Editing Isra' and Mi'raj

{{Short description|Night journey undertaken by Muhammad in Islamic tradition}}{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}{{for|the 17th chapter of the Quran|al-Isra'}}
[[File:Miraj by Sultan Muhammad.jpg|thumb|1543 illustration of the [[Mi'raj]] from an edition of the ''[[Khamsa of Nizami|Khamsa]]'' of [[Nizami Ganjavi]] created for Shah [[Tahmasp I|Tahmasp&nbsp;I]]<ref>Bowker. ''World Religions''. p. 165.</ref>|360x360px]]
The '''Israʾ''' and '''Miʿraj''' ({{langx|ar|الإسراء والمعراج}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|al-’Isrā’ wal-Miʿrāj}}'') are the names given to the narrations that the prophet [[Muhammad]] ascended to the sky during a night journey, saw [[Allah]] and the [[afterlife]], and returned. It is believed that expressions without a subject in verses 1-18 of [[surah An-Najm]] and some verses of 17th [[surah]] of the [[Quran]], commonly called ''[[al-Isra']]'',<ref name="alisra">{{qref|17|1|c=y}}</ref> allude to the story. Framework and the details are elaborated and developed<ref name="Britannica-Miʿrāj">{{cite web |last1=Zeidan. |first1=Adam |title=Miʿrāj |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Miraj-Islam |website=Britannica |access-date=15 October 2023}}</ref><ref name=Reiter-2008/> in the [[Miraj Nameh|miraculous accounts]], some of which are based on [[hadith]], the reports, teachings, deeds and sayings of Muhammad collected later centuries attributed after him. The story of the journey and ascent are marked as one of the most celebrated in the [[Islamic calendar]]—27th of the Islamic month of [[Rajab]].<ref name="times">{{Cite news|title=A night journey through Jerusalem |date=18 August 2007|access-date=27 March 2011|author=Bradlow, Khadija|work=[[The Times|Times Online]] |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/a-night-journey-through-jerusalem-zxxb7n0bbpn |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:Mohammed on Heaven.jpg|thumb|right|Ascension of Muhammad, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul, 18th century (copy of a work probably created in the 8th century)]]

[[Ibn Sa'd]] summarizes the earliest version of the written stories<ref name="H. Busse 1991, S. 7" /> under the title "Ascension and the Order of Prayer" and dated the event to a Saturday, the 17th of Ramadan, eighteen months before Muhammad's [[Hijrah]].<ref>Die Angaben in [[Hans Wehr]]: ''Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart'' (ʿ-r-ǧ): ''die Himmelfahrt (die Muḥammad von Jerusalem aus am 27. Raǧab unternommen hat)'' sind entsprechend zu korrigieren. Dies geht nicht auf das Traditionsmaterial, sondern auf den willkürlich festgelegten [[Islamische Festtage|Festtag]] der Muslime zurück</ref> According to him, the angels [[Gabriel]] and [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]] accompanied Muhammad to a place in the sacred precinct of the [[Kaaba]], between the well of [[Zamzam Well|Zamzam]] and [[Maqam Ibrahim]]. There, a ladder (miʿrāj) is said to have been set up by Muhammad and Gabriel, with whose help they ascended to heaven. When he reached the top, Muhammad is said to have met the previous prophets. According to one version of the tradition, Gabriel held Muhammad's hand tightly and ascended with him to heaven.<ref>H.Busse (1991), S. 8</ref> When he reached the [[Sidrat al-Muntaha]] mentioned in Sura 53, verse 14,<ref>So in der Übersetzung von „sidrat al-muntahā“ bei [[Rudi Paret]]; bei H. Busse (1991), S. 7 steht: Lotusbaum</ref> Muhammad saw heaven and hell. So, he was required to perform the original [[Salah|fifty prayers]], which were reduced to five by the intervention of [[Moses]].

[[Sunni|Sunni culture]] adds to the story that [[Abu Bakr]], who heard about the miracle from the pagans, approved the event without question and was given the title of ''al-Ṣiddīq'', the Veracious.<ref>https://www.islamawareness.net/Isra/miracle.html</ref> In the version accepted in Sunnism, the story tells of Muhammad's negotiations with God, who ordered him and his ummah to pray 50 times a day under the guidance of the prophet Moses. After repeated back and forth and negotiations, the 50 times a day was reduced to 5.<ref>{{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|title=The History of al-Tabari volume VI: Muhammad at Mecca|date=1989|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=0-88706-706-9}}</ref> In the [[Alawite]]-[[Bektashi]] culture there is no place for the five daily prayers and they add to the story that during his meeting with Allah, Allah spoke to Muhammad by [[Ali]]'s voice and that he joined the [[40's majlis]] on his return journey, a meeting very important for him. In the [[Miraj Nameh|mirajnama]]s, religious/political leaders who lived centuries after Muhammad, such as [[Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan|Satuq Bughra Khan]], [[Ahmad Yasawi]] and [[Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī]], are also included in stories. Thus, the views and practices of these persons are legitimized and included among the fundamental parts of Islamic culture and glorified.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20210207124232/http://www.openaccess.hacettepe.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11655/1404/a117bf7a-fac5-4cd7-b6ff-94a54f8d9538.pdf</ref> 
{{Islamic Culture}}

