Editing Issei

{{Short description|First generation of Japanese people who immigrated to the Americas}}
{{for|the given name|Issei (given name)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Japoneses no brasil.jpg|thumb|right|The first Japanese immigrants arrived in Brazil aboard the {{transliteration|ja|Kassato Maru}} in 1908.<ref>[http://www.jornalorebate.com.br/59/pov.htm], ''Jornal Orebate''</ref> They referred to themselves as {{transliteration|ja|issei}} and became known as ''[[Japanese Brazilians|Nipo-Brasileiros]]''.]]
{{nihongo3|"first generation"|一世|'''Issei'''}} are [[Japanese people|Japanese]] immigrants to countries in North America and South America. The term is used mostly by ethnic Japanese. {{transliteration|ja|Issei}} are born in Japan; their children born in the new country are {{transliteration|ja|[[nisei]]}} ({{transliteration|ja|ni}}, "two", plus {{transliteration|ja|sei}}, "generation"); and their grandchildren are {{transliteration|ja|[[sansei]]}} ({{transliteration|ja|san}}, "three", plus {{transliteration|ja|sei}}, "generation").

The character and uniqueness of the {{transliteration|ja|issei}} is recognized in their social history.<ref>Numrich, Paul David. (2008). North [https://books.google.com/books?id=sAy1s626lE0C&pg=PA127  ''American Buddhists in Social Context'', p. 110].</ref>

==History==
The earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants settled in Mexico in 1897.<ref name="mofa-Mexico">Ministry of Foreign Affairs: [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/mexico/index.html  ''Japan-Mexico Foreign Relations'']</ref> In the 21st century, the four largest populations of diaspora Japanese and descendants of Japanese immigrants in the Western Hemisphere live in Brazil, the United States, Canada, and Peru.

===Brazilian {{transliteration|ja|issei}}===
{{main|Japanese Brazilians}}
[[File:Santos-maru Brazil.jpg|thumb|Japanese immigrants in Brazil in the 1930s.]]
Brazil is home to the largest ethnic Japanese population outside Japan, numbering an estimated more than 1.5&nbsp;million (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity),<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/brazil/index.html| title = Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Japan-Brazil Relations}}</ref> more than that of the 1.2&nbsp;million in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en |title=US Census data 2005 |access-date=20 September 2008 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212035921/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en |archive-date=12 February 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The {{transliteration|ja|issei}} Japanese Brazilians are an important part of Asian ethnic minorities in Brazil.

===American {{transliteration|ja|issei}}===
{{main|Japanese Americans}}
The first members of the {{transliteration|ja|issei}} emigrated not directly to the [[mainland United States]], but to Hawaii. These emigrants—the first of whom arrived on board the [[steamship]] ''[[City of Tokio]]'' in February 1885—were common laborers escaping hard times in Japan to work in Hawai'i. Their immigration was subsidized by the Hawaiian government, as cheap labor was needed for important commodity crops, especially its [[sugar plantation]]s. Numerous Japanese eventually settled in Hawaii.<ref>Tate, E. Mowbray. (1986). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OuUvlfcIGRQC&q=Transpacific+Steam ''Transpacific Steam: The Story of Steam Navigation from the Pacific Coast of North America to the Far East and the Antipodes, 1867–1941''], p. 231</ref><!-- Note: many of the emigrants to Hawai'i came from the Ryukyuan islands due to heavy tax increases there, resulting in a drain of labour; some mention of this would be good. Please see the article on the Ryukyuan islands for more details.-->

Emigration of Japanese directly to the mainland began in 1885, when "student-laborers" landed on the West Coast of the United States.<ref>Sakata, Yasuo. (1992). ''Fading Footsteps of the Issei,'' p. 1.</ref> The earliest of these emigrated to San Francisco. Their numbers continually increased in the late 1880s and early 1890s. Their purpose in moving to America was to gain advanced knowledge and experience to develop the modern society at home. Both students and laborers were attracted by the image of the United States as a country that welcomed foreigners. When they first arrived in the U.S., they had not intended to live there permanently, but rather to learn from Americans and to take that knowledge back home. While they encountered discrimination, they also made opportunities, and many settled in California, and later in Washington and Oregon as well as Alaska (to a lesser degree).

