R. |last5=Wood |first5=Joanne V. |date=2023-08-01 |title=Self-esteem's impacts on intimacy-building: Pathways through self-disclosure and responsiveness |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X23000416 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=52 |pages=101596 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101596 |pmid=37348388 |s2cid=258928012 |issn=2352-250X}}</ref> and is critical for healthy psychological development and mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gaia |first=A. Celeste |date=2002 |title=Understanding Emotional Intimacy: A Review of Conceptualization, Assessment and the Role of Gender |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41887101 |journal=International Social Science Review |volume=77 |issue=3/4 |pages=151–170 |jstor=41887101 |issn=0278-2308}}</ref> Emotional intimacy produces feelings of reciprocal trust, validation, vulnerability, and closeness between individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Timmerman |first=Gayle M. |date=1991 |title=A concept analysis of intimacy |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/01612849109058207 |journal=Issues in Mental Health Nursing |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=19–30 |doi=10.3109/01612849109058207 |pmid=1988378 |issn=0161-2840|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Physical intimacy]]—including [[holding hands]], [[hug]]ging, [[kiss]]ing, and [[Sexual intercourse|sex]]—promotes connection between people and is often a key component of romantic intimate relationships.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Power of Touch: Physical Affection is Important in Relationships, but Some People Need More Than Others – Kinsey Institute Research & Institute News |url=https://blogs.iu.edu/kinseyinstitute/2020/05/28/the-power-of-touch-physical-affection-is-important-in-relationships-but-some-people-need-more-than-others/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=blogs.iu.edu}}</ref> Physical touch is correlated with relationship satisfaction<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gallace |first1=Alberto |last2=Spence |first2=Charles |date=2010-02-01 |title=The science of interpersonal touch: An overview |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763408001723 |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |series=Touch, Temperature, Pain/Itch and Pleasure |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=246–259 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.10.004 |pmid=18992276 |s2cid=1092688 |issn=0149-7634|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and feelings of [[love]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sorokowska |first1=Agnieszka |last2=Kowal |first2=Marta |last3=Saluja |first3=Supreet |last4=Aavik |first4=Toivo |last5=Alm |first5=Charlotte |last6=Anjum |first6=Afifa |last7=Asao |first7=Kelly |last8=Batres |first8=Carlota |last9=Bensafia |first9=Aicha |last10=Bizumic |first10=Boris |last11=Boussena |first11=Mahmoud |last12=Buss |first12=David M. |last13=Butovskaya |first13=Marina |last14=Can |first14=Seda |last15=Carrier |first15=Antonin |date=2023 |title=Love and affectionate touch toward romantic partners all over the world |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=5497 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-31502-1 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=10073073 |pmid=37015974|bibcode=2023NatSR..13.5497S }}</ref> While many intimate relationships include a physical or sexual component, the potential to be sexual is not a requirement for the relationship to be intimate. For example, a [[queerplatonic relationship]] is a non-romantic intimate relationship that involves commitment and closeness beyond that of a friendship.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Queerplatonic Relationships: A New Term for an Old Custom {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/bound-together/202109/queerplatonic-relationships-new-term-old-custom |access-date=2023-11-10 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Among scholars, the definition of an intimate relationship is diverse and evolving. Some reserve the term for romantic relationships,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Rowland |url=https://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/intimate-relationships-miller/M9781260804263.html |title=Intimate Relationships |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-260-80426-3 |edition=9th |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bradbury-2019"/> whereas other scholars include [[friendship]] and [[familial relationship]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=McCarthy |first1=Jane Ribbens |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hooL2-lwfvwC |title=Understanding Family Meanings: A Reflective Text |last2=Doolittle |first2=Megan |last3=Sclater |first3=Shelley Day |date=2012 |publisher=Policy Press |isbn=978-1-4473-0112-7 |pages=267–268 |language=en}}</ref> In general, an intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship in which physically or emotionally intimate experiences occur repeatedly over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gaia |first=A. Celeste |date=2002 |title=Understanding Emotional Intimacy: A Review of Conceptualization, Assessment and the Role of Gender |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41887101 |journal=International Social Science Review |volume=77 |issue=3/4 |pages=151–170 |jstor=41887101 |issn=0278-2308}}</ref>

== Course of intimate relationships ==
[[File:Factors influencing Interpersonal attraction.svg|thumb|Factors influencing [[Interpersonal attraction]]]]

=== Formation ===

==== Attraction ====
[[Interpersonal attraction]] is the foundation of first impressions between potential intimate partners. [[Relationship science|Relationship scientists]] suggest that the romantic spark, or "chemistry", that occurs between people is a combination of physical attraction, personal qualities, and a build-up of positive interactions between people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eastwick |first1=Paul W. |last2=Finkel |first2=Eli J. |last3=Joel |first3=Samantha |date=2023 |title=Mate evaluation theory. |journal=Psychological Review |language=en |volume=130 |issue=1 |pages=211–241 |doi=10.1037/rev0000360 |pmid=35389716 |s2cid=248024402 |issn=1939-1471 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Researchers find physical attractiveness to be the largest predictor of initial attraction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eastwick |first1=Paul W. |last2=Luchies |first2=Laura B. |last3=Finkel |first3=Eli J. |last4=Hunt |first4=Lucy L. |date=2014 |title=The predictive validity of ideal partner preferences: A review and meta-analysis. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0032432 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=140 |issue=3 |pages=623–665 |doi=10.1037/a0032432 |pmid=23586697 |issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription }}</ref> From an evolutionary perspective, this may be because people search for a partner (or potential mate) who displays indicators of good physical health.<ref>Graziano, William G.; Bruce, Jennifer Weisho, {{Citation |title=Attraction and the Initiation of Relationships: A Review of the Empirical Literature |date=2018-09-05 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429020513-24 |work=Handbook of Relationship Initiation |pages=275–301 |access-date=2023-11-01 |publisher=Psychology Press |doi=10.4324/9780429020513-24 |isbn=978-0-429-02051-3|s2cid=210531741 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Yet, there is also evidence that couples in committed intimate relationships tend to match each other in physical attractiveness, and are rated as similarly physically attractive by both the members of the couple and by outside observers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feingold |first=Alan |date=1988 |title=Matching for attractiveness in romantic partners and same-sex friends: A meta-analysis and theoretical critique. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0033-2909.104.2.226 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=104 |issue=2 |pages=226–235 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.104.2.226 |issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Bradbury-2019">{{Cite book |last1=Bradbury |first1=Thomas N. |url= |title=Intimate Relationships |last2=Karney |first2=Benjamin R. |date=2019-07-01 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-64025-0 |edition=3rd |language=English}}</ref> An individual's perception of their own attractiveness may therefore influence who they see as a realistic partner.<ref name="Bradbury-2019" />

