Editing James Bay Project

{{Short description|Hydroelectric dams in Quebec, Canada}}
[[Image:Déversoir, Centrale hydro-électrique Robert-Bourassa.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The spillway of the Robert-Bourassa Dam (formerly La Grande-2)]]

The '''James Bay Project''' ({{langx|fr|projet de la Baie-James}}) involves the construction of a series of [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] power stations on the [[La Grande River]] in northwestern [[Quebec]], Canada by [[government-owned corporation|state-owned]] [[public utility|utility]] [[Hydro-Québec]], and the diversion of neighbouring rivers into the La Grande [[Drainage basin|watershed]]. It is located between [[James Bay]] to the west and [[Labrador]] to the east, and its waters flow from the [[Laurentian Plateau]] of the [[Canadian Shield]]. The project is one of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world. It has cost upwards of US$20 billion to build{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} and has an installed generating capacity of 15.244 [[Gigawatt|GW]], at the cost of 7,000 square miles of Cree hunting lands.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pritzker |first=Barry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xnnrSB6dd8C&dq=15%2C244+megawatts+james+bay&pg=PA87 |title=Native America Today: A Guide to Community Politics and Culture |date=1999 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-077-2 |language=en}}</ref> It has been built since 1974 by [[James Bay Energy]] ({{abbr|SDBJ|Société d'énergie de la Baie James}}) for Hydro-Québec.

Construction costs of the project's first phase in ≈ 1971 amounted to $13.7 billion (1987 [[Canadian dollar]]s).<ref name="SEBJ1987p11">{{harvnb|Société d'énergie de la Baie James|1987|p=11}}</ref> The eight power stations of the La Grande Complex generate an average of 9.5 GW, enough to meet the  total demand of a small industrialized economy such as [[Belgium]].<ref>{{harvnb|Government of Quebec|2006|p=10}}</ref> The James Bay power stations represent almost half of Hydro-Québec's total output and capacity.

The development of the James Bay Project was controversial. It led to an acrimonious conflict with the 5,000 Crees and 4,000 Inuit of [[Northern Quebec]] over land rights, lifestyle and environmental issues. A ruling against the Quebec government in 1973 forced the [[Robert Bourassa]] government to negotiate a far-reaching agreement, the [[James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement]], involving the Cree, the Inuit, the Quebec and Canadian governments, Hydro-Québec, the SEBJ, and later the [[Naskapi]] [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]]s. In the 1990s, forceful opposition by the Crees and their environmental allies caused the cancellation of the [[#Great_Whale_River_project|Great Whale Project]], a proposed 3,000 MW complex north of La Grande River.<ref> https://waskaganish.ca/the-james-bay-project/</ref>

In February 2002, the [[Bernard Landry]] government and the [[Grand Council of the Crees]] signed the ''[[Agreement Respecting a New Relationship Between the Cree Nation and the Government of Quebec|Peace of the Braves]]'' ({{langx|fr|Paix des Braves}}) and the ''Boumhounan Agreement'', establishing a new relationship between Quebec and the Crees and agreeing on environmental rules for the construction of three new power stations built between 2003 and 2011&nbsp;— the Eastmain-1, Eastmain-1-A and Sarcelle generating stations&nbsp;— and the diversion of the [[Rupert River]].

== Geography ==
{{Main|Canadian Shield}}
The James Bay region, also known as [[Jamésie, Quebec|Jamésie]], is a {{convert|350000|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} territory, bordered by the 49th and 55th parallels, James Bay on the western side and by the drainage divide with the Saint Lawrence River basin on the eastern side.<ref name="SEBJ1987p4">{{harvnb|Société d'énergie de la Baie James|1987|p=4}}</ref> The topography of the area consist of generally low relief areas and includes three parts: a {{convert|150|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[coastal plain]], a rolling [[plateau]] with a maximum elevation of {{convert|400|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="SEBJ1987p4"/> and the [[Otish Mountains]] to the east of the territory, with peaks reaching {{nowrap|900 to 1,100 m}} {{nowrap|(3,000 to 3,600 ft)}}.<ref name="SEBJ1987p18">{{harvnb|Société d'énergie de la Baie James|1987|p=18}}</ref>

The area is part of the [[Canadian Shield]] and is largely made up of [[Precambrian]] [[igneous rock|igneous]] and [[metamorphic rock]]s. Relief has been [[erosion|eroded]] by [[Quaternary glaciation|successive glaciations]] in the [[Pleistocene]] era, as recently as 6,000 years ago, leaving [[Deposition (geology)|depositions]] of loose materials: [[moraines]], [[clay]], [[silt]] and [[sand]] and reshaped the [[Drainage system (geomorphology)|hydrography]] of the territory.<ref name="SEBJ1987p4"/>

The region's [[subarctic climate|climate is subarctic]]. Winters are long and last, on average, from October 22 to May 4.<ref name="SEBJ1987p21">{{harvnb|Société d'énergie de la Baie James|1987|p=21}}</ref> Summers are short and mild, with temperatures averaging {{convert|13.6|C|F|abbr=on}} in July, while dropping to {{convert|-22.9|C|F|abbr=on}} in January. Annual precipitation averages {{convert|765|mm|in|abbr=on}}, a third in snow. Highest monthly rainfall is registered in the summer and snow depths vary from {{nowrap|50 to 100 cm}} {{nowrap|(20-40 in)}} in the winter. Precipitations are significantly lower than the annual average of {{convert|1050|mm|in|abbr=on}} recorded in Montreal.<ref name="SEBJ1987p4"/> The area lies in the zone of [[discontinuous permafrost]], whose depth is significantly reduced by the deep snow cover.