===Canadian {{transliteration|ja|issei}}===
{{main|Japanese Canadians}}
Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, like their American counterparts, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different socio-cultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences.<ref name="mclellan36">McLellan, Janet. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=Sansei+canada&pg=PA36  ''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto,'' p. 36.]</ref><ref name="IkawaFumiko">Ikawa, Fumiko. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/667278  "Reviews: ''Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura'' by Masao Gamo and "''Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin''" by Kazuko Tsurumi], ''American Anthropologist'' (US). New Series, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb. 1963), pp. 152–156.</ref> The narrative of {{transliteration|ja|issei}} Japanese-Canadians include post-Pearl Harbor experiences of uprooting, incarceration, and dispersal of the pre-war Japanese-Canadian communities.<ref>Oiwa, Keibo and Joy Kogawa. (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pAIVAAAAYAAJ&q=uprooting  ''Stone Voices: Wartime Writings of Japanese Canadian Issei,'' p. 18.]</ref><!-- Number of ethnic Japanese in Canada? current lives? -->

===Peruvian {{transliteration|ja|issei}}===
{{main|Japanese Peruvians}}
Among the approximately 100,000 (2021)<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-08-24|language=en|title=Japan-Peru Relations (Basic Data)|url=https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/peru/data.html|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Peruvians of Japanese descent living in Peru, the {{transliteration|ja|issei}} Japanese Peruvians comprise a small number.

== Cultural profile ==

=== Generations ===
Japanese-Americans and Japanese-Canadians have specific names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the [[Japanese numbers]] corresponding to the [[generation]] with the Japanese word for {{nihongo|generation|世|sei}}. The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like {{transliteration|ja|issei}}, {{transliteration|ja|nisei}}, and {{transliteration|ja|sansei}}, which describe the first, second and third generation of immigrants.<ref name="IkawaFumiko" /> The fourth generation is called {{nihongo||四世|yonsei}} and the fifth is called {{nihongo||五世|gosei}}.

{{nihongo3|"first generation"|一世|'''Issei'''}} is a [[Japanese-language]] term used by ethnic Japanese in countries in North America and South America to specify the [[Japanese people]] who were the first generation to immigrate there.

Originally, as mentioned above, these words were themselves common nouns in Japan referred to [[generation]]s or [[reigns]]. So they are also still used in Japanese terms for [[personal names]], such as {{transliteration|ja|Erizabesu Nisei}} means Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]. Within the ethnic Japanese immigrant community they had come to characterize their own generations.

The {{transliteration|ja|issei}}, {{transliteration|ja|nisei}}, and {{transliteration|ja|sansei}} generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, involvement with non-Japanese, religious belief and practice, and other matters.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA66  p. 59.]</ref> The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment during World War II has been found to be the most significant factor that explains such variations in attitudes and behaviour patterns.<ref name="mclellan36"/>

The term {{nihongo||日系|[[Japanese diaspora|nikkei]]}} encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.<ref>[http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/what/ "What is Nikkei?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503113652/http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/what/ |date=3 May 2009 }} Japanese American National Museum.</ref> The collective memory of the {{transliteration|ja|issei}} and older {{transliteration|ja|nisei}} was an image of [[Meiji Japan]] from 1870 through 1911. Newer immigrants carry very different memories of more recent Japan. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.<ref name="mclellan37">McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA66  p. 37.]</ref> The significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives.

{|class="wikitable "
! [[Generation]]!![[wikt:cohort|Cohort]] description
|-
|{{nihongo||一世|Issei}} || The generation of people born in Japan who later immigrated to another country.
|-
|{{nihongo||二世|Nisei}} ||The generation of people born in North America, Latin America, Australia, Hawaii, or any country outside Japan either to at least one {{transliteration|ja|issei}} or one non-immigrant Japanese parent.
|-
|{{nihongo||三世|Sansei}} ||The generation of people born to at least one {{transliteration|ja|nisei}} parent.
|-
|{{nihongo||四世|Yonsei}} || The generation of people born to at least one {{transliteration|ja|sansei}} parent.
|-
|{{nihongo||五世|Gosei}} || The generation of people born to at least one {{transliteration|ja|yonsei}} parent.<ref>Ikezoe-Halevi, Jean. [http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2006/10/31/voices-of-chicago/  "Voices of Chicago: Day of Remembrance 2006,"] ''Discover Nikkei'' (US). 31 October 2006.</ref>
|}