Beyond physical appearance, people report desirable qualities they look for in a partner such as trustworthiness, warmth, and loyalty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Lorne |last2=Fletcher |first2=Garth JO |date=2015 |title=Romantic relationships, ideal standards, and mate selection |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X15000548 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Relationship science |volume=1 |pages=97–100 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.007 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, these romantic ideals are not necessarily good predictors of actual attraction or relationship success. Research has found little evidence for the success of matching potential partners based on personality traits, suggesting that romantic chemistry involves more than compatibility of traits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eastwick |first1=Paul W |last2=Joel |first2=Samantha |last3=Carswell |first3=Kathleen L |last4=Molden |first4=Daniel C |last5=Finkel |first5=Eli J |last6=Blozis |first6=Shelley A |date=2023 |title=Predicting romantic interest during early relationship development: A preregistered investigation using machine learning |journal=European Journal of Personality |language=en |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=276–312 |doi=10.1177/08902070221085877 |s2cid=241096185 |issn=0890-2070|doi-access=free }}</ref> Rather, repeated positive interactions between people and reciprocity of romantic interest seem to be key components in attraction and relationship formation. [[Reciprocal liking]] is most meaningful when it is displayed by someone who is selective about who they show liking to.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Eastwick |first1=Paul W. |last2=Finkel |first2=Eli J. |last3=Mochon |first3=Daniel |last4=Ariely |first4=Dan |date=2007 |title=Selective Versus Unselective Romantic Desire: Not All Reciprocity Is Created Equal |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01897.x |journal=Psychological Science |language=en |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=317–319 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01897.x |pmid=17470256 |s2cid=2843605 |issn=0956-7976|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Initiation strategies ====
When potential intimate partners are getting to know each other, they employ a variety of strategies to increase closeness and gain information about whether the other person is a desirable partner. [[Self-disclosure]], the process of revealing information about oneself, is a crucial aspect of building intimacy between people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Nancy L. |last2=Miller |first2=Lynn Carol |date=1994 |title=Self-disclosure and liking: A meta-analytic review. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.457 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=457–475 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.457 |pmid=7809308 |s2cid=13919881 |issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Feelings of intimacy increase when a conversation partner is perceived as responsive and reciprocates self-disclosure, and people tend to like others who disclose emotional information to them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laurenceau |first1=Jean-Philippe |last2=Barrett |first2=Lisa Feldman |last3=Pietromonaco |first3=Paula R. |date=1998 |title=Intimacy as an interpersonal process: The importance of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and perceived partner responsiveness in interpersonal exchanges. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1238 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=1238–1251 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1238 |pmid=9599440 |s2cid=1209571 |issn=0022-3514|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other strategies used in the relationship formation stage include humor, initiating physical touch, and signaling availability and interest through eye contact, [[Flirting|flirtatious]] body language, or playful interactions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Catherine L. |last2=Shaver |first2=Phillip R. |last3=Abrahams |first3=Matthew F. |date=1999 |title=Strategic Behaviors in Romantic Relationship Initiation |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167299025006006 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |language=en |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=709–722 |doi=10.1177/0146167299025006006 |s2cid=146305141 |issn=0146-1672|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Monica M. |date=2010-03-24 |title=Human Nonverbal Courtship Behavior—A Brief Historical Review |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224490903402520 |journal=Journal of Sex Research |language=en |volume=47 |issue=2–3 |pages=171–180 |doi=10.1080/00224490903402520 |pmid=20358459 |s2cid=15115115 |issn=0022-4499|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Engaging in [[dating]], [[courtship]], or [[hookup culture]] as part of the relationship formation period allows individuals to explore different interpersonal connections before further investing in an intimate relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Skipper |first1=James K. |last2=Nass |first2=Gilbert |date=1966 |title=Dating Behavior: A Framework for Analysis and an Illustration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/349537 |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=412–420 |doi=10.2307/349537 |jstor=349537 |issn=0022-2445|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Context ====
[[File:How_heterosexual_couples_have_met,_data_from_2009_and_2017.png|thumb|388x388px|The internet has become a popular avenue for meeting an intimate partner.]]
Context, timing, and external circumstances influence attraction and whether an individual is receptive to beginning an intimate relationship. Individuals vary across the lifespan in feeling ready for a relationship, and other external pressures including family expectations, peers being in committed relationships, and cultural [[Norms (sociology)|norms]] influence when people decide to pursue an intimate relationship.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Agnew |first1=Christopher R. |title=Relationship Receptivity Theory: Timing and Interdependent Relationships |date=2020 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/interdependence-interaction-and-close-relationships/relationship-receptivity-theory/049BF596EEAE72A0E53640AC4637F3D5 |work=Interdependence, Interaction, and Close Relationships |pages=269–292 |editor-last=Agnew |editor-first=Christopher R. |access-date=2023-11-08 |series=Advances in Personal Relationships |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108645836.014 |isbn=978-1-108-48096-3 |last2=Hadden |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Tan |first3=Kenneth |s2cid=225698943 |editor2-last=Machia |editor2-first=Laura V. |editor3-last=Arriaga |editor3-first=Ximena B.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Being in close physical proximity is a powerful facilitator for formation of relationships because it allows people to get to know each other through repeated interactions. Intimate partners commonly meet at college or school, as coworkers, as neighbors, at bars, or through religious community.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Sprecher |first1=Susan |title=Relationship initiation and development. |date=2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1037/14344-008 |work=APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Volume 3: Interpersonal relations. |pages=211–245 |access-date=2023-11-17 |place=Washington |publisher=American Psychological Association |language=en |doi=10.1037/14344-008 |last2=Felmlee |first2=Diane |last3=Metts |first3=Sandra |last4=Cupach |first4=William|isbn=978-1-4338-1703-8 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Speed dating]], [[Matchmaking|matchmakers]], and [[Online dating|online dating services]] are more structured formats used to begin relationships. The internet in particular has significantly changed how intimate relationships begin as it allows people to access potential partners beyond their immediate proximity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Michael J. |last2=Thomas |first2=Reuben J. |date=2012 |title=Searching for a Mate: The Rise of the Internet as a Social Intermediary |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0003122412448050 |journal=American Sociological Review |language=en |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=523–547 |doi=10.1177/0003122412448050 |s2cid=145539089 |issn=0003-1224|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Shangwei |last2=Trottier |first2=Daniel |date=2022-04-03 |title=Dating apps: a literature review |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23808985.2022.2069046 |journal=Annals of the International Communication Association |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=91–115 |doi=10.1080/23808985.2022.2069046 |s2cid=248618275 |issn=2380-8985}}</ref> In 2023, [[Pew Research Center]] found that 53% of people under 30 have used online dating, and one in ten adults in a committed relationship met their partner online.<ref name="Vogels">{{Cite web |last1=Vogels |first1=Emily A. |last2=McClain |first2=Colleen |title=Key findings about online dating in the U.S. |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/02/02/key-findings-about-online-dating-in-the-u-s/ |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=Pew Research Center |date=2 February 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> However, there remains skepticism about the effectiveness and safety of dating apps due to their potential to facilitate [[dating violence]].<ref name="Vogels" />

=== Maintenance ===
Once an intimate relationship has been initiated, the relationship changes and develops over time, and the members may engage in commitment agreements and maintenance behaviors. In an ongoing relationship, couples must navigate protecting their own self-interest alongside the interest of maintaining the relationship.<ref name="Rusbult-2001">{{Cite book |last1=Rusbult |first1=Caryl E. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8it5AgAAQBAJ&dq=intimate+relationship+maintenance&pg=PA87 |title=Close Romantic Relationships: Maintenance and Enhancement |last2=Olsen |first2=Nils |last3=Davis |first3=Jody L. |last4=Harmon |first4=Peggy A. |date=2001 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-135-65942-4 |editor-last=Harvey |editor-first=John H. |language=en |chapter=Commitment and Relationship Maintenance Mechanisms |editor-last2=Wenzel |editor-first2=Amy}}</ref> This necessitates [[compromise]], sacrifice, and communication.<ref>Agnew, C. R., & VanderDrift, L. E. (2015). Relationship maintenance and dissolution. In M. Mikulincer, P. R. Shaver, J. A. Simpson, & [[J. F. Dovidio]] (Eds.), ''APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Vol. 3. Interpersonal relations'' (pp. 581–604). American Psychological Association. [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-35884-021 https://doi.org/10.1037/14344-021]</ref> In general, feelings of intimacy and commitment increase as a relationship progresses, while [[Passion (emotion)|passion]] plateaus following the excitement of the early stages of the relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=García |first=C.Y. |date=1998 |title=Temporal course of the basic components of love throughout relationships |url=https://www.psychologyinspain.com/content/reprints/1998/9.pdf |journal=Psychology in Spain |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=76–86}}</ref>