==Terminology==
While ''al-’Isrā’'' lit means "to make someone walk" frequently translated as walking or traveling at night; and ''ʿMiʿrāj'' lit means "ascending device" / ladder"<ref>the Mi’raj, an Arabic word that literally means “ladder” https://www.sufiway.eu/laylatul-miraj-friday-15th-may-2015/</ref> or "ascending place" as counted me'raj, derived from "uruj", lit means rising, or going up to a high place.<ref name="Khan">{{cite web |last1=Khan |first1=Asad |title=The Miracle of Isra (Night Journey) and Miraj (Ascension |url=https://www.academia.edu/35946712 |website=Academia |access-date=14 October 2023}}</ref> The fact that the general name given to the stories is Miʿrāj rather than uʿruj may be a reference to the ladder motif in early narratives mentioned above.

=== Journey ===
There are different accounts of what occurred during the Miʿraj. [[Al-Tabari]]'s description can be summarized as; Muhammad ascends into heaven with [[Gabriel]] and meets a different prophet at each of [[seven heavens|the seven levels of heaven]]; first [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], then [[John the Baptist#Islam|John the Baptist]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], then [[Joseph in Islam|Joseph]], then [[Idris (prophet)|Idris]], then [[Aaron]], then [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], and lastly [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]]. Then continues to meet God without Gabriel. God tells Muhammad that his people must pray 50 times a day, but on return to Earth, he meets Moses, who tells him persistently, "return to God and ask for fewer prayers because fifty is too many". Muhammad goes between Moses and God nine times, until the prayers are reduced to the five daily prayers, which God will reward tenfold.<ref>{{cite book|last1=al-Tabari|title=The History of al-Tabari volume VI: Muhammad at Mecca|date=1989|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=0-88706-706-9}}</ref>

Some narratives also record events that preceded the heavenly ascent. Muhammad's chest was opened up, and  Zamzam water was poured on his heart, giving him wisdom, belief, and other necessary characteristics to help him in his ascent. This purification thema is also seen in the trial of the drinks. It is debated when it took place—before or after the ascent—but either way, it plays an important role in asserting Muhammad's spiritual righteousness.<ref name="Routledge">{{cite book|last1=Vuckovic|first1=Brooke Olsen|title=Heavenly Journeys, Earthly Concerns: The Legacy of the Miʿraj in the Formation of Islam|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-96785-6}}</ref>

Todays narrations consist of purifying Muhammad's heart, going to the [[Al-Aqsa]] (i.e. the Farthest or Noble Sanctuary) on [[Buraq]] (a winged horse-like creature) accompanied by [[Gabriel]] (named "Isra meaning night journey"), tying Buraq and leading the prophets such as [[Abraham in Islam|Ibrahim]], [[Moses in Islam|Musa]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Isa]] in prayer,<ref>{{cite book |title=Jerusalem and Its Role in Islamic Solidarity |first=Y. |last=Reiter |publisher=Springer |year=2008 |page=30 |isbn=978-1-349-37460-1 }}</ref> ascending to the sky (Miʿrāj) from the [[Foundation Stone| muallak (suspended) stone]],<ref>{{hadith-usc|usc=yes|bukhari|1|4|5|8|9|56|93|345|609|770}}</ref> conversations with Allah, dialogues with other prophets [[Seven heavens|in the different sky layers]], seeing [[Jannah|heaven]] and [[Jahannam|hell]], and returning sections.