In North America, since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred. The {{transliteration|ja|nisei}}, their parents and their children are changing the way they look at themselves and their pattern of accommodation to the non-Japanese majority.<ref>McLellan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&dq=sansei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA66  p. 68.]</ref>

There are just over one hundred thousand [[Japanese community in the United Kingdom|British Japanese]], mostly in London. Unlike other {{transliteration|ja|[[Japanese diaspora|Nikkei]]}} communities in the world, these Britons do not identify themselves in such generational terms as {{transliteration|ja|issei}}, {{transliteration|ja|nisei}}, or {{transliteration|ja|sansei}}.<ref>Itoh, [https://books.google.com/books?id=VBijCPLvWyUC&dq=keiko+itoh++united+kingdom&pg=PA187  p. 7.]</ref>

====Issei====
The first generation of immigrants, born in Japan before emigrating, is called ''Issei'' (一世).  In the 1930s, the term ''Issei'' came into common use, replacing the term "immigrant" (''ijusha'').  This new term illustrated a changed way of looking at themselves.  The term ''Issei'' represented the idea of beginning, a psychological transformation relating to being settled, having a distinctive community, and the idea of belonging to the new country.<ref name="mclellan36"/>

''Issei'' settled in close ethnic communities, and therefore did not learn English. They endured great economic and social losses during the early years of [[World War II]], and they were unable to rebuild their lost businesses and savings. The external circumstances tended to reinforce the pattern of ''Issei'' being predominantly friends with other ''Issei.''<ref name="mclellan36"/>

Unlike their children, they tend to rely primarily on Japanese-language media (newspapers, television, movies), and in some senses, they tend to think of themselves as more Japanese than Canadian or American.<ref name="mclellan36"/>

====''Issei'' women====
''Issei'' women's lives were somewhat similar, despite differences in context, because they were structured within interlocking webs of patriarchal relationships, and that consistent subordination was experienced both as oppressive and as a source of happiness.<ref>Kobayashi, Audrey Lynn. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NzwjB4j0iZQC&dq=issei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA70  ''Women, Work and Place,'' p. xxxiii.]</ref> The ''Issei'' women lived lives of transition which were affected by three common factors: the dominant ideology of late ''Meiji'' Japan, which advanced the economic objectives of the Japanese state; the patriarchal traditions of the agricultural village, which arose partly as a form of adjustment to national objectives and the adjustment to changes imposed by modernization; and the constraints which arose within a Canadian or American society dominated by racist ideology.<ref>Kobayashi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NzwjB4j0iZQC&dq=issei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA70  p. 45.]</ref> Substantive evidence of the working lives of ''Issei'' women is very difficult to find, partly for lack of data and partly because the data that do exist are influenced by their implicit ideological definition of women.<ref>Kobayashi, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NzwjB4j0iZQC&dq=issei+japanese+canadians&pg=PA70  p. 58.]</ref> In Hawai‘i, ''Issei'' women worked as washerwomen, midwives, and barbers, providing essential services to the growing immigrant population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nakamura |first=Kelli Y. |date=2015 |title=Issei Women and Work: Washerwomen, Prostitutes, Midwives, and Barbers |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/600879 |journal=Hawaiian Journal of History |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=119–148 |doi=10.1353/hjh.2015.0011 |hdl=10524/56609 |issn=2169-7639|hdl-access=free }}</ref> ''Issei'' women were instrumental in fostering social cohesion and preserving Japanese culture through the establishment of community organizations. [[Shizue Iwatsuki]] founded the Japanese Women’s Society in Hood River, Oregon, which provided a vital social network for Japanese immigrant women while ensuring the continuation of cultural traditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shizue Iwatsuki (1897–1984) |url=https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/iwatsuki_shizue_1897_1984_/ |access-date=2025-01-22 |website=www.oregonencyclopedia.org |language=en}}</ref> 

''Issei'' women divided their time between working and keeping house. Many described their lives as a constant cycle of labor, balancing agricultural work with domestic responsibilities. They frequently referred to their husbands as "Meiji men," describing them as embodying the patriarchal ideals of late Meiji Japan. These men often avoided household or childcare duties, leaving Issei women to shoulder most of the physical and emotional labor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Takaki |first=Ronald |title=Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans, Updated and Revised Edition |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=1998 |isbn=978-0316831307}}</ref>