Engaging in ongoing positive shared communication and activities is important for strengthening the relationship and increasing commitment and liking between partners. These maintenance behaviors can include providing assurances about commitment to the relationship, engaging in shared activities, openly disclosing thoughts and feelings, spending time with mutual friends, and contributing to shared responsibilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stafford |first1=Laura |last2=Canary |first2=Daniel J. |date=1991 |title=Maintenance Strategies and Romantic Relationship Type, Gender and Relational Characteristics |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407591082004 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=217–242 |doi=10.1177/0265407591082004 |s2cid=145391340 |issn=0265-4075|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ogolsky |first1=Brian G. |last2=Bowers |first2=Jill R. |date=2013 |title=A meta-analytic review of relationship maintenance and its correlates |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407512463338 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=343–367 |doi=10.1177/0265407512463338 |s2cid=145683192 |issn=0265-4075|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Physical intimacy including sexual behavior also increases feelings of closeness and satisfaction with the relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birnbaum |first1=Gurit E |last2=Finkel |first2=Eli J |date=2015 |title=The magnetism that holds us together: sexuality and relationship maintenance across relationship development |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352250X14000104 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |language=en |volume=1 |pages=29–33 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.11.009|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, [[sexual desire and intimate relationships|sexual desire]] is often greatest early in a relationship, and may wax and wane as the relationship evolves.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Impett |first1=Emily A. |title=Sex as Relationship Maintenance |date=2019 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/relationship-maintenance/sex-as-relationship-maintenance/B18DA8207F0AE4F0F3B0A9B09D0D99F0 |work=Relationship Maintenance: Theory, Process, and Context |pages=215–239 |editor-last=Ogolsky |editor-first=Brian G. |access-date=2023-11-08 |series=Advances in Personal Relationships |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-41985-7 |last2=Muise |first2=Amy |last3=Rosen |first3=Natalie O. |editor2-last=Monk |editor2-first=J. Kale}}</ref> Significant life events such as the birth of a child can drastically change the relationship and necessitate adaptation and new approaches to maintaining intimacy. The transition to parenthood can be a stressful period that is generally associated with a temporary decrease in healthy relationship functioning and a decline in sexual intimacy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doss |first1=Brian D |last2=Rhoades |first2=Galena K |date=2017-02-01 |title=The transition to parenthood: impact on couples' romantic relationships |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16300276 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Relationships and stress |volume=13 |pages=25–28 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.003 |pmid=28813289 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Woolhouse |first1=Hannah |last2=McDonald |first2=Ellie |last3=Brown |first3=Stephanie |date=2012-12-01 |title=Women's experiences of sex and intimacy after childbirth: making the adjustment to motherhood |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/0167482X.2012.720314 |journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology |language=en |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=185–190 |doi=10.3109/0167482X.2012.720314 |pmid=22973871 |s2cid=37025280 |issn=0167-482X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Commitment ====
[[File:Edmund_Blair_Leighton_-_The_Wedding_Register.jpg|thumb|Marriage is a form of relationship maintenance that signals commitment between partners.]]
As a relationship develops, intimate partners often engage in commitment agreements, ceremonies, and behaviors to signal their intention to remain in the relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=Scott M. |last2=Rhoades |first2=Galena K. |last3=Whitton |first3=Sarah W. |date=2010 |title=Commitment: Functions, Formation, and the Securing of Romantic Attachment |journal=Journal of Family Theory & Review |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=243–257 |doi=10.1111/j.1756-2589.2010.00060.x |issn= |pmc= 3039217|pmid=21339829}}</ref> This might include moving in together, sharing responsibilities or property, and getting [[Marriage|married]]. These commitment markers increase relationship stability because they create physical, financial, and symbolic barriers and consequences to dissolving the relationship.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rollie |first1=Stephanie S. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGZlAgAAQBAJ&dq=marriage+and+relationship+dissolution+barrier&pg=PA223 |title=Handbook of Divorce and Relationship Dissolution |last2=Duck |first2=Steve |date=2013 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-317-82421-3 |editor-last=Fine |editor-first=Mark A. |language=en |chapter=Divorce and Dissolution of Romantic Relationships: Stage Models and Their Limitations |editor-last2=Harvey |editor-first2=John H.}}</ref> In general, increases in relationship satisfaction and investment are associated with increased commitment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rusbult |first=Caryl E |date=1980 |title=Commitment and satisfaction in romantic associations: A test of the investment model |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031%2880%2990007-4 |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=172–186 |doi=10.1016/0022-1031(80)90007-4 |s2cid=21707015 |issn=0022-1031|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Evaluating the relationship ====
Individuals in intimate relationships evaluate the relative personal benefits and costs of being in the relationship, and this contributes to the decision to stay or leave. The [[investment model of commitment]] is a theoretical framework that suggests that an evaluation of relationship satisfaction, relationship investment, and the quality of alternatives to the relationship impact whether an individual remains in a relationship.<ref name="Rusbult-2001" />

Because relationships are rewarding and evolutionarily necessary, and rejection is a stressful process, people are generally biased toward making decisions that uphold and further facilitate intimate relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joel |first1=Samantha |last2=MacDonald |first2=Geoff |date=2021 |title=We're Not That Choosy: Emerging Evidence of a Progression Bias in Romantic Relationships |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |language=en |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=317–343 |doi=10.1177/10888683211025860 |issn=1088-8683 |pmc=8597186 |pmid=34247524}}</ref> These biases can lead to distortions in the evaluation of a relationship. For instance, people in committed relationships tend to dismiss and derogate attractive alternative partners, thereby validating the decision to remain with their more attractive partner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritter |first1=Simone M. |last2=Karremans |first2=Johan C. |last3=van Schie |first3=Hein T. |date=2010-07-01 |title=The role of self-regulation in derogating attractive alternatives |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103110000375 |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=631–637 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2010.02.010 |issn=0022-1031|hdl=2066/90614 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Dissolution ===
The decision to leave a relationship often involves an evaluation of levels of satisfaction and commitment in the relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joel |first1=Samantha |last2=MacDonald |first2=Geoff |last3=Page-Gould |first3=Elizabeth |date=2018 |title=Wanting to Stay and Wanting to Go: Unpacking the Content and Structure of Relationship Stay/Leave Decision Processes |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1948550617722834 |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |language=en |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=631–644 |doi=10.1177/1948550617722834 |s2cid=148797874 |issn=1948-5506|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Relationship factors such as increased commitment and feelings of love are associated with lower chances of breakup, whereas feeling ambivalent about the relationship and perceiving many alternatives to the current relationship are associated with increased chances of dissolution.<ref name="Le-2010">{{Cite journal |last1=Le |first1=Benjamin |last2=Dove |first2=Natalie L. |last3=Agnew |first3=Christopher R. |last4=Korn |first4=Miriam S. |last5=Mutso |first5=Amelia A. |date=2010 |title=Predicting nonmarital romantic relationship dissolution: A meta-analytic synthesis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01285.x |journal=Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=377–390 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01285.x|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Predictors of dissolution ====
Specific individual characteristics and traits put people at greater risk for experiencing relationship dissolution. Individuals high in [[neuroticism]] (the tendency to experience negative emotions) are more prone to relationship dissolution,<ref name="Vangelisti-2013">{{Cite book |last=Vangelisti |first=Anita L. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzMlUeTxUPQC&dq=intimate+relationship+dissolution&pg=RA7-PT31 |title=Close Relationships: Functions, Forms and Processes |date=2013 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-134-95333-2 |editor-last=Noeller |editor-first=Patricia |language=en |chapter=Relationship Dissolution: Antecedents, Processes, and Consequences |editor-last2=Feeney |editor-first2=Judith A.}}</ref> and research also shows small effects of attachment avoidance and anxiety in predicting breakup.<ref name="Le-2010" /> Being married at a younger age, having lower income, lower educational attainment, and [[Cohabitation|cohabiting]] before marriage are also associated with risk of divorce and relationship dissolution. These characteristics are not necessarily the inherent causes of dissolution. Rather, they are traits that impact the resources that individuals are able to draw upon to work on their relationships as well as reflections of social and cultural attitudes toward relationship institutions and divorce.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rodrigues |first1=A.E. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-08138-005 |title=Handbook of divorce and relationship dissolution |last2=Hall |first2=J.G. |last3=Fincham |first3=F.D. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers |year=2006 |editor-last=Fine |editor-first=M.A. |pages=85–112 |language=en |chapter=What Predicts Divorce and Relationship Dissolution? |editor-last2=Harvey |editor-first2=J.H.}}</ref>