In Islam, whether the Miraj is a physical or spiritual experience is also a matter of debate based on different arguments and evidence. The physical perception of the Miraj may imply [[Anthropomorphism and corporealism in Islam|attributing a physical space to God]], contradicting the understanding of transcendence ([[tanzih]]) that [[Attributes of God in Islam|attributed to God in Islam]]. Many sects and offshoots belonging to [[Islamic mysticism]] interpret Muhammad's night ascent to be an out-of-body experience through nonphysical environments,<ref>Brent E. McNeely, [http://www.bhporter.com/Porter%20PDF%20Files/The%20Miraj%20of%20Muhammad%20in%20an%20Asceneion%20Typology.pdf "The Miraj of Prophet Muhammad in an Ascension Typology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530231238/http://www.bhporter.com/Porter%20PDF%20Files/The%20Miraj%20of%20Muhammad%20in%20an%20Asceneion%20Typology.pdf |date=30 May 2012 }}, p3</ref><ref>Buhlman, William, "The Secret of the Soul", 2001, {{ISBN|978-0-06-251671-8}}, p111</ref> stating "the apostle's body remained where it was"<ref>{{cite book| last1= Brown| first1= Dennis| last2= Morris| first2= Stephen| series= Rhinegold Eeligious Studies Study Guide| title= A Student's Guide to A2 Religious Studies: for the AQA Specification| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7OkAqYod1CgC| access-date= 10 January 2012| year= 2003| publisher= Rhinegold| location= London, UK| oclc= 257342107| isbn= 978-1-904226-09-3| page= 115| chapter= Religion and Human Experience| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7OkAqYod1CgC&pg=PA115| quote= The revelation of the Qur'an to Muhammad [includes] his Night Journey, an out-of-body experience where the prophet was miraculously taken to Jerusalem on the back of a mythical bird (buraq)....| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160210074350/https://books.google.com/books?id=7OkAqYod1CgC| archive-date= 10 February 2016| url-status= live}}</ref> while the majority of Islamic scholars claim that the journey was both a physical and spiritual one.<ref name=enc>{{cite book |editor1-first=Richard C. |editor1-last=Martin |editor2-first=Saïd Amir |editor2-last=Arjomand |editor2-link=Saïd Amir Arjomand|editor3-first=Marcia |editor3-last=Hermansen |editor4-first=Abdulkader |editor4-last=Tayob |editor5-first=Rochelle |editor5-last=Davis |editor6-first=John Obert |editor6-last=Voll |title=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World |year=2003 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan Reference USA]] |isbn=978-0-02-865603-8 | page = 482}}</ref>
[[File:Miraj-BNF-1436.jpg|thumb|The Night Journey showing Muhammad, [[Buraq]], Gabriel, Noah, and Idris in the Second Heaven. One of 60 miniatures in the ''[[Miraj Nameh]]'' of the [[Timurid dynasty]] artists [[illuminated manuscript]] from [[Herat]] in [[Chaghatai language|Chaghatai]] with [[New Persian]] and [[Arabic]] captions. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]].]]
[[File:The rock of the Dome of the Rock Corrected.jpg|upright=1.3|thumbnail|right|200px|[[Foundation Stone|A stone associated with the Miraj in Islamic tradition and blessed]]; The round hole at upper left penetrates to a small cave, known as the [[Well of Souls]], below.]]
[[File:Temple Mount (Aerial view, 2007) 05.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Dome of the Rock]], at the [[Temple Mount]]. Build by the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] during the [[Second Fitna]] in 691–692 CE, on [[Foundation Stone|blessed rock]] mentioned above.]]

== Sources ==
Except for a few verses in the Quran that are thought to refer to Isra and Miraj, the other narratives consist of stories added to [[Sīrah|the biography]] and hadith collections. In addition, unlike the references to miracles made to other prophets in the Quran, the verses that deny any miracles of Muhammad outside the Quran attract the attention of some researchers.<ref>the Quran stresses that [[Miracles of Muhammad|Muhammad made no miracle]] other than the divinely claimed miracle of the Quran itself.https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10477845.2025.2452714?src=exp-la#d1e136</ref>

Two hadiths considered the most reliable rely on [[Anas ibn Malik]] and [[ibn ʿAbbas]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Colby|first1=Frederick S.|title=Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Teaching the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse|date=2008|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=978-0-7914-7518-8}}</ref><ref>https://brill.com/previewpdf/book/edcoll/9789004194274/Bej.9789004183803.i-504_023.xml</ref> persons who were recorded as children at the time.