The natural [[seismicity]] of the area is low. An [[earthquake]] of magnitude 5 on the [[Richter magnitude scale]] occurred in 1941, its epicenter located approximately 150&nbsp;km from the La Grande-3 generating station. However, episodes of [[induced seismicity]] occurred during the initial fill of [[reservoir]]s. In 1983, a magnitude 4 tremor was recorded {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} upstream of LG-3's main dam.<ref name="SEBJ1987p21"/>

{{Weather box
|location = La Grande Riviere Airport (1981−2010)
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan maximum humidex = 1.8
|Feb maximum humidex = 4.8
|Mar maximum humidex = 11.1
|Apr maximum humidex = 21.8
|May maximum humidex = 33.9
|Jun maximum humidex = 37.5
|Jul maximum humidex = 44.3
|Aug maximum humidex = 35.5
|Sep maximum humidex = 31.6
|Oct maximum humidex = 28.3
|Nov maximum humidex = 11.7
|Dec maximum humidex = 7.6
|year maximum humidex = 44.3
|Jan record high C = 1.4
|Feb record high C = 5.0
|Mar record high C = 11.3
|Apr record high C = 22.3
|May record high C = 32.6
|Jun record high C = 35.0
|Jul record high C = 37.3
|Aug record high C = 31.2
|Sep record high C = 27.1
|Oct record high C = 23.5
|Nov record high C = 12.3
|Dec record high C = 7.4
|year record high C = 37.3
|Jan high C = -18.5
|Feb high C = -15.9
|Mar high C = -8.2
|Apr high C = 0.6
|May high C = 10.3
|Jun high C = 17.3
|Jul high C = 20.4
|Aug high C = 18.6
|Sep high C = 12.3
|Oct high C = 4.8
|Nov high C = -3.1
|Dec high C = -12.0
|year high C = 2.2
|Jan mean C = −23.2
|Feb mean C = −21.6
|Mar mean C = −14.5
|Apr mean C = -5.0
|May mean C = 4.3
|Jun mean C = 10.8
|Jul mean C = 14.2
|Aug mean C = 13.1
|Sep mean C = 8.1
|Oct mean C = 1.7
|Nov mean C = -6.1
|Dec mean C = -16.0
|year mean C = -2.9
|Jan low C = -28.0
|Feb low C = -27.3
|Mar low C = -20.7
|Apr low C = -10.6
|May low C = -1.6
|Jun low C = 4.2
|Jul low C = 8.0
|Aug low C = 7.6
|Sep low C = 3.8
|Oct low C = -1.5
|Nov low C = -9.1
|Dec low C = -19.9
|year low C = -7.9
|Jan record low C = -40.9
|Feb record low C = -44.6
|Mar record low C = -39.7
|Apr record low C = -31.4
|May record low C = -14.4
|Jun record low C = -6.6
|Jul record low C = -0.9
|Aug record low C = -0.5
|Sep record low C = -7.0
|Oct record low C = -16.7
|Nov record low C = -29.2
|Dec record low C = -40.3
|year record low C = -44.6
|Jan chill = −56.0
|Feb chill = −56.9
|Mar chill = −51.2
|Apr chill = −40.1
|May chill = −24.2
|Jun chill = −12.5
|Jul chill = -3.4
|Aug chill = -6.5
|Sep chill = −10.3
|Oct chill = −19.7
|Nov chill = −40.3
|Dec chill = −52.9
|year chill = -56.9
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 30.9
|Feb precipitation mm = 21.9
|Mar precipitation mm = 29.4
|Apr precipitation mm = 32.7
|May precipitation mm = 39.0
|Jun precipitation mm = 65.3
|Jul precipitation mm = 78.5
|Aug precipitation mm = 91.1
|Sep precipitation mm = 110.6
|Oct precipitation mm = 87.3
|Nov precipitation mm = 67.9
|Dec precipitation mm = 42.6
|year precipitation mm = 697.2
|rain colour = green
|Jan rain mm = 0.1
|Feb rain mm = 1.2
|Mar rain mm = 3.4
|Apr rain mm = 12.7
|May rain mm = 27.9
|Jun rain mm = 62.6
|Jul rain mm = 78.5
|Aug rain mm = 91.0
|Sep rain mm = 106.9
|Oct rain mm = 56.2
|Nov rain mm = 11.6
|Dec rain mm = 1.7
|year rain mm = 453.8
|Jan snow cm = 33.1
|Feb snow cm = 23.0
|Mar snow cm = 28.6
|Apr snow cm = 21.0
|May snow cm = 11.9
|Jun snow cm = 2.6
|Jul snow cm = 0.01
|Aug snow cm = 0.09
|Sep snow cm = 4.0
|Oct snow cm = 32.4
|Nov snow cm = 60.3
|Dec snow cm = 44.4
|year snow cm = 261.3
|unit precipitation days = 0.2 mm
|unit rain days = 0.2 mm
|unit snow days = 0.2 cm
|Jan precipitation days = 16.3
|Feb precipitation days = 12.5
|Mar precipitation days = 11.9
|Apr precipitation days = 10.8
|May precipitation days = 12.1
|Jun precipitation days = 12.4
|Jul precipitation days = 14.1
|Aug precipitation days = 16.2
|Sep precipitation days = 20.2
|Oct precipitation days = 20.6
|Nov precipitation days = 22.0
|Dec precipitation days = 19.7
|year precipitation days = 188.9
|Jan rain days = 0.33
|Feb rain days = 0.67
|Mar rain days = 1.1
|Apr rain days = 4.0
|May rain days = 8.0
|Jun rain days = 11.6
|Jul rain days = 14.0
|Aug rain days = 16.2
|Sep rain days = 19.5
|Oct rain days = 12.7
|Nov rain days = 4.1
|Dec rain days = 0.84
|year rain days = 92.9
|Jan snow days = 16.4
|Feb snow days = 12.3
|Mar snow days = 11.5
|Apr snow days = 8.5
|May snow days = 5.7
|Jun snow days = 1.6
|Jul snow days = 0.04
|Aug snow days = 0.04
|Sep snow days = 1.9
|Oct snow days = 11.8
|Nov snow days = 20.5
|Dec snow days = 19.6
|year snow days = 109.8
|Jan sun = 76.5
|Feb sun = 114.0
|Mar sun = 167.2
|Apr sun = 197.7
|May sun = 226.6
|Jun sun = 256.3
|Jul sun = 247.0
|Aug sun = 204.5
|Sep sun = 102.8
|Oct sun = 69.7
|Nov sun = 37.8
|Dec sun = 35.5
|year sun = 1735.5
|Jan percentsun = 30.6
|Feb percentsun = 41.3
|Mar percentsun = 45.5
|Apr percentsun = 47.1
|May percentsun = 46.0
|Jun percentsun = 50.4
|Jul percentsun = 48.3
|Aug percentsun = 44.5
|Sep percentsun = 26.9
|Oct percentsun = 21.2
|Nov percentsun = 14.6
|Dec percentsun = 15.1
|year percentsun = 36.0
|source 1 = Environment Canada<ref name=CCN>{{cite web
  | url = ftp://ftp.tor.ec.gc.ca/Pub/Normals/English/
  | title = La Grande Riviere Airport
  | work = Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010
  | publisher = Environment Canada
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200714071822/ftp://ftp.tor.ec.gc.ca/Pub/Normals/English/
  | archive-date = 2020-07-14
  | url-status = dead
  | access-date = September 10, 2013}}</ref>
|date=December 2010
}}