==== Strategies and consequences ====
Common strategies for ending a relationship include justifying the decision, apologizing, avoiding contact ([[Ghosting (behavior)|ghosting]]), or suggesting a "break" period before revisiting the decision.<ref name="Vangelisti-2013" /> The dissolution of an intimate relationship is a stressful event that can have a negative impact on well-being, and the rejection can elicit strong feelings of [[embarrassment]], [[sadness]], and [[anger]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Berscheid |first1=Ellen |title=A Little Bit about Love |date=1974 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-362950-0.50021-5 |work=Foundations of Interpersonal Attraction |pages=355–381 |access-date=2023-11-18 |publisher=Elsevier |last2=Hatfield |first2=Elaine|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-362950-0.50021-5 |isbn=978-0-12-362950-0 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>  Following a relationship breakup, individuals are at risk for anxiety, depressive symptoms, problematic substance use, and low [[self-esteem]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Whisman |first1=Mark A. |last2=Salinger |first2=Julia M. |last3=Sbarra |first3=David A. |date=2022-02-01 |title=Relationship dissolution and psychopathology |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X21001159 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=43 |pages=199–204 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.016 |pmid=34416683 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kansky |first1=Jessica |last2=Allen |first2=Joseph P. |date=2018 |title=Making Sense and Moving On: The Potential for Individual and Interpersonal Growth Following Emerging Adult Breakups |journal=Emerging Adulthood |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=172–190 |doi=10.1177/2167696817711766 |issn=2167-6968 |pmc=6051550 |pmid=30034952}}</ref> However, the period following a break-up can also promote personal growth, particularly if the previous relationship was not fulfilling.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lewandowski |first1=Gary W. |last2=Bizzoco |first2=Nicole M. |date=2007 |title=Addition through subtraction: Growth following the dissolution of a low quality relationship |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17439760601069234 |journal=The Journal of Positive Psychology |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=40–54 |doi=10.1080/17439760601069234 |s2cid=145109937 |issn=1743-9760|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Benefits ==

=== Psychological well-being ===
[[File:Couple_hugging_and_smiling.jpg|thumb|Intimate relationships impact well-being.]]
Intimate relationships impact [[happiness]] and [[Life satisfaction|satisfaction with life]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Proulx |first1=Christine M. |last2=Helms |first2=Heather M. |last3=Buehler |first3=Cheryl |date=2007 |title=Marital Quality and Personal Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00393.x |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |language=en |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=576–593 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00393.x |issn=0022-2445}}</ref> While people with better [[mental health]] are more likely to enter intimate relationships, the relationships themselves also have a positive impact on mental health even after controlling for the [[Selection bias|selection effect]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Braithwaite |first1=Scott |last2=Holt-Lunstad |first2=Julianne |date=2017 |title=Romantic relationships and mental health |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16300252 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Relationships and stress |volume=13 |pages=120–125 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.001 |pmid=28813281 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In general, marriage and other types of committed intimate relationships are consistently linked to increases in happiness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stack |first1=Steven |last2=Eshleman |first2=J. Ross |date=1998 |title=Marital Status and Happiness: A 17-Nation Study |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/353867 |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=527–536 |doi=10.2307/353867 |jstor=353867 |issn=0022-2445|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Furthermore, due to the interdependent nature of relationships, one partner's life satisfaction influences and predicts change in the other person's life satisfaction even after controlling for relationship quality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gustavson |first1=Kristin |last2=Røysamb |first2=Espen |last3=Borren |first3=Ingrid |last4=Torvik |first4=Fartein Ask |last5=Karevold |first5=Evalill |date=2016-06-01 |title=Life Satisfaction in Close Relationships: Findings from a Longitudinal Study |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9643-7 |journal=Journal of Happiness Studies |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=1293–1311 |doi=10.1007/s10902-015-9643-7 |s2cid=254703008 |issn=1573-7780|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Social support ====
Social support from an intimate partner is beneficial for coping with [[Stress (biology)|stress]] and significant life events.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sullivan |first1=Kieran T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=df9cCAAAQBAJ&dq=intimate+relationships+and+social+support&pg=PA26 |title=Support Processes in Intimate Relationships |last2=Davila |first2=Joanne |date=2010-06-11 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-045229-2 |language=en}}</ref> Having a close relationship with someone who is perceived as responsive and validating helps to alleviate the negative impact of stress,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raposa |first1=Elizabeth B. |last2=Laws |first2=Holly B. |last3=Ansell |first3=Emily B. |date=2016 |title=Prosocial Behavior Mitigates the Negative Effects of Stress in Everyday Life |journal=Clinical Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=691–698 |doi=10.1177/2167702615611073 |issn=2167-7026 |pmc=4974016 |pmid=27500075}}</ref> and shared activities with an intimate partner aids in regulating emotions associated with stressful experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lakey |first1=Brian |last2=Orehek |first2=Edward |date=2011 |title=Relational regulation theory: A new approach to explain the link between perceived social support and mental health. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0023477 |journal=Psychological Review |language=en |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=482–495 |doi=10.1037/a0023477 |pmid=21534704 |s2cid=20717156 |issn=1939-1471}}</ref> Support for positive experiences can also improve relationship quality and increase shared positive emotions between people. When a person responds actively and constructively to their partner sharing good news (a process called "capitalization"), well-being for both individuals increases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=Brett J. |last2=Reis |first2=Harry T. |last3=Gable |first3=Shelly L. |date=2018 |title=Making the good even better: A review and theoretical model of interpersonal capitalization |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/spc3.12407 |journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass |language=en |volume=12 |issue=7 |doi=10.1111/spc3.12407 |s2cid=149686889 |issn=1751-9004|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Donato |first1=Silvia |last2=Pagani |first2=Ariela |last3=Parise |first3=Miriam |last4=Bertoni |first4=Anna |last5=Iafrate |first5=Raffaella |date=2014 |title=The Capitalization Process in Stable Couple Relationships: Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Benefits |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |language=en |volume=140 |pages=207–211 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.411|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Sexual intimacy ====
In intimate relationships that are sexual, sexual satisfaction is closely tied to overall relationship satisfaction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maxwell |first1=Jessica A. |last2=McNulty |first2=James K. |date=2019 |title=No Longer in a Dry Spell: The Developing Understanding of How Sex Influences Romantic Relationships |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=102–107 |doi=10.1177/0963721418806690 |s2cid=149470236 |issn=0963-7214|doi-access=free }}</ref> Sex promotes intimacy, increases happiness,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Zhiming |last2=Smyth |first2=Russell |date=2015-04-01 |title=Sex and happiness |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268115000050 |journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization |volume=112 |pages=26–32 |doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2014.12.030 |issn=0167-2681|url-access=subscription }}</ref> provides pleasure, and reduces stress.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meston |first1=Cindy M. |last2=Buss |first2=David M. |date=2007-07-03 |title=Why Humans Have Sex |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9175-2 |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=477–507 |doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9175-2 |pmid=17610060 |s2cid=6182053 |issn=0004-0002|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ein-Dor |first1=Tsachi |last2=Hirschberger |first2=Gilad |date=2012 |title=Sexual healing: Daily diary evidence that sex relieves stress for men and women in satisfying relationships |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407511431185 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=126–139 |doi=10.1177/0265407511431185 |s2cid=73681719 |issn=0265-4075|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Studies show that couples who have sex at least once per week report greater well-being than those who have sex less than once per week.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muise |first1=Amy |last2=Schimmack |first2=Ulrich |last3=Impett |first3=Emily A. |date=2016 |title=Sexual Frequency Predicts Greater Well-Being, But More is Not Always Better |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1948550615616462 |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=295–302 |doi=10.1177/1948550615616462 |s2cid=146679264 |issn=1948-5506|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Research in [[human sexuality]] finds that the ingredients of high quality sex include feeling connected to your partner, good communication, vulnerability, and feeling present in the moment. High quality sex in intimate relationships can both strengthen the relationship and improve well-being for each individual involved.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kleinplatz |first1=Peggy J. |last2=Menard |first2=A. Dana |last3=Paquet |first3=Marie-Pierre |last4=Paradis |first4=Nicolas |last5=Campbell |first5=Meghan |last6=Zuccarino |first6=Dino |last7=Mehak |first7=Lisa |date=2009 |title=The components of optimal sexuality: A portrait of "great sex" |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232545283 |journal=Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality |volume=18 |issue=1–2}}</ref>