====Aging====
The ''[[kanreki]]'' (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese [[rite of passage]] to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the ''Issei'' and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of ''Nisei.'' Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values; and this Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older.<ref>Doi, Mary L. [https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00056753  "A Transformation of Ritual: The Nisei 60th Birthday."] ''Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology.'' Vol. 6, No. 2 (April 1991).</ref>

Japanese-American photographer [[Mary Koga]] documented elderly first generation immigrants in her ''Portrait of the Issei in Illinois'', taken between 1986 and 1989.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.mocp.org/detail.php?type=related&kv=7320&t=people |title=Koga, Mary |website=Museum of Contemporary Photography |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910084008/https://www.mocp.org/detail.php?type=related&kv=7320&t=people |archive-date=2015-09-10 |access-date=2024-05-10 }}</ref>

==History==
The experience of emigrants is inevitably affected by a range of factors directly related to the Japanese society they left behind.  As immigrants, the conflicts between the old country and the new played out in unique ways for each individual, and yet common elements do begin to appear in the history of the Japanese Canadian and Japanese American communities.

===Emigrants from Japan===
Japan was a closed country for more than two centuries, 1636 to 1853, since military rulers from the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]] family wanted to keep foreigners away from Japanese society.<ref>Spickard, Paul R. (1997). ''Japanese Americans: The Formation and Transformations of an Ethnic Group,'' p. 7.</ref> The only exceptions were Chinese and some [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]], but even they were discouraged from associating with Japanese [[Citizenship|citizens]]. Also, it was strictly prohibited by law for ordinary Japanese citizens to go abroad. Change came around the early 19th century when the visit of an American fleet commanded by [[Matthew C. Perry|Commodore Perry]] caused the new Japanese government to replace the Tokugawa system of economics and politics during the [[Meiji era]] to open its door to trade and contact with the outside world.

After 1866, the new Japanese government decided to send students and laborers to the U.S. to bring back the knowledge and experience necessary for the nation to grow strong.<ref name="tamuraxxxvii">Tamura, Linda. (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju-xQV-gGIMC&q=issei  ''The Hood River Issei: An Oral History of Japanese Settlers in Oregon's Hood River Valley,'' p. xxxvii.]</ref>

After 1884, emigration of working classes was permitted; and the first issei began to arrive in North and South America soon after.  For example, in 1890, only 25 Issei lived in Oregon.  By 1891, 1,000 Japanese lived in Oregon. In 1900, 2,051 Japanese had come to live in Oregon.<ref name="tamuraxxxvii"/> By 1915, Japanese men with savings of $800 were considered eligible to summon wives from Japan.<ref>Tamura, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju-xQV-gGIMC&q=issei  p. xxxviii.]</ref>

===Immigrants in America===
{{main|History of Japanese Americans|Japanese-American life before World War II|Japanese-American life after World War II}}
Few Japanese workers came to North America intending to become immigrants. Initially, most of them came with vague plans for gaining new experiences and for making some money before returning to homes in Japan.  This group of workers was overwhelmingly male. Many ''Issei'' arrived as laborers.  They worked in employment sectors such as agriculture, mining, and railroad construction.

The Issei were born in Japan, and their cultural perspective was primarily Japanese; but they were in America by choice.  Despite a certain nostalgia for the old country, they had created homes in a country far from Japan.  If they had not been prohibited from becoming citizens, many would have become citizens of the United States.<ref>Yenne, Bill. (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3JZw28xhEC&dq=issei&pg=PA12  ''Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II,'' p. xv.]</ref>

In 1913, California's Alien Land Law prohibited non-citizens from owning land in the state, and several other states soon after passed their own restrictive [[alien land laws]].  This included the ''Issei'', Japanese residents born in Japan, but not their children, the Nisei, who were born in United States or Hawaii, and who therefore were American citizens by birth.  Many of the Issei responded to the law by transferring title to their land to their ''Nisei'' children.<ref>Yenne, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3JZw28xhEC&dq=issei&pg=PA12  p. 12.]</ref>

===Americans' first impression of Issei===
Americans generally viewed the ''Issei'' as a crude, ill-educated lot.<ref>Spickard, p. 15.</ref> Possible reasons for this may be the fact that most Japanese were forced to work in menial jobs in the U.S., such as farming. Many Issei were in fact better educated than either the Japanese or American public. Sixty percent had completed middle school, and 21 percent were high school graduates. {{citation needed|reason=No citation is given for Issei being well-educated, the numbers on their education.|date=August 2018}}