{{Weather box
|location = La Grande IV
|collapsed= yes
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|Jan high C = −18.1
|Feb high C = -17.5
|Mar high C = -8.0
|Apr high C = 1.3
|May high C = 9.8
|Jun high C = 17.0
|Jul high C = 20.0
|Aug high C = 18.2
|Sep high C = 11.0
|Oct high C = 3.7
|Nov high C = -4.3
|Dec high C = -13.2
|Jan mean C= −24.6
|Feb mean C= −24.4
|Mar mean C= -15.7
|Apr mean C= -5.1
|May mean C= 3.5
|Jun mean C= 10.2
|Jul mean C= 13.6
|Aug mean C= 12.4
|Sep mean C= 6.8
|Oct mean C= 0.5
|Nov mean C= -8.3
|Dec mean C= -18.9
|Jan low C = −31.1
|Feb low C = −31.3
|Mar low C = −23.4
|Apr low C = -11.5
|May low C = -2.7
|Jun low C = 3.3
|Jul low C = 7.1
|Aug low C = 6.5
|Sep low C = 2.5
|Oct low C = -2.8
|Nov low C = -12.4
|Dec low C = −24.6
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 30
|Feb precipitation mm = 26
|Mar precipitation mm = 28
|Apr precipitation mm = 38
|May precipitation mm = 55
|Jun precipitation mm = 80
|Jul precipitation mm = 98
|Aug precipitation mm = 101
|Sep precipitation mm = 133
|Oct precipitation mm = 88
|Nov precipitation mm = 61
|Dec precipitation mm = 44
|year precipitation mm =
|rain colour=green
|Jan rain mm = 0
|Feb rain mm = 0
|Mar rain mm = 2
|Apr rain mm = 16
|May rain mm = 45
|Jun rain mm = 79
|Jul rain mm = 98
|Aug rain mm = 101
|Sep rain mm = 123
|Oct rain mm = 43
|Nov rain mm = 10
|Dec rain mm = 1
|year rain mm =
|Jan snow cm = 35
|Feb snow cm = 28
|Mar snow cm = 29
|Apr snow cm = 23
|May snow cm = 10
|Jun snow cm = 1
|Jul snow cm = 0
|Aug snow cm = 0
|Sep snow cm = 9
|Oct snow cm = 46
|Nov snow cm = 58
|Dec snow cm = 53
|year snow cm =
|Jan sun = 84
|Feb sun = 128
|Mar sun = 167
|Apr sun = 184
|May sun = 208
|Jun sun = 221
|Jul sun = 209
|Aug sun = 183
|Sep sun = 89
|Oct sun = 54
|Nov sun = 41
|Dec sun = 54
|year sun =
|source 1 = The Weather Network.<ref name="climate">[http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/cl7093gj3 Statistics: La Grande Iv A, Quebec, Canadaada], accessed 27 March 2012.</ref>
|date=March 2012
}}

== History ==

=== Exploration ===
[[File:La Grande Rivière2.jpg|thumb|right|La Grande River, near Radisson, Quebec]]

Between 1950 and 1959, a team led by H. M. Finlayson conducted water surveys of the [[Nottaway River|Nottaway]], [[Broadback River|Broadback]] and [[Rupert River]]s—collectively known by the abbreviation NBR—on behalf of the [[Shawinigan Water & Power Company]], a large investor-owned utility based in [[Shawinigan]], Quebec.<ref name= "Lacasse1983p34">{{harvnb|Lacasse|1983|pp=34–35}}</ref> Among options studied by Shawinigan's engineers was the possible diversion of these rivers to the [[Saint-Maurice River]] watershed in order to increase output at the company's 8 power stations.<ref>{{harvnb|Bellavance|1994|p=181}}</ref>

With the [[History of Hydro-Québec|nationalization of privately owned utilities in 1963]], Hydro-Québec inherited the preliminary studies conducted by Finlayson and his team on the hydroelectric potential of James Bay rivers.<ref name="Bourassa1985p26">{{harvnb|Bourassa|1985|p=26}}</ref><ref name="Siecle1989p257">{{harvnb|Bolduc|Hogue|Larouche|1989|pp=257–258}}</ref> However, other projects, such as the Manicouagan-Outardes project on the [[Côte-Nord|North Shore]] and the possibility of building a large power station at [[Churchill Falls Generating Station|Churchill Falls]] in Labrador proved easier and less expensive and the Crown corporation devoted only minimal resources to the vast potential of northern rivers. In 1965, Hydro-Québec survey program included exploration of the territory and hydrographic surveys of areas between the 52nd and 55th parallel.<ref name="Bolduc2000p112">{{harvnb|Bolduc|2000|p=112}}</ref>

In 1967, the company stepped up the work on the La Grande and [[Eastmain River|Eastmain rivers]]. Dozens, then hundreds of people were sent by helicopter and seaplanes in inaccessible areas of the [[taiga]] to perform surveys and geological studies to identify potential sites for hydropower development.<ref name="Lacasse1983p43">{{harvnb|Lacasse|1983|p=43}}</ref> Faced with budget concerns, Hydro-Québec did cut back exploration budgets between 1968 and 1970, but the company maintained planning and analysis work, since early data showed a large potential for development.<ref name= "Bourassa1985p26-27">{{harvnb|Bourassa|1985|pp=26–27}}</ref>

=== Early steps ===
On December 16, 1969, [[Liberal Party of Quebec|Liberal]] [[Backbencher]] [[National Assembly of Quebec|Member of the National Assembly]] [[Robert Bourassa]] met with the president of Hydro-Québec, [[Roland Giroux]] over lunch at the parliamentary dining room in [[Quebec City]].<ref name="Lacasse1983p97">{{harvnb|Lacasse|1983|p=97}}</ref> After the meeting Bourassa, who was about to launch a leadership bid for the position left vacant by the resignation of former Premier [[Jean Lesage]], became convinced of the probability and suitability of the project<ref name="Lacasse1983p98">{{harvnb|Lacasse|1983|p=98}}</ref> and made the development of James Bay hydroelectricity a major plank of its leadership campaign. Elected as the party leader in January, Bourassa went on to win the [[1970 Quebec general election|general election on April 29, 1970]], and his tenure as Premier of Quebec became closely linked to hydroelectric development in general and with the James Bay project in particular.{{sfn|Bourassa|1985|pp=28–29}}