=== Physical health ===
High quality intimate relationships have a positive impact on [[Health|physical health]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Slatcher |first1=Richard B. |last2=Selcuk |first2=Emre |date=2017 |title=A Social Psychological Perspective on the Links Between Close Relationships and Health |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=16–21 |doi=10.1177/0963721416667444 |issn=0963-7214 |pmc=5373007 |pmid=28367003}}</ref> and associations between close relationships and health outcomes involving the [[Circulatory system|cardiovascular]], [[Immune system|immune]], and [[Endocrine system|endocrine]] systems have been consistently identified in the scientific literature.<ref name="Kiecolt-Glaser-2001">{{Cite journal |last1=Kiecolt-Glaser |first1=Janice K. |last2=Newton |first2=Tamara L. |date=2001 |title=Marriage and health: His and hers. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.472 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=127 |issue=4 |pages=472–503 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.127.4.472 |pmid=11439708 |issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Better relationship quality is associated lower risk of [[Mortality rate|mortality]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Robles |first1=Theodore F. |last2=Slatcher |first2=Richard B. |last3=Trombello |first3=Joseph M. |last4=McGinn |first4=Meghan M. |date=2014 |title=Marital quality and health: A meta-analytic review. |journal=Psychological Bulletin |language=en |volume=140 |issue=1 |pages=140–187 |doi=10.1037/a0031859 |issn=1939-1455 |pmc=3872512 |pmid=23527470}}</ref> and relationship quality impacts [[Inflammation|inflammatory]] responses such as [[cytokine]] expression and [[Cell signaling|intracellular signaling]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=GRAHAM |first1=JENNIFER E. |title=Close Relationships and Immunity |date=2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-012088576-3/50043-5 |work=Psychoneuroimmunology |pages=781–798 |access-date=2023-11-23 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-088576-3 |last2=CHRISTIAN |first2=LISA M. |last3=KIECOLT-GLASER |first3=JANICE K.|doi=10.1016/b978-012088576-3/50043-5 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kiecolt-Glaser |first1=Janice K. |last2=Gouin |first2=Jean-Philippe |last3=Hantsoo |first3=Liisa |date=2010-09-01 |title=Close relationships, inflammation, and health |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |series=Psychophysiological Biomarkers of Health |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=33–38 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.09.003 |pmid=19751761 |pmc=2891342 |issn=0149-7634}}</ref> Furthermore, intimate partners are an important source of [[social support]] for encouraging healthy behaviors such as increasing physical activity<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berli |first1=Corina |last2=Bolger |first2=Niall |last3=Shrout |first3=Patrick E. |last4=Stadler |first4=Gertraud |last5=Scholz |first5=Urte |date=2018 |title=Interpersonal Processes of Couples' Daily Support for Goal Pursuit: The Example of Physical Activity |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29121824/ |journal=Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=332–344 |doi=10.1177/0146167217739264 |issn=1552-7433 |pmid=29121824|s2cid=5399890 |hdl=2164/9760 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and quitting smoking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Britton |first1=Maggie |last2=Haddad |first2=Sana |last3=Derrick |first3=Jaye L. |date=2019 |title=Perceived Partner Responsiveness Predicts Smoking Cessation in Single-Smoker Couples |journal=Addictive Behaviors |volume=88 |pages=122–128 |doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.08.026 |issn=0306-4603 |pmc=7027992 |pmid=30176500}}</ref> Sexual activity and other forms of physical intimacy also contribute positively to physical health,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jakubiak |first1=Brett K. |last2=Feeney |first2=Brooke C. |date=2017 |title=Affectionate Touch to Promote Relational, Psychological, and Physical Well-Being in Adulthood: A Theoretical Model and Review of the Research |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1088868316650307 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=228–252 |doi=10.1177/1088868316650307 |pmid=27225036 |s2cid=40786746 |issn=1088-8683|url-access=subscription }}</ref> while conflict between intimate partners negatively impacts the immune and endocrine systems and can increase blood pressure.<ref name="Kiecolt-Glaser-2001" />

Laboratory experiments show evidence for the association between support from intimate partners and physical health. In a study assessing recovery from wounds and [[inflammation]], individuals in relationships high in conflict and hostility recovered from wounds more slowly than people in low-hostility relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kiecolt-Glaser |first1=Janice K. |last2=Loving |first2=Timothy J. |last3=Stowell |first3=Jeffrey R. |last4=Malarkey |first4=William B. |last5=Lemeshow |first5=Stanley |last6=Dickinson |first6=Stephanie L. |last7=Glaser |first7=Ronald |date=2005 |title=Hostile marital interactions, proinflammatory cytokine production, and wound healing |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16330726/ |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1377–1384 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.62.12.1377 |issn=0003-990X |pmid=16330726}}</ref> The presence or imagined presence of an intimate partner can even impact perceived pain. In [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] studies, participants who view an image of their intimate partner report less pain in response to a stimulus compared to participants who view the photo of a stranger.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Younger |first1=Jarred |last2=Aron |first2=Arthur |last3=Parke |first3=Sara |last4=Chatterjee |first4=Neil |last5=Mackey |first5=Sean |date=2010-10-13 |title=Viewing Pictures of a Romantic Partner Reduces Experimental Pain: Involvement of Neural Reward Systems |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=e13309 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0013309 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=2954158 |pmid=20967200 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...513309Y |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Master |first1=Sarah L. |last2=Eisenberger |first2=Naomi I. |last3=Taylor |first3=Shelley E. |last4=Naliboff |first4=Bruce D. |last5=Shirinyan |first5=David |last6=Lieberman |first6=Matthew D. |date=2009 |title=A Picture's Worth: Partner Photographs Reduce Experimentally Induced Pain |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02444.x |journal=Psychological Science |language=en |volume=20 |issue=11 |pages=1316–1318 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02444.x |pmid=19788531 |s2cid=14948326 |issn=0956-7976|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In another laboratory study, women who received a text message from their partner showed reduced cardiovascular response to the [[Trier social stress test|Trier Social Stress Test]], a stress-inducing paradigm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hooker |first1=Emily D. |last2=Campos |first2=Belinda |last3=Pressman |first3=Sarah D. |date=2018-07-01 |title=It just takes a text: Partner text messages can reduce cardiovascular responses to stress in females |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563218300918 |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=84 |pages=485–492 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.033 |s2cid=13840189 |issn=0747-5632}}</ref>