Whether Christian, Buddhists, or nonbelievers, the ''Issei'' almost never caused trouble in the civil authority. The arrest rate for the ''Issei'' from 1902 to the 1960s was relatively lower than for any other major ethnic group in California.<ref>Spickard, p. 57.</ref> The only exceptions were that some young ''Issei'' committed crimes relating to gambling and prostitution{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}, which stemmed from different cultural morals in Japan.

===Racial segregation and immigration law===
{{main|Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States}}
The post-1900 cause to renew the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] became generalized protests against all [[Asian people|Asian]] immigrants, including the Issei.<ref>Mercier, Laurie ''et al.'' [http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/crbeha/ja/ja.htm "Historical overview,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513165141/http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/crbeha/ja/ja.htm |date=13 May 2008 }} ''Japanese Americans in the Columbia River Basin,'' Washington State University web project.</ref> Since Chinese immigration to the U.S. was largely limited, hostility fell on the ''Issei.'' American labor organizations took an initiative in spreading [[anti-Japanese sentiment]]. [[White American]]s wanted to exclude them since they did not want any Asians to take their jobs away. As a result, they formed the [[Asiatic Exclusion League]] that viewed Japanese and Chinese as a threat of American workers. The protest of the league involved picketing and beatings of the Issei. In October 1906, amid this anti-Japanese milieu, the San Francisco School Board, carrying out a campaign promise of the mayor, ordered all Japanese and Korean pupils to join the Chinese students at a [[Racial segregation|segregated]] school.<ref name=densho>{{citation| last=Densho and The Board of Trustees of The Leland Stanford Junior University| title=Reading: The Issei immigrants and Civil Rights| url=http://www.densho.org/learning/spice/lesson2/2reading2.asp| access-date=25 April 2008| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417110939/http://www.densho.org/learning/spice/lesson2/2reading2.asp| archive-date=17 April 2008}}</ref> The ''Issei'' were displeased with the situation and some reported to Japanese newspapers. This caused the Japanese government to protest against the former president, [[Theodore Roosevelt]], and as a result, they signed the [[Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907]]. This agreement led the period of settling and family building to come.

By 1911, almost half of the Japanese immigrants were women who landed in the U.S. to reunite with their husbands. After the Gentleman's agreement, a number of ''Nisei'', the second-generation Japanese, were born in California. Yet, it did not stop some white Americans from segregating Japanese immigrants. The ''Issei'' were a role model of American citizens by being hardworking, law-abiding, devoted to family and the community. However, some Americans did not want to admit the virtues of the ''Issei.''

The [[Immigration Act of 1924]] represented the Issei's failed struggle against the segregation. The experiences of the Issei extend from well before the period before 1 July 1924, when the Japanese Exclusion Act came into effect.<ref>Kirmura, Yukiko. (1988). [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED344810&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED344810  ''Issei: Japanese Immigrants in Hawaii,'' (abstract).]</ref>

The ''Issei,'' however, were very good at enhancing rice farming on "unusable" land. Japanese Californian farmers made rice a major crop of the state. The largest ''Issei'' community settled around [[Vacaville, California]], near San Francisco.

===Internment===
{{main|Japanese Canadian internment|Internment of Japanese Americans|Japanese Peruvian#World War II}}
When the Canadian and American governments interned West Coast Japanese in 1942, neither distinguished between those who were citizens (''Nisei'') and their non-citizen parents (''Issei'').<ref>Dinnerstein, Leonard ''et al.'' (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOFDhehJ68gC&q=Ethnic+Americans  ''Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration,'' p. 181.]</ref> When the apology and redress for injustices were enacted by the American Congress and the Canadian Parliament in 1988, most of the ''Issei'' were dead, or too old for it to make any significant difference in lives that had been disrupted.