For Bourassa the development of James Bay project addressed two of his priorities. In ''Energy in the North'', an essay published in 1985, Bourassa, an [[economist]] by profession, argued that "Quebec's economic development relies on the development of its natural resources".{{sfn|Bourassa|1985|pp=27}} Moreover, Bourassa argued his 1969 estimates showed demand for electricity would outstrip supply by 11,000 MW by 1983, concurring with forecasts made at the time by Hydro-Quebec.{{sfn|Bourassa|1985|pp=28–29}}

Six months after his election, Bourassa began working on the details of the scheme with his adviser, financier Paul Desrochers. The two men met secretly with Roland Giroux and [[Robert A. Boyd]] for an update in September 1970 and the next month he travelled to [[New York City]] in the midst of the [[October Crisis]] to negotiate financing for the project, estimated at the time to cost between $5 billion and $6 billion.{{sfn|Gravel|Vennat|1979b|p=7}}

Bourassa introduced his plan to the provincial cabinet in March 1971 and recommended hiring the [[United States|US]] [[engineering]] firm [[Bechtel]] to oversee the construction.{{sfn|Gravel|Vennat|1979b|p=7}} Liberal strategists then chose to make the announcement before a partisan crowd assembled at Quebec's Little Coliseum as part of the Liberal party gathering celebrating the first year of Bourassa's term, on April 30, 1971. According to journalists witnessing the scene, Bourassa's speech concluded on a scene of indescribable enthusiasm.{{sfn|Gravel|Vennat|1979a|p=6}}

=== Nuclear lobby ===
The announcement quickly generated a public debate on the wisdom to engage the province on such a large-scale project. For several years, a lobby spearheaded by the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] and its nuclear venture, [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]], promoted the adoption of nuclear energy in Quebec, as a way to "share the benefits of Canada with our fellow francophone citizens", as [[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian Prime Minister]] [[Lester B. Pearson]] said. The lobby had its supporters within the ranks at Hydro-Québec, and has been vocal when the provincial government made the decision to invest in the Churchill Falls venture with [[British Newfoundland Development Corporation|Brinco]].{{sfn|Bothwell|1988|pp=332–339}} Several [[Parti Québécois]] spokesmen, including energy critic [[Guy Joron]]{{sfn|Lacasse|1983|p=127}} and economic adviser [[Jacques Parizeau]]{{sfn|Bolduc|2000|p=119}} voiced their opposition to the Bourassa scheme. In an interview with [[Montreal]]'s ''[[Le Devoir]]'', the former economist and public servant who later became premier of Quebec commented: "We don't have to dam every single river just because they're French Canadian and Catholic."{{sfn|Bolduc|2000|p=119}}

However, Bourassa himself{{sfn|Bourassa|1985|p=33}} and Hydro-Québec senior management&nbsp;— including President Roland Giroux and commissioners Yvon DeGuise and Robert Boyd{{sfn|Bourassa|1985|p=33}}&nbsp;— were firmly behind the large hydroelectric development to be built in northern Quebec. At the time Giroux, a financier, argued that large international investors "are still wary about nuclear energy. If we bring them a good hydroelectric project, and James Bay is a good one, they'll soon show where their preferences lie".{{sfn|Bolduc|2000|p=113}} As an engineer, Boyd expressed concerns at this early date about the uncertainty of nuclear energy. He recommended maintaining a certain expertise in the field but advocated delaying nuclear expansion as late as possible.{{sfn|Bolduc|2000|p=113}}

The Quebec premier received an unexpected backing when the [[List of Premiers of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers of the USSR]], [[Alexei Kosygin]] visited Montreal in October 1971. Kosygin supported Bourassa's project and expressed concerns regarding his country's own nuclear power, explaining his country had to develop the technology because the USSR lacked suitable rivers to expand its own hydroelectric network of dams and power stations.{{sfn|Denis|2006|p=131}}

=== Options ===
Two options were considered when Bourassa unveiled his plan for the construction of several large hydroelectric power stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay, either on the [[Nottaway River|Nottaway]], [[Broadback River|Broadback]], [[Rupert River|Rupert]] and [[Harricana River]]s in the south (NBR Project), or on the La Grande and Eastmain Rivers to the north. The northerly rivers were selected in May 1972, various studies conducted by engineering firms having concluded the La Grande option would be more cost effective, while having a lesser impact on forestry and would require less flooding, thus minimizing impacts on First Nations fishing and hunting.<ref>{{harvnb|Bolduc|Hogue|Larouche|1989|p=263}}</ref> Another area of concern was the [[silt]]y nature of the terrain in the NBR area, which would have complicated the damming.<ref>{{harvnb|Bolduc|2000|p=115}}</ref>

The project, as described at the time, would involve the construction of four generating stations on the La Grande River and the diversion of the Eastmain and [[Caniapiscau River|Caniapiscau]] rivers into the La Grande watershed. Responsibility for the project would be overseen by the [[James Bay Energy Corporation|Société d'énergie de la Baie-James]], a newly created mixed corporation (public/private) controlled by Hydro-Québec, headed by [[Robert A. Boyd]].
<!--Here, they miss the internal conflict between Hydro-Québec and the SDBJ, the removal of its president, Pierre Nadeau and his replacement by Boyd, who stayed "en réserve de la République", so to say, according to Bolduc (2000). -->
[[Image:JamesBayProject.PNG|thumb|right|260px|Affected watersheds]]
As environmental assessments were not then required under Quebec law, construction of the {{convert|700|km|mi|-1}} [[James Bay Road]] to the La Grande River was begun in 1971 and completed by October 1974 at a cost of about $400 million. In 1973 and 1974, a temporary winter ice road was used to bring in the heavy equipment required for the construction of the roadbed and some 13 major bridges spanning the many rivers of the region.