===The Quran===
[[Al-Isra'|The 17th chapter of the Quran]] takes its name from a word used in the first verse, which is presented as the first stage of the journey, expressed as Isra. However, the Surah was known as the Surah "banu Israel" "Children of Israel" during the time of the companions and the successors,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soorat al-Isra’ is also called Soorat Bani Isra’eel - Islam Question & Answer |url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/163112/soorat-al-isra-is-also-called-soorat-bani-israeel |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=islamqa.info |language=en}}</ref><ref> http://www.englishtafsir.com/Quran/17/index.html</ref> and other views state that the relevant verse, together with the verses that follow it, tells about the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] of the [[Israelites|Children of Israel]] from Egypt (..his servant means Moses, in this case).<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UxqqZTB4d4</ref> According to a different interpretation of the verse through Muhammad, the Al-aqsa used in the verse is not associated with Jerusalem, but with Cirana, which is located near Mecca.<ref>https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/378422</ref>

{{blockquote|Glory be to the One Who took His servant by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque whose surroundings We have blessed, so that We may show him some of Our signs. Indeed, He alone is the All-Hearing, All-Seeing.|{{qref|17|1|c=y}}}}

An expression that is connected with the ascention part of the story<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Colby |first=Frederick S.|date=2002|title=The Subtleties of the Ascension: al-Sulamī on the Mi'rāj of the Prophet Muhammad|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1596216 |journal=Studia Islamica |issue=94 |pages=167–183 |doi=10.2307/1596216 |jstor=1596216 |issn=0585-5292|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press.p. 112</ref> is the subject-free poetic expressions in the {{transliteration|ar|surah [[an-Najm]]}}.

{{blockquote|And he certainly saw that ˹angel descend˺ a second time{{pb}}at the [[Sidrat al-Muntaha|"Sidr"]] of the most extreme limit ˹in the seventh heaven˺—{{pb}}near which is the Garden of ˹Eternal˺ Residence—{{pb}}while the "sidr" was overwhelmed with ˹heavenly˺ splendours!{{pb}}The ˹Prophet's˺ sight never wandered, nor did it overreach.{{pb}}He certainly saw some of his Lord's greatest signs.|{{qref|53|13-18|c=y}}}}
[[File:cedararz.jpg|right|thumb|One of the stations of Muhammad's ascent after [[Al-Aqsa]] in the "[[seven heavens]]"; [[Sidrat al-Muntaha]]; The legendary tree in havens,<ref>https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3207</ref> whose branches extend to the last limits of creation;<ref>https://brill.com/previewpdf/book/edcoll/9789004194274/Bej.9789004183803.i-504_023.xml</ref> the sacred [[Cedrus|cedar]] known as "Allah's Arez" in Lebanon<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farooqi |first1=M.I.H. |title=Cedar or Lote-Tree in the Light of al-Quran–A Scientific Study |url=https://www.irfi.org/articles4/articles_5001_6000/cedar_or_lotetree_in_the_light.html |website=IRFI |access-date=20 February 2025}}</ref> or, in simple translation, the [[Ziziphus spina-christi|lote]] tree.]]

===Hadith===
{{Muhammad|miracles}}
====Ibn ʿAbbas Primitive Version====
[[File:Muhammad encountering the angel of fire and ice.jpg|thumb|upright|Muhammad encounters the angel composed of fire and ice during his [[Isra and Mi'raj|Night journey]]. Miniature from a copy of al-Sarai's {{transliteration|ar|Nahj al-Faradis}} from [[The David Collection]]]]
[[Ibn Abbas]]'s Primitive Versions describe everything Muhammad encountered during his journey through heaven. This includes seeing other angels and the seas of light, darkness, and fire. Muhammad, as companion of Gabriel, met four important angels as he travelled through heaven. These angels were the Rooster angel (whose call influences all earthly roosters), the Half Fire Half Snow angel (an example of God's power to bring fire and ice together in harmony), the [[Azrael|Angel of Death]], and the [[Malik|Guardian of Hellfire]]. These four angels are introduced at the beginning of Ibn Abbas's narrative and focus on the angels rather than the prophets. There are ranks of angels in heaven, and he even meets some deeply connected angels called [[cherubim]].<ref>Colby, Frederick S. Narrating Muḥammad's night journey: tracing the development of the Ibn ʿAbbās ascension discourse. State University of New York Press, 2008. p. 36</ref> These angels instill fear in Muhammad, but he sees them later as God's creation and not harmful. 

Other important details that Ibn Abbas adds to the narrative are the [[Heavenly host]], the final verses of [[Al-Baqara|the Cow Chapter]], and the blessing of the Prophets.<ref name="State University of New York Press">{{cite book|last1=Colby|first1=Frederick S|title=Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Tracing the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse|date=2008|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-7518-8}}</ref>

====Others====
Various hadiths add much more details; the {{transliteration|ar|Israʾ}}, which was not present in the previous hadiths of the miraj, is now part of Muhammad's journey from [[Mecca]] to "the farthest place of worship", although the city is not explicitly stated. The journey begins while Muhammad is in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, when the Archangel Gabriel arrives and brings the prophets' heavenly mount, [[Buraq]]. 