== Notable individuals ==
{{see also|List of Japanese Americans}}
The number of ''issei'' who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the ''nikkei.''  Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by ''issei'' from North America, the Latin American member countries of the [[Pan American Nikkei Association]] (PANA) include Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay, in addition to the English-speaking United States and Canada.<ref>National Association of Japanese Canadians: [http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php PANA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218195725/http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php |date=18 February 2009 }}</ref>

{{dynamic list}}
<!-- Please note that this list is in lexicographic or [[lexicographical order]], also known as [[lexical order]], [[dictionary order]], [[alphabetical order]], etc. -->
* [[Kan'ichi Asakawa]] (1873–1948), academic, author, peace advocate, historian and librarian<ref>DiscoverNikkei: [http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Kanichi_Asakawa  Asakawa bio] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011084225/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/index.php/Kanichi_Asakawa |date=11 October 2008 }}</ref>
* [[Norio Azuma]] (1928–2004), artist
* [[Jun Fujita]] (1888–1963), an early 20th century photographer
* [[Miki Gorman]] (1935–2015), a two-time winner of both the Boston and New York marathons<ref name=gorman>{{citation |last=Gorman |first=Miki |title=As the Miles and the Years Pass By  | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=30 October 2005 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/30/sports/sportsspecial/30gorman.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1130988907-HWJm/2GFSQTf+zTvp/fMWg}}</ref>
* [[Midori Gotō]] (1971–  ), a violinist and recipient of the [[Avery Fisher Prize]]
* [[Makoto Hagiwara]] (1854–1925), a landscape designer often credited with having invented the fortune cookie<ref name=lee>{{citation |last=Lee |first=Jennifer 8. |title=Solving a Riddle Wrapped in a Mystery Inside a Cookie | newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=16 January 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/16/dining/16fort.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1}}</ref>
* [[Sessue Hayakawa]] (1889–1973), an Academy Award-nominated actor
* [[Mazie Hirono]] (1947– ), an American politician<ref>U.S. House of Representatives: [http://hirono.house.gov/bio.shtml Mazie Hirono] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627015509/http://hirono.house.gov//bio.shtml |date=27 June 2009 }}.</ref>
* [[Shizuko Hoshi]], ''Shin-issei'' (Japanese born), actress
* [[Rena Inoue]] (1976–  ), a two-time U.S. National Champion pair skater<ref>International Skating Union: [http://www.isufs.org/bios/isufs00005328.htm Rena Inoue] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040603073639/http://www.isufs.org/bios/isufs00005328.htm |date=3 June 2004 }}. 15 April 2009.</ref>
* [[Shin Koyamada]] (1982– ), a Hollywood film actor, philanthropist, entrepreneur and US martial arts champion<ref>Internet Movie Database: [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1259103/ Shin Koyamada].</ref>
* [[Fujitaro Kubota]] (1879–1973), an American gardener and philanthropist<ref>Appelo, Tim. [http://www.seattleu.edu/home/news_events/magazine/details.asp?elItemID=MAG_1177  "University of the Future: The physical transformation into a premier independent university,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308021840/http://www.seattleu.edu/home/news_events/magazine/details.asp?elItemID=MAG_1177 |date=8 March 2009 }} ''Seattle University Magazine''. Summer 2008.</ref>
* [[Yoko Ono]] Lennon (1933–  ) artist and musician.<ref>[http://imaginepeace.com/news/  Imagine Peace, Yoko Ono] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103012246/http://imaginepeace.com/news/ |date=3 January 2010 }}, 2009.</ref>
* [[George Masa]] (1881–1933), activist in creation of [[Great Smoky Mountains National Park]]<ref>PBS: [https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/people/behindtheparks/kephart-masa/ People Behind the National Parks, George Massa]</ref>
* [[Hikaru Nakamura]] (1987–  ), an American chess Grandmaster and five time United States Chess Champion.
* [[Yoichiro Nambu]] (1921–2015), a physicist and 2008 Nobel Laureate<ref name=pollard>{{citation |last=Pollard|first=Niklas |title=Two Japanese, American win 2008 physics Nobel  | work=[[Reuters]] |date=7 October 2008 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSTRE4963JJ20081007}}</ref>