Construction had boomed in Montreal for [[Expo 67]], leading to an inflated workforce. In the following years, the decreased demand for labor meant that times were tough for the construction industry in Montreal.<ref name= WPeople>{{cite book| last= Morton| first= Desmond |title= Working People| place= Montreal| publisher= McGill University Press| year= 1998 |page= 298}}</ref> As Bourassa had promised in the 1970 election that his government would create 100,000 jobs in the construction industry, there was much violent competition between various construction unions to have their workers engaged in the James Bay Project.<ref name= WPeople /> Canadian historian [[Desmond Morton (historian)|Desmond Morton]] noted that there were 540 different incidents between the two main construction unions in Quebec on sites associated with the James Bay Project between 1970 and 1974, many of them "very bloody".<ref name= WPeople /> In the 1973 election, after the [[Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec]] (FTQ) union had donated generously to the ''Parti libéral du Québec'', Bourassa announced that only companies employing workers from the FTQ-affiliated ''Conseil des métiers de la construction'' headed by [[André Desjardins|André "Dédé" Desjardins]] would work on the James Bay project.<ref name= WPeople /> In March 1974, when one sub-contractor refused to fire two workers belonging to the rival [[Confédération des syndicats nationaux|CSN]] union, the FTQ workers destroyed the LG-2 site, causing $35 million in damage.<ref name= WPeople /><ref name= CedilotNoel431>{{cite book| last1= Cedilot |first1= André |last2= Noel| first2= André | title= Mafia Inc: The Long, Bloody Reign of Canada's Sicilian Clan| place= Toronto| publisher= Random House| year= 2012| page= 431}}</ref> On 21 March 1974, the workers on the LG-2 site rioted and used their bulldozers to destroy the site that they were working on while other workers set buildings afire.

In response to the riot at the LG-2 site, Bourassa created a royal commission headed by Judge [[Robert Cliche]], the union official [[Guy Chevrette]] and a prominent Montreal labor lawyer [[Brian Mulroney]] to examine the question of freedom of expression within Quebec construction unions.<ref name= Curran>{{cite web
  | last = Curran
  | first = Peggy
  | title = Trip back in corruption time machine
  | work = The Montreal Gazette
  | date = 10 May 2012
  | url = https://montrealgazette.com/news/trip+back+corruption+time+machine/7328187/story.html
  | access-date = 2017-12-07
  | archive-date = 2019-08-27
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190827025003/http://www.montrealgazette.com/news/trip%20back%20corruption%20time%20machine/7328187/story.html
  | url-status = dead
  }}</ref> The Cliche commission as it became known found widespread corruption within the construction unions as the columnist Peggy Curran wrote that the Cliche commission uncovered "...tales of nepotism, bribery, sabotage, blackmail and intimidation; charges of union organizers with criminal records who gave lessons in how to break legs; thugs-for-hire who would happily beat up a rival union organizer’s teenager or strangle their dog."<ref name= Curran /> Desjardins was called before the Cliche commission several times starting in November 1974, where it was established that he was closely associated with the Montreal Mafia, and engaged in thuggish practices as president of the ''Conseil des métiers de la construction'' union.<ref name= CedilotNoel431 />

Although the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Aboriginal]] [[Cree]]s had traditional hunting and trapping areas in the region, no seasonal or permanent roads existed at the time. Opposition to the project, however, was strong among the 5,000 Crees of James Bay, the 3,500 [[Inuit]] to the north and several environmental groups. They believed the government of Quebec was acting in violation of treaties and committing unlawful expropriation and destruction of traditional hunting and trapping lands. Furthermore, the Cree and Inuit had not been informed of the hydroelectric project until after construction of the access road had begun. The federal Indian affairs minister [[Jean Chrétien]] intervened on the side of the Cree and the Inuit, hiring lawyers to argue their case in the courts.<ref name= Will>{{cite book| last= Martin| first= Lawrence | title= Chrétien: The Will to Win| location= Toronto| publisher= Lester Publishing| year= 1995}}</ref>{{rp|224}} Both Bourassa and the Prime Minister, [[Pierre Trudeau]] were Liberals and federalists, but relations between the two were very strained at best as the French-Canadian nationalist Bourassa was a "soft federalist" who favored devolving the powers of the federal government down to the provinces while the Canadian nationalist Trudeau was a "hard federalist" who favored concentrating power in the hands of the federal government. Relations between Quebec City and Ottawa were brought to the breaking point in 1971 when Bourassa vetoed the Victoria charter for patriating the British North America Act to give Canada its own constitution on the grounds that if the British North American Act was going to be changed, then the federal government should cede more powers to the provinces. The willingness of the Trudeau government to intervene on the side of the Cree and Inuit against the Quebec government was at least in part caused by the feud between Bourassa and Trudeau.<ref name= Will />{{rp|224}}

In a speech championing the Cree, Chrétien said Bourassa "could go to hell", charging that he did not have the right to build on or flood the land claimed by the Cree.<ref name= Will />{{rp|224}} In 1973, the federal government's lawyers won a court injunction ordering the James Bay project stopped until a treaty could be signed with the Cree and Inuit, but an appeals court overturned the ruling days later.<ref name= Will />{{rp|224}} However, Bourassa agreed to negotiate with the First Nations as the federal government announced it was willing to take the matter to the Supreme Court.<ref name= Will />{{rp|225}} In later years, the Cree and Inuit were given a settlement of $150 million, negotiated by Cree chief Billy Diamond.<ref name=ptc>{{cite web|url= http://www.powertochange.ie/changed/bdiamond.html |title=Billy Diamond |access-date= 2008-02-03|publisher=Power To Change |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080127111027/http://www.powertochange.ie/changed/bdiamond.html |archive-date= 2008-01-27 }}</ref>

In November 1975, the governments of Canada and Quebec signed the [[James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement]] with the Cree of the James Bay region and the Inuit of northern Quebec, affirming exclusive hunting and fishing rights to about 170,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of territory and about $250 million in financial compensation in return for the right to develop the hydroelectric resources of Northern Quebec. The planned La Grande-1 power station would be built about 50&nbsp;km further away from the Cree village of Chisasibi than originally planned. The Agreement also provided for an extensive environmental follow-up of all aspects of the hydroelectric development on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers and the establishment of a joint environmental assessment process for any future hydroelectric project involving other rivers of Northern Quebec.