Buraq carried Muhammad to the "farthest place of worship." Muhammad dismounted, tied Buraq up, and prayed, where he was tested by Gabriel at God's command. [[Anas ibn Malik]] narrated that Muhammad said: "Gabriel brought me a vessel of wine, a vessel of water, and a vessel of milk, and I chose the milk. Gabriel said: 'You have chosen the fitra (natural instinct).'" During the second part of the journey, on the "ladder" of Miraj, Gabriel took him to the heavens, where he circled the [[seven heavens]] and spoke with the previous prophets: [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[John the Baptist in Islam|John the Baptist]], and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}}

In other versions by Ibn Abbas, a transmitter seems to have added to Ibn Abbas' authentic narrative the descent of Muhammad and the meeting with the prophets. These are the stories of the meeting with the prophets and the meeting with Moses, which led to the reduction of the daily prayers, which are not included in Ibn Abbas' primitive version. Whether Ibn Abbas included this in his original narrative or whether it was added by a later transmitter is a matter of debate.<ref name="State University of New York Press"/>

====Of mutating hadith====
Another question is whether the Isra and Mi'raj originally occurred together. According to [[Britannica]], in the "earliest interpretations of the Mi'raj", while Muhammad was in the Kaaba in Mecca, Muhammad's body was cut, cleansed and purified by the angel Jibreel, after which Jibreel carried him "directly to the lower heaven". However, at some point "in early Islamic history", this story of purification and ascent to heaven became associated with the story of Muhammad's night journey (Isra) from the "sacred house of worship" to the "other house of worship". Eventually, Muhammad was "carried from Mecca to Jerusalem in a single night by the legendary winged beast Buraq. From Jerusalem, where the Dome of the Rock is now located, he was escorted to heaven by Jibreel and ascended, presumably by a ladder or staircase (Mi'raj)."."<ref name="Britannica-Miʿrāj">{{cite web |last1=Zeidan. |first1=Adam |title=Miʿrāj |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Miraj-Islam |website=Britannica |access-date=15 October 2023}}</ref>

==Historical ([[Anachronism|anacronistic]]) issues / Jerusalem connection ==
{{see also|Revisionist school of Islamic studies}}
In the reign of the caliph [[Mu'awiyah I]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (founded in AD 661), a quadrangular mosque for a capacity of 3,000 worshipers is recorded somewhere on the Haram ash-Sharif.<ref name="Elad">Elad, Amikam. (1995). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CDz_yctbQVgC&pg=PA29 Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship. Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage]'' BRILL, pp. 29–43. {{ISBN|90-04-10010-5}}.</ref> This was rebuilt and expanded by the [[caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik]] in AD 690 along with the [[Dome of the Rock]].<ref name="Elad" /><ref name="le Strange">le Strange, Guy. (1890). ''Palestine under the Moslems'', pp. 80–98.</ref> According to Islamic tradition, a small prayer hall ([[musalla]]), what would later become the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]], was built by [[Umar]], the second caliph of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. 

A [[hadith]] reports Muhammad's account of the experience:

{{blockquote|''"Then Gabriel brought a horse (Burraq) to me, which resembled lightning in swiftness and lustre, was of clear white colour, medium in size, smaller than a mule and taller than a (donkey), quick in movement that it put its feet on the farthest limit of the sight. He made me ride it and carried me to Jerusalem. He tethered the Burraq to the ring of that Temple to which all the Prophets in Jerusalem used to tether their beasts..."'' <ref>Siddiqui, Abdul Hameed. ''The Life of Muhammad''. Islamic Book Trust: Kuala Lumpur. 1999. p. 113. {{ISBN|983-9154-11-7}}</ref>}}

Although not in all of them, in some hadiths, such as bukhari 3207,<ref>https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3207</ref> the Miraj story is handled and processed independently of Al-Aqsa. Besides that city of Jerusalem is not mentioned by any of [[Names of Jerusalem|its names]] in Surah Al-Isra 17:1, however, the consensus of Islamic scholars is that Quranic reference to ''[[Al-Aqsa|masjid al-aqṣā]]'' in the verse refers to Jerusalem. Jerusalem is mentioned in later Islamic literature and in the [[hadith]] as the place of Isra and Miʽraj.<ref>Historic Cities of the Islamic World edited by Clifford Edmund Bosworth P: 226</ref> Some figures contest the consensus that ''[[Al-Aqsa|Al-masjid al-aqṣā]]'' was in Jerusalem and believe it was somewhere other than Jerusalem. This arises from the belief that there's no evidence of a [[Islamization of Jerusalem|Mosque on the Temple Mount]] in Jerusalem before the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Islamic conquest of the Levant]], and [[Umar]]'s arrival;