* [[Joseph Ogura]] (1915–1983), an otolaryngologist; head and neck surgeon. Chairman of the Department of Otolaryngology at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri. A pioneer in designing and teaching head and neck cancer surgeries. He authored over 200 original articles. Author of over 10 definitive textbooks in the field of head and neck oncology. Nisei (二世), with his California family interned during WW II. He was advised to move to the midwest to avoid internment becoming the chairman of otolaryngology; head and neck surgery at Washington University from 1960 to 1983.<ref name=ogura>{{Cite journal | last = Ogura | first = Joseph | title = Joseph H. Ogura and The American board of otolaryngology: Development of a specialist; Development of a specialty | journal = The Laryngoscope | year = 1992 | volume = 102 | issue = 5 | pages = 532–537 | doi = 10.1288/00005537-199205000-00012 | pmid = 1573950 | doi-access = free }}{{Cite news | last = Ogura | first = Joseph | title =  Dr. Joseph H.Ogura in Memorandum. | doi = 10.1002/jso.2930240202 }}</ref>
* [[Masi Oka]] (1974–  ), an Emmy and Golden Globe Award nominated American actor<ref>Internet Movie Database: [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1199811/ Masi Oka].</ref>
* [[George Shima]] (1864–1926), the first Japanese American millionaire.<ref name=hoobler>{{Citation | last = Hoobler | first = Dorothy and Thomas | title = The Japanese American Family Album | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1995 | page = [https://archive.org/details/japaneseamerican00doro/page/64 64] | isbn = 978-0-19-512423-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/japaneseamerican00doro/page/64 }}</ref>
* [[Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa]], ''Shin-issei'' (Japanese born), actor
* [[Takamine Jōkichi|Jōkichi Takamine]] (1854–1922), a Japanese chemist<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.jce.divched.org/JCEWWW/Features/eChemists/document.php?chemid=20| title = "Biographical Snapshots: Jokichi Takamine,"| access-date = 30 June 2009| archive-date = 8 February 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120208035251/http://www.jce.divched.org/JCEWWW/Features/eChemists/document.php?chemid=20| url-status = dead}} {{cite web| url = http://www.jce.divched.org/AboutJCE/publications.html| title = ''Journal of Chemical Education.''| access-date = 30 June 2009| archive-date = 28 April 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120428064514/http://www.jce.divched.org/AboutJCE/publications.html| url-status = dead}}</ref>
* [[Tamlyn Tomita]], actress; ''Sansei'' on father's side and mother is Japanese/Filipina 
* [[Miyoshi Umeki]], (May 8, 1929 – August 28, 2007) was a Japanese-American singer and actress. Umeki was a Tony Award- and Golden Globe-nominated actress and the first East Asian-American woman to win an Academy Award for acting from the 1958 film, [[Sayonara]] as well as Mei Li in the Broadway musical and 1961 MGM film Flower Drum Song, and Mrs. Livingston in the television series The Courtship of Eddie's Father. She was a shin Issei, or post-1945 immigrant from Japan.<ref name="Oscars1958">{{Cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1958 |title=The 30th Academy Awards (1958) Nominees and Winners |access-date=2011-08-21|work=oscars.org}}</ref>
* [[Takuji Yamashita]] (1874–1959), an early civil-rights campaigner<ref>{{cite web|title=Takuji Yamashita|url=http://www.law.washington.edu/GatesHall/art.aspx|website=Art Work|publisher=[[University of Washington School of Law]]|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Asian American]]
* [[Asian Canadian]]
* [[Hyphenated American]]
* [[Internment of Japanese Americans]]
* [[Japanese American Citizens League]]
* [[Japanese American National Library]]
* [[Japanese American National Museum]]
* [[Japanese Canadian]]
* [[Japanese Brazilian]]
* [[Japanese community in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Japanese people]]
* [[List of Japanese Americans]]
* [[Model minority]]
* [[Nisei Baseball Research Project]]
* [[Pacific Movement of the Eastern World]]
* [[Gila River War Relocation Center]]
* [[Granada War Relocation Center]]
* [[Heart Mountain War Relocation Center]]
* [[Jerome War Relocation Center]]
* [[Manzanar]] [[National Historic Sites (United States)|National Historic Site]]
* [[Minidoka National Historic Site]]
* [[Poston War Relocation Center]]
* [[Rohwer War Relocation Center]]
* [[Topaz War Relocation Center]]
* [[Tule Lake War Relocation Center]]
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Eiichiro Azuma. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XGX2p9hISewC&q=between+two+empires "Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America."] New York: [[Oxford University Press]] {{ISBN|978-0-19-515941-7}}