== The project ==

=== Phase I ===
The period of construction of the first phase of the project covered about 14 years. By 1986, the largest power stations and reservoirs on the La Grande River were mostly completed, including the [[Robert-Bourassa generating station|Robert-Bourassa]] (originally named La Grande-2), La Grande-3 and La Grande-4 generating stations, with an installed capacity of 10,800&nbsp;MW, and five reservoirs covering an area of 11,300&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The Eastmain and Caniapiscau river diversions each added about 800&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s of water to the La Grande River. The power plants of the first phase of the James Bay Project produce about 65&nbsp;TWh of power each year, operating at about 60% of their maximum rated generating capacity.

During this first phase of construction, over {{convert|155,000,000|m3|cuyd}} of fill, 138,000 tons of steel, 550,000 tons of cement, and nearly 70,000 tons of explosives were used. Concurrent employment by the project reached 18,000. Of the 215 dikes and dams, many surpassed the height of skyscrapers, with one reaching 56 stories. The terraced diversion channel at Robert-Bourassa generating station was carved 30&nbsp;m (one hundred feet) deep into the side of a mountain. Water tumbles from the reservoir to the river below at a height greater than that of Niagara Falls. A {{convert|4,800|km|mi|abbr=on}} network of transmission lines was necessary to bring generated power to consumers in southern Quebec. The network contains several 735-kilovolt lines and one 450-kilovolt DC line directly linked to the U.S. power grid.

=== Phase II ===
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, construction of the second phase of the James Bay project centred on the construction of five secondary power plants on the La Grande River and its tributaries (La Grande-1, La Grande-2A, Laforge-1, Laforge-2 and Brisay), adding a further 5,200&nbsp;MW of generating capacity by the end of 1996. Premier Bourassa estimated that this phase would create 40,000 construction job-years (equivalent to 4,000 jobs lasting 10 years).<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burns |first1=John F. |last2=Times |first2=Special To the New York |date=1988-03-09 |title=Big Quebec Power Plan In Phase 2 |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/09/business/big-quebec-power-plan-in-phase-2.html |access-date=2023-03-11 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Three new reservoirs covering an area of 1,600&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> were created, including the Laforge-1 Reservoir covering 1,288&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The generating plants of this second phase of the project produce about 18.9&nbsp;TWh of power per year, operating at between 60% and 70% of their maximum rated generating capacity.

On March 13, 1989, a massive [[March 1989 geomagnetic storm|solar storm]] caused a failure of the La Grande complex, plunging most of Quebec into darkness for nine hours.

=== Great Whale River project ===
During the construction of the second phase of the James Bay Project, Hydro-Québec proposed an additional project on the [[Great Whale River]] (French: ''Grande rivière de la Baleine''), just to the north of the La Grande River watershed. Opposition among the Cree was even more vocal this time than in the early 1970s. In 1990, Grand Chief [[Matthew Coon Come]] organized a canoe trip from [[Hudson Bay]] to the [[Hudson River]], in [[Albany, New York]], and this very effective public relations stunt brought international pressure to bear on the government of Quebec. The Cree had experienced considerable culture shock with the introduction of permanent transportation routes to the south and very few Cree were employed on the construction site. Poverty and social problems remained prevalent in the isolated Cree and Inuit villages of Northern Quebec, even in areas where there were no hydroelectric or mining activities.

By the 1980s, the natural ebb and flow of the La Grande, [[Eastmain River|Eastmain]] and [[Caniapiscau River|Caniapiscau]] rivers had been severely modified, notably delaying the formation of a solid ice cover near the Cree village of [[Chisasibi, Quebec|Chisasibi]], and about 4% of the traditional hunting and trapping territories of the Cree had been lost to the rising waters of the reservoirs, including about 10% of the territories of the Cree village of Chisasibi. At the same time, new roads, snowmobiles and bush airlines facilitated access to distant hunting territories of the interior. While highly motivated, the Cree's opposition to the Great Whale River Project was mainly ineffective until 1992 when the [[State of New York]] withdrew from a multibillion-dollar power purchasing agreement due to public outcry and a decrease in energy requirements. In 1994, the Government of Quebec and Hydro-Québec suspended the project indefinitely.<ref>{{harvnb|Froschauer|1999|p=77}}</ref>

=== Rupert River diversion ===
In 2002, the Quebec government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed a landmark agreement, "[[La Paix des Braves]]" (literally "The Peace of the Braves"), ensuring the completion of the last phase of the original James Bay Project: construction of the Eastmain-1 generating station, with a capacity of 480&nbsp;MW, and the [[Eastmain Reservoir]] with a surface area of about {{cvt|600|sqkm}}.

A subsequent agreement in April 2004 put an end to all litigation between the two parties and opened the way to a joint environmental assessment of the projected diversion of the [[Rupert River]], to the south of the Eastmain River. The project entails the diversion of about 50% of the total water flow of the Rupert River (and 70% of the flow at the diversion point) towards the Eastmain Reservoir and into the La Grande Complex, and the construction of two additional generating stations: Eastmain-1A and Sarcelle, with a combined capacity of 888&nbsp;MW. The Rupert diversion would generate a total of 8.5&nbsp;TWh of electricity at the new and existing power stations.

Former Grand Chief of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) Matthew Mukash<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.radio-canada.ca/actualite/v2/dimanchemag/niveau2_5256.shtml| work= Dimanche Magazine| via= radio-canada.ca| title= Les Cris devant de nouveaux choix énergétiques | trans-title= The Cree are in Front of New Energy Choices | language= fr-ca| publisher= CBC| date= 30 October 2005| access-date= April 28, 2018}}</ref> (elected in late 2005 and served until 2009) opposed the Rupert River diversion and favoured the construction of wind turbines.