== Challenges ==

=== Conflict ===
Disagreements within intimate relationships are a stressful event,<ref name="Feeney-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Feeney |first1=Judith A |last2=Karantzas |first2=Gery C |date=2017 |title=Couple conflict: insights from an attachment perspective |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16300410 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Relationships and stress |volume=13 |pages=60–64 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.017 |pmid=28813296 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and the strategies couples use to navigate conflict impact the quality and success of the relationship.<ref name="Overall-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Overall |first1=Nickola C |author-link=Nickola Overall |last2=McNulty |first2=James K |date=2017 |title=What type of communication during conflict is beneficial for intimate relationships? |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Relationships and stress |volume=13 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.002 |issn=2352-250X |pmc=5181851 |pmid=28025652}}</ref> Common sources of conflict between intimate partners include disagreements about the balance of work and family life, frequency of sex, finances, and household tasks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Risch |first1=Gail S. |last2=Riley |first2=Lisa A. |last3=Lawler |first3=Michael G. |date=2003 |title=Problematic Issues in the Early Years of Marriage: Content for Premarital Education |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/009164710303100310 |journal=Journal of Psychology and Theology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=253–269 |doi=10.1177/009164710303100310 |s2cid=141072191 |issn=0091-6471|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Psychologist [[John Gottman]]'s research has identified three stages of conflict in couples. First, couples present their opinions and feelings on the issue. Next, they argue and attempt to persuade the other of their viewpoint, and finally, the members of the relationship negotiate to try to arrive at a compromise.<ref name="Gottman-2017">{{Citation |last=Gottman |first=John M. |title=The Roles of Conflict Engagement, Escalation, and Avoidance in Marital Interaction: A Longitudinal View of Five Types of Couples |date=2017-11-30 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351153683-21 |work=Interpersonal Development |pages=359–368 |access-date=2023-11-22 |publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781351153683-21 |isbn=978-1-351-15368-3 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Individuals vary in how they typically engage with conflict.<ref name="Gottman-2017" /> Gottman describes that happy couples differ from unhappy couples in their interactions during conflict: unhappy couples tend to use more frequent negative tone of voice, show more predictable behavior during communication, and get stuck in cycles of negative behavior with their partner.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gottman |first=J.M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXuLBQAAQBAJ&dq=Gottman,+J.+M.+(1979).+Marital+interaction:+Experimental+investigations.+San+Diego,+CA:+Academic+Press&pg=PP1 |title=Marital Interaction: Experimental Investigations |publisher=Academic Press |year=1979 |location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-4832-6598-8 }}</ref><ref name="Bradbury-2019"/> Other unproductive strategies within conflict include avoidance and withdrawal, defensiveness, and hostility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Overall |first1=Nickola C. |last2=McNulty |first2=James K. |date=2017 |title=What Type of Communication during Conflict is Beneficial for Intimate Relationships? |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=13 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.002 |issn=2352-250X |pmc=5181851 |pmid=28025652}}</ref> These responses may be salient when an individual feels threatened by the conflict, which can be a reflection of insecure [[Attachment theory|attachment orientation]] and previous negative relationship experiences.<ref name="Feeney-2017" /> When conflicts go unresolved, relationship satisfaction is negatively impacted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cramer |first=Duncan |date=2000 |title=Relationship Satisfaction and Conflict Style in Romantic Relationships |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223980009600873 |journal=The Journal of Psychology |language=en |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=337–341 |doi=10.1080/00223980009600873 |pmid=10907711 |s2cid=9245525 |issn=0022-3980|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Constructive conflict resolution strategies include validating the other person's point of view and concerns, expressing affection, using humor, and active listening. However, the effectiveness of these strategies depend on the topic and severity of the conflict and the characteristics of the individuals involved.<ref name="Overall-2017" /> Repeated stressful instances of unresolved conflict might cause intimate partners to seek [[Couples therapy|couples counseling]], consult [[self-help]] resources, or consider ending the relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doss |first1=Brian D. |last2=Rhoades |first2=Galena K. |last3=Stanley |first3=Scott M. |last4=Markman |first4=Howard J. |date=2009 |title=Marital Therapy, Retreats, and Books: The Who, What, When, and Why of Relationship Help-Seeking |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00093.x |journal=Journal of Marital and Family Therapy |language=en |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=18–29 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-0606.2008.00093.x |pmid=19161581 |issn=0194-472X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Attachment insecurity ===
Attachment orientations that develop from early interpersonal relationships can influence how people behave in intimate relationships, and insecure attachment can lead to specific issues in a relationship. Individuals vary in attachment anxiety (the degree to which they worry about abandonment) and avoidance (the degree to which they avoid emotional closeness).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Jeffry A |last2=Rholes |first2=W Steven |date=2017-02-01 |title=Adult attachment, stress, and romantic relationships |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Relationships and stress |volume=13 |pages=19–24 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.006 |issn=2352-250X |pmc=4845754 |pmid=27135049}}</ref> Research shows that insecure attachment orientations that are high in avoidance or anxiety are associated with experiencing more frequent negative emotions in intimate relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simpson |first=Jeffry A. |date=1990 |title=Influence of attachment styles on romantic relationships. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=971–980 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.971 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Individuals high in attachment anxiety are particularly prone to [[jealousy]] and experience heightened distress about whether their partner will leave them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martínez-León |first1=Nancy Consuelo |last2=Peña |first2=Juan José |last3=Salazar |first3=Hernán |last4=García |first4=Andrea |last5=Sierra |first5=Juan Carlos |date=2017 |title=A systematic review of romantic jealousy in relationships |url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-48082017000200203&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en |journal=Terapia psicológica |language=en |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=203–212 |doi=10.4067/s0718-48082017000200203 |issn=0718-4808|doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.12495/3466 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Highly anxious individuals also perceive more conflict in their relationships and are disproportionately negatively affected by those conflicts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Lorne |last2=Simpson |first2=Jeffry A. |last3=Boldry |first3=Jennifer |last4=Kashy |first4=Deborah A. |date=2005 |title=Perceptions of Conflict and Support in Romantic Relationships: The Role of Attachment Anxiety. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.510 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=510–531 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.510 |pmid=15740443 |s2cid=21042397 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In contrast, avoidantly attached individuals may experience [[fear of intimacy]] or be dismissive of the potential benefits of a close relationship and thus have difficulty building an intimate connection with a partner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bartholomew |first=Kim |date=1990 |title=Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407590072001 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=147–178 |doi=10.1177/0265407590072001 |s2cid=146379254 |issn=0265-4075|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Stress ===
Stress that occurs both within and outside an intimate relationship—including financial issues, familial obligations, and stress at work—can negatively impact the quality of the relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Finkel |first1=Eli J. |last2=Simpson |first2=Jeffry A. |last3=Eastwick |first3=Paul W. |date=2017-01-03 |title=The Psychology of Close Relationships: Fourteen Core Principles |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044038 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=383–411 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044038 |pmid=27618945 |s2cid=207567096 |issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Stress depletes the psychological resources that are crucial for developing and maintaining a healthy relationship. Rather than spending energy investing in the relationship through shared activities, sex and physical intimacy, and healthy communication, couples under stress are forced to use their psychological resources to manage other pressing issues.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Karney |first1=Benjamin R. |title=The Oxford handbook of close relationships |last2=Neff |first2=Lisa A. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |editor-last=Simpson |editor-first=J.A. |pages=664–684 |chapter=Couples and stress: How demands outside a relationship affect intimacy within the relationship |doi= |editor-last2=Campbell |editor-first2=L.}}</ref> Low [[socioeconomic status]] is a particularly salient stressful context that constrains an individual's ability to invest in maintaining a healthy intimate relationship. Couples with lower socioeconomic status are at risk for experiencing increased rates of dissolution and lower relationship satisfaction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karney |first=Benjamin R. |date=2021 |title=Socioeconomic Status and Intimate Relationships |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=391–414 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-051920-013658 |issn= |pmc= 8179854|pmid= 32886585|s2cid=221503060 }}</ref>

=== Infidelity ===
Infidelity and sex outside a monogamous relationship are behaviors that are commonly disapproved of, a frequent source of conflict, and a cause of relationship dissolution.<ref name="Blow-2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Blow |first1=Adrian J. |last2=Hartnett |first2=Kelley |date=2005 |title=Infidelity in Committed Relationships II: A Substantive Review |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2005.tb01556.x |journal=Journal of Marital and Family Therapy |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=217–233 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-0606.2005.tb01556.x |pmid=15974059 |issn=0194-472X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Low relationship satisfaction may cause people to desire physical or emotional connection outside their primary relationship.<ref name="Blow-2005" /> However, people with more sexual opportunities, greater interest in sex, and more permissive attitudes toward sex are also more likely to engage in infidelity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Treas |first1=Judith |last2=Giesen |first2=Deirdre |date=2000 |title=Sexual Infidelity among Married and Cohabiting Americans |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1566686 |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=48–60 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00048.x |jstor=1566686 |issn=0022-2445|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In the United States, research has found that between 15 and 25% of adults report ever cheating on a partner.<ref name="Institute for Family Studies">{{Cite web |title=Who Cheats More? The Demographics of Infidelity in America |url=https://ifstudies.org/blog/who-cheats-more-the-demographics-of-cheating-in-america |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=Institute for Family Studies |language=en}}</ref>