* [[Leonard Dinnerstein]] and David M. Reimers. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOFDhehJ68gC&q=Ethnic+Americans  ''Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration.''] New York: [[Columbia University Press]].  {{ISBN|978-0-231-11189-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Nisei: the Quiet Americans|publisher=William Morrow & Company |location=New York |last=Hosokawa |first=Bill |authorlink=Bill Hosokawa|year=1969|isbn=978-0688050139}}
* Ichioka, Yuji. (1988). [https://books.google.com/books?id=3iaaAAAAIAAJ&q=Issei  ''The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885–1924.''] New York: The Free Press. {{ISBN|978-0-02-915370-3}}
* Itoh, Keiko. (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=VBijCPLvWyUC&q=he+Japanese+Community+in+Pre-War+Britain  ''The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration.''] London: [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1487-2}}
* Kimura, Yukiko. (1988). [https://books.google.com/books?id=4uQH2sIllDgC&q=issei  ''Issei: Japanese Immigrants in Hawaii.''] Honolulu: [[University of Hawaii Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-1029-0}}
* McLellan, Janet. (1999). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NMm024458s4C&q=Sansei+canada  ''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto.''] Toronto: [[University of Toronto Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8020-8225-1}}
* Miki, Roy [https://books.google.com/books?id=V5G6fHCHSsQC&q=japanese-canadian  ''Redress: Inside the Japanese Canadian Call for Justice.''] Vancouver: Raincoast Books. {{ISBN|978-1-55192-650-6}}
* Keibo Oiwa, Keibo and Joy Kogawa. (1991). [https://books.google.com/books?id=pAIVAAAAYAAJ&q=canadian+japanese  ''Stone Voices: Wartime Writings of Japanese Canadian Issei.''] Montréal : Véhicule Press.  {{ISBN|978-1-55065-014-3}}
* Sakata, Yasuo, Los Angeles Japanese American Research Project, [[University of California]]. (1992). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qak8JwAACAAJ&q=Fading+Footsteps+of+the+Issei.  ''Fading Footsteps of the Issei: An Annotated Checklist of the Manuscript Holdings of the Japanese American Research Project Collection.''] Los Angeles: Asian American Studies Center, Center for Japanese Studies, [[University of California at Los Angeles]], [[Japanese American National Museum]]. {{ISBN|978-0-87170-444-3}}
* Spickard, Paul R. (1996). [https://books.google.com/books?id=JTXIAQAACAAJ&q=Japanese+Americans:+The+Formation+and+Transformations+of+an+Ethnic+Group  ''Japanese Americans.''] New York: Twayne Publishers. {{ISBN|978-0-8057-7841-0}}—London: Prentice Hall International. {{ISBN|978-0-8057-9242-3}}
* Tamura, Linda. (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju-xQV-gGIMC&q=issei  ''The Hood River Issei: An Oral History of Japanese Settlers in Oregon's Hood River Valley.''] Urbana: [[University of Illinois Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-252-06359-6}}
* Tate, E. Mowbray. (1986). [https://books.google.com/books?id=OuUvlfcIGRQC&q=Transpacific+Steam  ''Transpacific Steam: The Story of Steam Navigation from the Pacific Coast of North America to the Far East and the Antipodes, 1867–1941.''] New York: Associated University Presses.  {{ISBN|978-0-8453-4792-8}}
* Yenne, Bill. (2007). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ok3JZw28xhEC&q=issei  ''Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II.''] New York: [[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|978-0-312-35464-0}}

==External links==

{{commons category multi|Internment of Japanese-Canadians|Japanese American internment}}
* [http://www.janm.org Japanese American National Museum]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20101224165059/http://blogs.laweekly.com/squidink/2010/12/janm_chado_intro_5_new_generational_teas.php  JANM generational teas]
* [http://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/english/html/index.htm Embassy of Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216003413/https://www.us.emb-japan.go.jp/english/html/index.htm |date=16 February 2019 }} in Washington, D.C.
* [http://www.jacl.org Japanese American Citizens League]

{{Asian Americans}}
{{Japanese diaspora}}

[[Category:Cultural generations]]
[[Category:Japanese-American history]]
[[Category:Japanese diaspora in the United States]]
[[Category:Japanese diaspora in Brazil]]
[[Category:Japanese diaspora in Canada]]
[[Category:Japanese diaspora]]
[[Category:Japanese words and phrases]]
[[Category:Peruvian people of Japanese descent]]