== Hydro-electric installations ==
The hydro-electric stations in the La Grande watershed are:
* [[La Grande-1 generating station]]
* [[Robert-Bourassa generating station]] (formerly La Grande-2)
* [[La Grande-2-A generating station]]
* [[La Grande-3 generating station]]
* [[La Grande-4 generating station]]
* [[Laforge-1 generating station]]
* [[Laforge-2 generating station]]
* [[Brisay generating station]]
* Eastmain-1 generating station
* Eastmain-1-A generating station
* Sarcelle generating station

== Environmental impacts ==
Although there was no environmental impact assessment legislation before the James Bay Project's initial construction phase in the 1970s, a major environmental research program was conducted before Phase I began.{{sfn|Senécal|Égré|1999|p=321}}

The environmental impacts of the James Bay Project largely stem from the creation of a complex chain reservoir through the integration of all the watersheds of the eastern shores of the Hudson Bay, from the southern tip of James Bay to Ungava Bay in the north. This has had the consequence of diverting the flow of water from four major rivers into a large body of water, ultimately changing the dynamics of the land, an environmental political phenomenon labelled by some critics as a "first build, then paint green" policy.{{sfn|McCutcheon|1991|p=97}}

=== Mercury pollution ===
Two of these main diverted rivers are the [[Caniapiscau River]] and the [[Eastmain River]] into which the James Bay Project submerged about 11,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of boreal forest ([[taiga]]). Consequently, the flooded vegetation's stored [[mercury (element)|mercury]] (Hg) was released into the aquatic ecosystem, and due to the diversion of the water flow to contained reservoirs, the sudden abundance of mercury in the James Bay area in 1979 was unable to be dispersed and diluted as would have been the case in natural waters. Because the James Bay Cree ([[East Cree]]) live a mostly traditional lifestyle including a diet rich in fish and sea mammals, there is a possibility that the damming project has contributed to northern Quebec's Cree having the highest measured methyl-mercury concentration of all Canadian First Nations. Because of the simultaneous mercury contamination in James Bay from other activities in the area, including paper milling, the direct effect of the project on mercury levels has been difficult to ascertain. From 1981 to 1982, a few years after the flooding of [[La Grande River]], mercury levels in [[lake whitefish]] (Coregonus clupeaformis) increased up to fourfold their pre-flooding levels, while those in [[northern pike]] (Esox lucius) rose up to sevenfold during the same period. In natural lakes, these concentrations are five to six times less than in the James Bay area.{{sfn|Roebuck|1999|p=79, 81–82}} This rapid spike of mercury levels in two of the fish species used extensively by the area's Cree is attributed to the processes of [[bioaccumulation]] and [[biomagnification]]. Biaccumulation is the initial consequence of mercury pollution, as the toxin is first incorporated into the given ecosystem's producers. In the James Bay area ecosystem, mercury being released from the decaying flooded trees would be incorporated in trace amounts in [[zooplankton]]. Benthic organisms ([[benthos]]), the whitefish's primary prey, consume a great deal of zooplankton, causing the mercury concentration in a single organism to magnify due to accumulation of mercury and its inability to be excreted. In turn, whitefish, due to their greater size, consume large numbers of benthic [[invertebrates]], thus incorporating the individual mercury accumulations of each organism and creating their own store of mercury.{{sfn|Trudel|Tremblay|Schetagne|Rasmussen|2001|p=395}} The effect is further exacerbated by humans consuming this built up store of mercury. The James Bay Mercury Agreement, signed in 1986 between the [[Grand Council of the Crees]] (of Québec), the [[Cree Regional Authority]], the Cree Bands, the [[Government of Québec]], [[Hydro-Québec]] and the Société d’énergie de la Baie James ([[James Bay Energy]]), aims "to restore and strengthen Cree fisheries [...] but [...] also adequately take into account the health risks associated with human exposure to mercury."<ref>{{cite web|title=Mercury Agreement|url=http://www.gcc.ca/archive/article.php?id=167|access-date=20 February 2013|archive-date=21 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921195915/http://www.gcc.ca/archive/article.php?id=167|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Local climate changes ===
The establishment of reservoirs containing large amounts of standing water has the ability to produce local climate changes. Alteration of annual precipitation patterns, increased abundance of low [[stratus clouds]] and [[fog]], and warmer autumns and cooler springs, leading to a delay in the beginning and end of the growing season, have all been observed in the vicinity of the project's major reservoirs.{{sfn|Baxter|1977|p=275}} The doubling of the [[freshwater]] input into James Bay during the winter decreases the [[salinity]] of the [[seawater]], thereby increasing the [[freezing point]] of the bay. The resultant increased ice content at the northern section of the project in the winter has cooled warm air currents more than usual, bringing harsher Arctic weather, including strong winds and less precipitation, to south-central Quebec. The tree line at the southern edge of the development has shifted noticeably southward since the project's construction.{{sfn|Prinsenberg|1980|p=1101–1102}}

=== Water flow modifications ===
Following construction of the project, the area's water flow was substantially modified. In the James Bay area in general, the average monthly [[surface runoff]] rate in the winter increased by 52%, doubling the total freshwater input, while that of the summer months decreased by 6%. The James Bay area's water flow is most affected by the hydroelectric project from January to April because rivers have their lowest runoff rates in the winter months when freezing occurs. Additionally, runoff rates in the damming system can be altered to meet power needs, which are highest in the winter and lowest in the summer, thereby more completely reversing the natural water flow cycle. As evidenced by the 500% increase in its winter runoff, the La Grande River is the pillar of the James Bay project's hydroelectric capacity, with the runoff increasing from an average yearly amount of 1,700 m<sup>3</sup>/s to 3,400 m<sup>3</sup>/s, and from 500 m<sup>3</sup>/s to 5,000 m<sup>3</sup>/s in the winter. This immense harnessing of the area's energy at La Grande was made possible by reducing the Eastmain River's water flow at its mouth by 90% and by reducing that of the Caniaspiscau River's by 45%, and then by diverting these rivers into La Grande. Not only does this alter the runoff amount of the Eastmain and the Caniaspiscau Rivers, but also their drainage location, since prior to having been directly merged with La Grande, these rivers’ drainage locations were separate from the La Grande River. The summer runoff rate of La Grande increased by 40%, making the average annual runoff rate 91% greater than its natural rate.{{sfn|Prinsenberg|1980|p=1101–1102}}

Because of the change in the runoff rates of James Bay, massively increasing in the winter months, and increasing considerably in the summer as well, there has been more extreme fluctuation in the water levels. This has killed many trees along the shoreline, which are not equipped with deep enough root systems and tolerance of prolonged exposure to seawater to withstand these fluctuations. As well, the increased riverbank [[erosion]] downstream of the dams has washed the [[flora]]’s habitat down the river.{{sfn|Whiteman|2004|p=431}} The result has been considerable decay ([[decomposition]]) of dead trees along the shoreline, consequently releasing stored mercury into the area's [[terrestrial ecosystem]] through bioaccumulation in [[decomposers]] and [[detritovores]] and eventual biomagnification up the [[food web]]. This has left the area's Cree susceptible to [[mercury poisoning]] from both land and sea. Any shoreline plants that could potentially provide vegetation growth to replace any of the lost [[wetland]] habitats in these zones of periodic fluctuations are destroyed.<ref>{{cite report|last=Environment Canada|title=Second Report on James Bay environmental studies: status of projects as of December 1972 |date=1973 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGbNAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>{{sfn|Schetagne|Verdon|1999|p=46}}