The [[Solomon's Temple|first]] and [[second temple]]s were destroyed by the [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BCE)|Babylonians]] and the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|Romans]], respectively, the latter more than five centuries before Muhammad's life. After the initially successful [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius]], the Jewish population resettled in Jerusalem for a short period of time from AD 614 to 630 and immediately started to restore the temple on the Temple Mount and build synagogues in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghada |first=Karmi |title=Jerusalem Today: What Future for the Peace Process? |year=1997 |pages=115–116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kohen |first=Elli |title=History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire |pages=36 |chapter=5}}</ref> After the Jewish population was expelled a second time from Jerusalem and shortly before [[Heraclius]] retook the city (AD 630), a small synagogue was already in place on the Temple Mount. This synagogue was reportedly demolished after Heraclius retook Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite book |author=R. W. Thomson |url=https://archive.org/details/armenianhistorya00thom |title=The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos |publisher=Liverpool University Press |year=1999 |isbn=9780853235644 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/armenianhistorya00thom/page/n288 208]–212 |url-access=limited}}</ref>

[[French Americans|French American]] Academic [[Oleg Grabar]] believed that the Quranic ''[[Al-Aqsa|Al-masjid al-aqṣā]]'' referred to one of two sanctuaries in a Hijazi village known as [[al-Juʽranah]] near Mecca, basing this on the statement of two near-contemporary medieval Muslim travelers [[Al-Waqidi|Al Waqidi]] and [[Al-Azraqi]] who used the term "''Al-masjid al-aqṣā" ,'' and "''Al-masjid al-Adna"'':{{blockquote|Bevan has shown that among early traditionists there are many who do not accept the identification of the masjid al-aqsa, and among them are to be found such great names as al-Bukhari and Tabari. Both Ibn Ishaq an [[al-Ya'qubi]] precede their accounts with expressions which indicate that these are stories which are not necessarily accepted as dogma. It was suggested by J. Horovitz that in the early period of Islam, there is little justification for assuming that the Koranic expression in any way referred to Jerusalem. But while Horovitz thought that it referred to a place in heaven, A. Guillaume's careful analysis of the earliest texts ([[al-Waqidi]] and [[al-Azraqi]], both in the later second century A.H.) has convincingly shown that the Koranic reference to the masjid al-aqsa applies specifically to [[Al-Ji'rana]], near Mekkah, where there were two sanctuaries (masjid al-adnai and masjid al-aqsa), and where Muhammad so-journed in dha al-qa'dah of the eighth year after the Hijrah.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grabar |first=Oleg |date=1959 |title=The Umayyad Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629098 |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=3 |pages=33–62 |jstor=4629098 |issn=0571-1371 }}</ref>}}

Israeli political scientist [[Yitzhak Reiter]] mentions some alternative interpretations among some Muslim sects in the 21st century which dispute that the night journey took place in Jerusalem, believing instead it was either in the [[Seven heavens|Heavens]], or in [[Medina]] and its vicinity by [[Ja'fari school|Jaf'ari Shi'tes]].<ref name="Reiter-2008">Yitzhak Reiter (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bZbFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 ''Jerusalem and Its Role in Islamic Solidarity''],  Springer, p. 21.: "The issue of al-Aqsa Mosque's location has been subject to much debate within Islam, and even today there are those who believe it is not in Jerusalem at all, according to one claim, the text was meant to refer to the Mosque of the Prophet in al-Madina or in a place close to al-Madina. Another perception is that of the Ja’fari Shiites, who interpret that al-Aqsa as a mosque in heaven. This interpretation reflects the Shiite anti-Umayyad emotions in an attempt to play down the sacredness of Umayyad Jerusalem and to minimize the sanctity of Jerusalem by detaching the qur'anic al-Masjid al-aqsa from the Temple Mount, thus asserting that the Prophet never came to that city, but rather ascended to the heavenly al-Aqsa mosque without ever stopping in bayt al-Maqdis [Jerusalem]. Apart from depriving Jerusalem of its major attraction for pilgrims, the Shiite traditions offer alternative pilgrimage attractions such as the Shiite holy city of Kufa, as well as Mecca. However, the tradition about Muhammad’s Night Journey to Jerusalem were never suppressed. They were exploited by the Umayyads and continued to be quoted in the [[tafsir]] (Qur’an interpretation) collections. The interpretation dating from the Umayyad and Crusader eras, according to which al-Aqsa is in Jerusalem, is the one that prevailed."</ref> Reiter also claimed that the location being in Jerusalem was a tradition invented after Muhmmad's life by the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] to divert pilgrimage to either Shi'ite sites such as [[Kufa|Al-Kufa]], or Mecca when it was held by [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr]] during the [[Second Fitna|Second Muslim Civil war]]<ref name="Reiter-2008" />