When one member of a relationship violates agreements of sexual or emotional exclusivity, the foundation of trust in the primary relationship is negatively impacted, and individuals may experience [[Depression (mood)|depression]], low [[self-esteem]], and emotional dysregulation in the aftermath of an [[affair]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rokach |first1=Ami |last2=Chan |first2=Sybil H. |date=2023 |title=Love and Infidelity: Causes and Consequences |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=3904 |doi=10.3390/ijerph20053904 |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=10002055 |pmid=36900915 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Infidelity is ultimately tied to increased likelihood of relationship dissolution or divorce.<ref name="Institute for Family Studies" />

=== Intimate partner violence ===
Violence within an intimate relationship can take the form of [[Physical abuse|physical]], [[Psychological abuse|psychological]], [[Economic abuse|financial]], or [[sexual abuse]]. The [[World Health Organization]] estimates that 30% of women have experienced physical or sexual violence perpetrated by an intimate partner.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Violence against women |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> The strong emotional attachment, investment, and interdependence that characterizes close relationships can make it difficult to leave an abusive relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Jinseok |last2=Gray |first2=Karen A. |date=2008 |title=Leave or Stay?: Battered Women's Decision After Intimate Partner Violence |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0886260508314307 |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |language=en |volume=23 |issue=10 |pages=1465–1482 |doi=10.1177/0886260508314307 |pmid=18309037 |s2cid=263537650 |issn=0886-2605|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Research has identified a variety of risk factors for and types of perpetrators of intimate partner violence. Individuals who are exposed to violence or experience abuse in childhood are more likely to become perpetrators or victims of intimate partner violence as adults as part of the intergenerational [[cycle of violence]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Ping-Hsin |last2=Jacobs |first2=Abbie |last3=Rovi |first3=Susan L D |date=2013-09-01 |title=Intimate partner violence: childhood exposure to domestic violence |url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/24053262 |journal=FP Essentials |volume=412 |pages=24–27 |issn=2161-9344 |pmid=24053262}}</ref> Perpetrators are also more likely to be aggressive, impulsive, prone to anger, and may show pathological personality traits such as [[Antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]] and [[Borderline personality disorder|borderline]] traits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Finkel |first1=Eli J. |last2=Eckhardt |first2=Christopher I. |date=2013-04-12 |editor-last=Simpson |editor-first=Jeffry A. |editor2-last=Campbell |editor2-first=Lorne |title=Intimate Partner Violence |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398694.013.0020 |journal=Oxford Handbooks Online |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398694.013.0020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Patriarchy|Patriarchal]] cultural scripts that depict men as aggressive and dominant may be an additional risk factor for men engaging in violence toward an intimate partner,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=Parveen Azam |last2=Naylor |first2=Paul B. |date=2013-11-01 |title=Intimate partner violence: A narrative review of the feminist, social and ecological explanations for its causation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178913000633 |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=611–619 |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2013.07.009 |issn=1359-1789|url-access=subscription }}</ref> although violence by female perpetrators is also a well-documented phenomenon<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carney |first1=Michelle |last2=Buttell |first2=Fred |last3=Dutton |first3=Don |date=2007-01-01 |title=Women who perpetrate intimate partner violence: A review of the literature with recommendations for treatment |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178906000474 |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=108–115 |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2006.05.002 |issn=1359-1789|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and research finds other contextual and demographic characteristics to be more salient risks factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ehrensaft |first=Miriam K. |date=2008-03-01 |title=Intimate partner violence: Persistence of myths and implications for intervention |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190740907001867 |journal=Children and Youth Services Review |series=Recent Trends in Intimate Violence: Theory and Intervention |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=276–286 |doi=10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.10.005 |issn=0190-7409|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Contextual factors such as high levels of stress can also contribute to risk of violence. Within the relationship, high levels of conflict and disagreements are associated with intimate partner violence, particularly for people who react to conflict with hostility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Capaldi |first1=Deborah M. |last2=Knoble |first2=Naomi B. |last3=Shortt |first3=Joann Wu |last4=Kim |first4=Hyoun K. |date=2012 |title=A Systematic Review of Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence |journal=Partner Abuse |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=231–280 |doi=10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231 |issn= |pmc= 3384540|pmid=22754606}}</ref>

== Social and cultural variability ==

=== Culture ===
Cultural context has influence in many domains within intimate relationships including norms in communication, expression of affection, commitment and marriage practices, and [[gender role]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rokach |first=Ami |date=2023 |title=Love Culturally: How Does Culture Affect Intimacy, Commitment & Love |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2023.2244129 |journal=The Journal of Psychology |volume=158 |issue=1 |pages=84–114 |doi=10.1080/00223980.2023.2244129 |pmid=37647358 |s2cid=261394941 |issn=0022-3980|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, [[cross-cultural]] research finds that individuals in China prefer indirect and implicit communication with their romantic partner, whereas European Americans report preferring direct communication. The use of a culturally appropriate communication style influences anticipated relationship satisfaction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ge |first1=Fiona |last2=Park |first2=Jiyoung |last3=Pietromonaco |first3=Paula R. |date=2022 |title=How You Talk About It Matters: Cultural Variation in Communication Directness in Romantic Relationships |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00220221221088934 |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=583–602 |doi=10.1177/00220221221088934 |s2cid=247959876 |issn=0022-0221|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Culture can also impact expectations within a relationship and the relative importance of various relationship-centered values such as emotional closeness, equity, status, and autonomy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cionea |first1=Ioana A. |last2=Van Gilder |first2=Bobbi J. |last3=Hoelscher |first3=Carrisa S. |last4=Anagondahalli |first4=Deepa |date=2019-10-02 |title=A cross-cultural comparison of expectations in romantic relationships: India and the United States |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17513057.2018.1542019 |journal=Journal of International and Intercultural Communication |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=289–307 |doi=10.1080/17513057.2018.1542019 |s2cid=150097472 |issn=1751-3057|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

While [[love]] has been identified as a universal human [[emotion]],<ref>{{Citation |last1=Treger |first1=Stanislav |title=Love |date=2014 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_1706 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research |pages=3708–3712 |editor-last=Michalos |editor-first=Alex C. |access-date=2023-11-21 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_1706 |isbn=978-94-007-0752-8 |last2=Sprecher |first2=Susan |last3=Hatfield |first3=Elaine C.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> the ways love is expressed and its importance in intimate relationships vary based on the culture within which a relationship takes place. Culture is especially salient in structuring beliefs about institutions that recognize intimate relationships such as [[marriage]]. The idea that love is necessary for marriage is a strongly held belief in the United States,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Jeffry A. |last2=Campbell |first2=Bruce |last3=Berscheid |first3=Ellen |date=1986 |title=The Association between Romantic Love and Marriage: Kephart (1967) Twice Revisited |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167286123011 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=363–372 |doi=10.1177/0146167286123011 |s2cid=145051003 |issn=0146-1672|url-access=subscription }}</ref> whereas in India, a distinction is made between traditional [[arranged marriage]]s and "[[love marriage]]s" (also called personal choice marriages).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cardona |first1=Betty |last2=Bedi |first2=Robinder P. |last3=Crookston |first3=Bradley J. |date=2019 |title=Choosing Love Over Tradition: Lived Experiences of Asian Indian Marriages |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1066480719852994 |journal=The Family Journal |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=278–286 |doi=10.1177/1066480719852994 |s2cid=195554512 |issn=1066-4807|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== LGBTQ+ intimacy ===