== Similarities to other traditions ==
Traditions of living persons ascending to heaven are also found in early Jewish and Christian literature.<ref>Bremmer, Jan N. "Descents to hell and ascents to heaven in apocalyptic literature." JJ Collins (Hg.), The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, Oxford (2014): 340-357.</ref> The [[Book of Enoch]], a late [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple]] Jewish [[Jewish apocrypha|apocryphal work]], describes a tour of heaven given by an angel to the patriarch [[Enoch]], the great-grandfather of [[Noah]]. According to Brooke Vuckovic, early Muslims may have had precisely this ascent in mind when interpreting Muhammad's night journey.<ref>Vuckovic, Brooke Olson. Heavenly journeys, earthly concerns: the legacy of the mi'raj in the formation of Islam. Routledge, 2004, 46.</ref>

The similarity of many details in the Miraj narratives to [[Zoroastrian]] literature is striking. While critics argue that these narratives are a transfer from [[Book of Arda Viraf|Zoroastrian literature]], another claim argues that the relevant literature was written after Islam.<ref>https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/sources/zrisra</ref>

==Celebrations and reception==
In Jerusalem on the Temple Mount, the structure of the [[Dome of the Rock]], built several decades after Muhammad's death, marks the place from which Muhammad is believed to have ascended to [[heaven]]. The exact date of the Journey is not clear, but it is celebrated as though it took place before the [[Hijrah]] and after Muhammad's visit to the people of [[Ta'if]]. The normative view amongst Sunni Muslims who ascribe a specific date to the event is that it took place on the 27th of Rajab, slightly over a year before Hijrah.<ref>Reiter, Yitzhak. "The Elevation in Sanctity of al-Aqsa and al-Quds." Jerusalem and Its Role in Islamic Solidarity. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2008. 11-35.</ref> This would correspond to the 26th of February 621 in the [[Western calendar]]. In [[Twelver]] [[Iran]], Rajab 27 is the day of Muhammad's first calling or ''Mab'as''. The al-Aqsa Mosque and surrounding area is now the third-holiest place on earth for Muslims.<ref name="BloomBlair2009">{{cite book|author1=Jonathan M. Bloom|author2=Sheila Blair|title=The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76|access-date=26 December 2011|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530991-1|page=76|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020218/http://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76|archive-date=15 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Grabar2006">{{cite book|author=Oleg Grabar|title=The Dome of the Rock|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeIOowshe6EC&pg=PA14|access-date=26 December 2011|date=1 October 2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02313-0|page=14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020045/http://books.google.com/books?id=OeIOowshe6EC&pg=PA14|archive-date=15 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ''Lailat al-Miʿraj'' ({{langx|ar|لیلة المعراج}}, {{transliteration|ar|Lailatu 'l-Miʿrāj}}), also known as ''Shab-e-Mi'raj'' ({{langx|bn|শবে মেরাজ|Šobe Meraj}}, {{langx|fa|شب معراج}}, {{transliteration|fa|Šab-e Mi'râj}}) in Iran, [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]], and ''Miraç Kandili'' in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], is the [[Muslim holidays|Muslim holiday]] on the 27th of Rajab (the date varying in the Western calendar) celebrating the Isra and Miʿraj. Another name for the holiday is ''Mehraj-ul-Alam'' (also spelled ''Meraj-ul-Alam''). Some Muslims celebrate this event by offering optional prayers during this night, and in some Muslim countries, by illuminating cities with electric lights and candles. The celebrations around this day tend to focus on every Muslim who wants to celebrate it. Worshippers gather in mosques and perform prayer and supplication. Some people may pass their knowledge on to others by telling them the story of how Muhammad's heart was purified by the [[Gabriel|archangel Gabriel]], who filled him with knowledge and faith in preparation to enter the seven levels of heaven. After [[salah]], food and treats are served.<ref name=times/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/holydays/lailatalmiraj.shtml|title=BBC – Religions – Islam: Lailat al Miraj|work=bbc.co.uk|access-date=17 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016102122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/holydays/lailatalmiraj.shtml|archive-date=16 October 2007|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0191/9101056.htm|title=WRMEA – Islam in America|work=Washington Report on Middle East Affairs|access-date=17 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190002/http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0191/9101056.htm|archive-date=27 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Sufism===
The belief that Muhammad made the heavenly journey bodily was used to prove the unique status of Muhammad.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Annemarie|title=And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=1985|isbn=978-0-8078-1639-4}}</ref> One theory among [[Sufism|Sufis]] was that Muhammad's body could reach God to a proximity that even the greatest saints could only reach in spirit.<ref name=":0" /> They debated whether Muhammad had really seen the Lord and, if he did, whether he did so with his eyes or with his heart.<ref name=":0" /> Nevertheless, Muhammad's superiority is again demonstrated in that even in the extreme proximity of the Lord, "his eye neither swerved nor was turned away," whereas Moses had fainted when the Lord appeared to him in a burning bush.<ref name=":0" /> Various thinkers used this point to prove the superiority of Muhammad.<ref name=":0" />

The Subtleties of the Ascension by Abu ʿAbd al-Rahman al-Sulami includes repeated quotations from other mystics that also affirm the superiority of Muhammad.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colby|first=Frederick|date=2002|title=The Subtleties of the Ascension: al-Sulami on the Miraj of the Prophet Muhammad|journal=Studia Islamica|issue=94|pages=167–183|doi=10.2307/1596216|jstor=1596216}}</ref> Many Sufis interpreted the Miʿraj to ask questions about the meaning of certain events within the Miʿraj, and drew conclusions based on their interpretations, especially to substantiate ideas of the superiority of Muhammad over other prophets.<ref name=":0" />

[[Muhammad Iqbal]], a self-proclaimed intellectual descendant of [[Rumi]] and the poet-scholar who personified poetic Sufism in South Asia, used the event of the Miʿraj to conceptualize an essential difference between a prophet and a Sufi.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Annemarie|title=And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=1985|isbn=978-0-8078-1639-4|pages=247–248}}</ref> He recounts that Muhammad, during his Miʿraj journey, visited the heavens and then eventually returned to the temporal world.<ref name=":1" /> Iqbal then quotes another South Asian Muslim saint by the name of '[[Abdul Quddus Gangohi]] who asserted that if he (Gangohi) had had that experience, he would never have returned to this world.<ref name=":1" /> Iqbal uses Gangohi's spiritual aspiration to argue that while a saint or a Sufi would not wish to renounce the spiritual experience for something this-worldly, a prophet is a prophet precisely because he returns with a force so powerful that he changes world history by imbuing it with a creative and fresh thrust.<ref name=":1" />

=== European reception ===
[[File:Muhammad's ladder, from Livre de l'eschiele Mahomet.png|thumb|upright|Illustration of Muhammad on a ladder, from the sole copy of the French ''Book of Muhammad's Ladder'']]
In the 13th century AD, an account of the Isra' and Mi'raj was translated into several European languages—[[Latin]], [[Old Spanish|Spanish]] and [[Old French|French]]. Known as the ''[[Book of Muhammad's Ladder]]'', this account purports to be the words of Muhammad himself as recorded by Ibn Abbas. It was translated by [[Abraham of Toledo]] and [[Bonaventura da Siena|Bonaventure of Siena]]. It may have influenced [[Dante Alighieri]]'s account of an ascent to heaven and descent to hell in the ''[[Divine Comedy]]''.<ref>Ana Echevarría, "Liber scalae Machometi", in David Thomas; Alex Mallett (eds.), ''Christian–Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History'', Vol. 4 (Brill, 2012), pp. 425–428.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Islamic view of miracles]]
* [[Entering heaven alive]] - view of the belief in various religions
* [[Transfiguration of Jesus]]
* [[Miraj Nameh]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi|Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali]] (2010). ''[https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/meraj-i Me'rāj]''. [[Encyclopædia Iranica]].
*{{Cite book |last = Asad |first = Muhammad |author-link = Muhammad Asad |year = 1980 |title = The Message of the Qu'rán | section = Appendix IV: The Night Journey |publisher = Dar al-Andalus Limited |location = Gibraltar, Spain |isbn = 1904510000 |title-link = The Message of the Qu'rán }}
*Colby, Frederick, "Night Journey (Isra & Mi'raj)'', in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol II, pp.&nbsp;420–425.{{ISBN?}}
* [[Annemarie Schimmel|Schimmel, Annemarie]] (1985). "The Prophet's Night Journey and Ascension", in ''And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety'', University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.{{ISBN?}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Isra and Mi'raj}}
* [http://ahadith.co.uk/searchresults.php?q=ascended+to+heaven Hadith On Isra and Mi'raj] from [[Sahih Muslim]]

{{Muslimholidays}}
{{Public holidays in Indonesia}}
{{Public holidays in Malaysia}}
{{Public holidays in Pakistan}}
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[[Category:Angelic apparitions]]
[[Category:Entering heaven alive]]
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