==== Same-sex intimate relationships ====
Advances in legal [[Same-sex marriage|relationship recognition]] for same-sex couples have helped normalize and legitimize same-sex intimacy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hopkins |first1=Jason J. |last2=Sorensen |first2=Anna |last3=Taylor |first3=Verta |date=2013 |title=Same-Sex Couples, Families, and Marriage: Embracing and Resisting Heteronormativity 1 |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/soc4.12016 |journal=Sociology Compass |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=97–110 |doi=10.1111/soc4.12016 |issn=1751-9020|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Broadly, same-sex and different-sex intimate relationships do not differ significantly, and couples report similar levels of relationship satisfaction and stability.<ref name="Peplau-2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Peplau |first1=Letitia Anne |last2=Fingerhut |first2=Adam W. |date=2007 |title=The Close Relationships of Lesbians and Gay Men |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085701 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=405–424 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085701 |pmid=16903800 |issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, research supports a few common differences between same-sex and different-sex intimacy. In the relationship formation period, the boundaries between friendship and romantic intimacy may be more nuanced and complex among sexual minorities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Lisa M. |last2=Dubé |first2=Eric M. |date=2002 |title=Friendship and Attachment Among Heterosexual and Sexual-Minority Youths: Does the Gender of Your Friend Matter? |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1014026111486 |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=155–166 |doi=10.1023/A:1014026111486 |s2cid=142987585 |issn=0047-2891|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For instance, many lesbian women report that their romantic relationships developed from an existing friendship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vetere |first=Victoria A. |date=1982 |title=The Role of Friendship in the Development and Maintenance of Lesbian Love Relationships |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J082v08n02_07 |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=51–65 |doi=10.1300/J082v08n02_07 |pmid=7166643 |issn=0091-8369|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Certain relationship maintenance practices also differ. While heterosexual relationships might rely on traditional [[gender role]]s to divide labor and decision-making power, same-sex couples are more likely to divide housework evenly.<ref name="Peplau-2007" /> Lesbian couples report lower frequency of sex compared to heterosexual couples, and gay men are more likely to engage in [[non-monogamy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Parsons |first1=Jeffrey T. |last2=Starks |first2=Tyrel J. |last3=Gamarel |first3=Kristi E. |last4=Grov |first4=Christian |date=2012 |title=Non-monogamy and sexual relationship quality among same-sex male couples |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22906124/ |journal=Journal of Family Psychology |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=669–677 |doi=10.1037/a0029561 |issn=1939-1293 |pmid=22906124}}</ref>

Same-sex relationships face unique challenges with regards to stigma, [[discrimination]], and [[social support]]. As couples cope with these obstacles, relationship quality can be negatively affected.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rostosky |first1=Sharon Scales |last2=Riggle |first2=Ellen DB |date=2017-02-01 |title=Same-sex relationships and minority stress |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16300355 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Relationships and stress |volume=13 |pages=29–38 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.011 |pmid=28813290 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Unsupportive policy environments such as [[Defense of Marriage Act|same-sex marriage bans]] have a negative impact on well-being,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tatum |first=Alexander K. |date=2017-04-16 |title=The Interaction of Same-Sex Marriage Access With Sexual Minority Identity on Mental Health and Subjective Wellbeing |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00918369.2016.1196991 |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |language=en |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=638–653 |doi=10.1080/00918369.2016.1196991 |pmid=27269121 |s2cid=20843197 |issn=0091-8369|url-access=subscription }}</ref> while being [[Coming out|out]] as a couple and living in a place with legal same-sex relationship recognition have a positive impact on individual and couple well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wight |first1=Richard G. |last2=LeBlanc |first2=Allen J. |last3=Lee Badgett |first3=M. V. |date=2013 |title=Same-Sex Legal Marriage and Psychological Well-Being: Findings From the California Health Interview Survey |journal=American Journal of Public Health |language=en |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=339–346 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.301113 |issn= |pmc= 3558785|pmid=23237155}}</ref>

==== Asexuality ====
Some asexual people engage in intimate relationships that are solely emotionally intimate, but other asexual people's relationships involve sex as part of negotiations with non-asexual partners.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding the Asexual Community |url=https://www.hrc.org/resources/understanding-the-asexual-community |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=Human Rights Campaign |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Chasin-2015">{{Cite journal |last=Chasin |first=CJ DeLuzio |date=2015 |title=Making Sense in and of the Asexual Community: Navigating Relationships and Identities in a Context of Resistance |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/casp.2203 |journal=Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=167–180 |doi=10.1002/casp.2203 |issn=1052-9284|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2019 study of sexual minority individuals in the United States found that while asexual individuals were less likely to have recently had sex, they did not differ from non-asexual participants in rates of being in an intimate relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rothblum |first1=Esther D. |last2=Krueger |first2=Evan A. |last3=Kittle |first3=Krystal R. |last4=Meyer |first4=Ilan H. |date=2020-02-01 |title=Asexual and Non-Asexual Respondents from a U.S. Population-Based Study of Sexual Minorities |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01485-0 |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |language=en |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=757–767 |doi=10.1007/s10508-019-01485-0 |issn=1573-2800 |pmc=7059692 |pmid=31214906}}</ref> Asexual individuals face stigma and the pathologization of their sexual orientation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hille |first=Jessica J. |date=2023-02-01 |title=Beyond sex: A review of recent literature on asexuality |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X22002378 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=49 |pages=101516 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101516 |pmid=36495711 |s2cid=253534170 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and report difficulty navigating assumptions about sexuality in the dating scene.<ref name="Chasin-2015" /> Various terms including "[[queerplatonic relationship]]" and "squish" (a non-sexual crush) have been used by the asexual community to describe non-sexual intimate relationships and desires.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fine |first=Julia Coombs |date=2023 |title=From crushes to squishes: Affect and agency on r/ AskReddit and r/ Asexual |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/jls.22004.fin |journal=Journal of Language and Sexuality |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=145–172 |doi=10.1075/jls.22004.fin |s2cid=259866691 |issn=2211-3770|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Non-monogamy ===
Non-monogamy, including [[polyamory]], [[open relationship]]s, and [[Swinging (sexual practice)|swinging]], is the practice of engaging in intimate relationships that are not strictly monogamous, or consensually engaging in multiple physically or emotionally intimate relationships. The degree of emotional and physical intimacy between different partners can vary. For example, swinging relationships are primarily sexual, whereas people in polyamorous relationships might engage in both emotional and physical intimacy with multiple partners.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scoats |first1=Ryan |last2=Campbell |first2=Christine |date=2022-12-01 |title=What do we know about consensual non-monogamy? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X22001890 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |volume=48 |pages=101468 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101468 |pmid=36215906 |s2cid=252348893 |issn=2352-250X}}</ref> Individuals in consensually non-monogamous intimate relationships identify several benefits to their relationship configuration including having their needs met by multiple partners, engaging in a greater variety of shared activities with partners, and feelings of autonomy and personal growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moors |first1=Amy C. |last2=Matsick |first2=Jes L. |last3=Schechinger |first3=Heath A. |date=2017 |title=Unique and Shared Relationship Benefits of Consensually Non-Monogamous and Monogamous Relationships |url=https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/abs/10.1027/1016-9040/a000278 |journal=European Psychologist |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=55–71 |doi=10.1027/1016-9040/a000278 |issn=|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Attachment theory]]
* [[Breakup]]
* [[Couples therapy]]
* [[Dating]]
* [[Emotional intimacy]]
* [[Friendship]]
* [[Homogamy (sociology)]]
* [[Human bonding]]
* [[Hypergamy]]
* [[Interpersonal attraction]]
* [[Intimate partner violence]]
* [[Marriage]]
* [[Monogamy]]
* [[Open relationship]]
* [[Outline of relationships]]
* [[Physical intimacy]]
* [[Polyamory]]
* [[Relationship science]]
* [[Romance (love)|Romance]]
* [[Same-sex relationship]]
* [[Sexual attraction]]
* [[Significant other]]
* [[Social buffering]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Intimate relationships}}
* [https://iarr.org/ International Association for Relationship Research]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090213165744/http://www.utexas.edu/research/pair/ Process of Adaption in Intimate Relationships]

{{Human sexuality}}
{{Interpersonal relationships footer}}
{{Nonverbal communication}}
{{Virtues}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Intimate Relationship}}
[[Category:Interpersonal relationships]]
[[Category:Intimate relationships| ]]