=== Changes in migration routes ===
Other changes in the delicate balance of the James Bay ecosystem can be illustrated through the [[animal migration]] patterns, salmon spawning, and destruction of wildlife habitats. The significant loss of wetlands and the blocking of passageways to those wetlands that remain has inhibited salmon spawning and migration in the James Bay area.{{sfn|Sarkar|Karagoz|1995|p=979}} Additionally, diverting rivers towards the James Bay could cause changes in the geographical pattern of river water discharge into the sea.[36]

Caribou populations, which have been expanding since the 1950s, have adopted migration routes throughout much of the Quebec-Labrador Peninsula and have thus been increasingly abundant in the James Bay area, the valley of the Caniapiscau, and around [[George River (Quebec)]].[37] Variations in the water flow of the Caniapiscau River from 1981 to 1984, during the period when the Caniapiscau Reservoir was being filled, may have contributed to the death by drowning of 10,000 [[migratory woodland caribou]] in September 1984, representing about 1.5% of the herd at that time. On the other hand, the reduced flow of the Caniapiscau River and the [[Koksoak River]] has permanently reduced the risk of natural floods on the lower Caniapiscau during the period of caribou migrations, giving hunters greater access to caribou than ever before. About 30,000 caribou are killed each year by [[Inuit]], Cree and American and European hunters.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

Seasonal reversal in the flow of rivers can potentially rob the rich nutrients that thrive in various [[mudflats]] and coastal [[marshes]], affecting millions of migratory birds such as waterfowl, [[Canada geese]], and various inland birds that use the coastlines of both the James and Hudson Bays during their spring and fall migrations.[38]

== Social impact ==
{{See also|James Bay Cree hydroelectric conflict}}
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2015}}
The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement provided considerable financial and administrative resources for the Cree and Inuit communities to deal with the environmental and social consequences of the project and provide for future economic development, such as the creation of the local airline [[Air Creebec]]. The James Bay Project also was an impetus for the forging of a collective identity among the Cree of Quebec and for the establishment of the [[Grand Council of the Crees|Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee)]]. The Agreement notably provided for major institutional structures for local government, economic development, schools and health services, mostly under the control of the Grand Council of the Crees and the [[Kativik Regional Government]], in [[Nunavik]].

Yet, the social consequences of the hydroelectric project itself pale in comparison to the social impact of the Cree coming into direct contact with the society and economic forces of francophone Quebec. The greatest impact stems from the construction in the early 1970s of the [[James Bay Road]] (''Route de la Baie James'') from [[Matagami, Quebec|Matagami]] to the new town of [[Radisson, James Bay|Radisson]], near the Robert-Bourassa generating station (La Grande-2), and on to the nearby Cree village of [[Chisasibi, Quebec|Chisasibi]]. During the main construction period of the late 1970s, Radisson housed a population several times greater than the Cree population of Chisasibi, although it currently has a population of about 500.

Nevertheless, the Cree communities have themselves continued the push to build additional roads from the James Bay Road westward to the Cree coastal villages of [[Wemindji, Quebec|Wemindji]], [[Eastmain, Quebec|Eastmain]] and [[Waskaganish, Quebec|Waskaganish]]. These roads, opened between 1995 and 2001, have further facilitated access to hunting areas of the interior and encouraged commercial and social exchanges between the Cree villages and with southern Quebec. A separate road (''[[Route du Nord]]'') also links the James Bay Road to [[Chibougamau]], via the Cree village of [[Nemaska, Quebec|Nemaska]]. The building of these newer roads was largely the work of Cree construction companies.

The James Bay Road also opened the region to further mineral exploration and clear-cut logging in the southern James Bay area and substantially reduced the cost of transport. These activities have put further strains on the traditional hunting and trapping activities of the Cree in the southern James Bay region, notably the villages of Waskaganish and Nemaska. Such activities, however, only accounted for about half the economic activity of the Cree communities in 1970 and less than 20% by the late 1990s. Hunting and fishing in the Cree villages mostly involves young adults and older Cree with few professional qualifications. Such activities are furthermore sustained by an income replacement program financed by the government of Quebec that offers the equivalent of a modest annual salary for hunters and their families who live in the bush for at least several weeks of the year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Public Services and Procurement Canada |title=Information archivée dans le Web |url=https://publications.gc.ca/site/archivee-archived.html?url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/aanc-inac/R5-160-1978-eng.pdf |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=publications.gc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Collette |first=Vincent |date=2010-01-01 |title=The Income Security Program. Sustaining the Domestic Economy in Eastern James Bay |url=https://www.academia.edu/38988663 |journal=Cahiers du CIÉRA, 6: 99-118.}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Canada|Water|Renewable energy}}
* [[Baie-James]]
* [[Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal]]
* [[James Bay Cree hydroelectric conflict]]
* [[List of generating stations in Quebec]]
* [[Quebec – New England Transmission]]
* [[Robert A. Boyd]]
* [[Site C dam]]
* [[Kinzua Dam|Kinzua dam]]
* [[Alta controversy]]
* [[Environmental racism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==

=== Books ===
* {{cite book |last1=Bélanger |first1=Yves |editor-last=Comeau |editor-first=Robert |title=Hydro-Québec : Autres temps, autres défis |place=Sainte-Foy |publisher=Presses de l'Université du Québec |year=1995 |isbn=2-7605-0809-9 |language=fr |url=https://archive.org/details/hydroquebecautre0000unse }}.
* {{cite book|publisher=Boréal |title=Shawinigan Water and Power, 1898-1963 : formation et déclin d'un groupe industriel au Québec |first1=Claude |last1=Bellavance |place=Montreal |year=1994 |isbn=2-89052-586-4 }}.
* {{cite book |last1=Bolduc |first1=André |title=Du génie au pouvoir : Robert A. Boyd, à la gouverne d'Hydro-Québec aux années glorieuses |place=Montreal |publisher=Libre Expression |year=2000 |isbn=2-89111-829-4 |language=fr |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dugenieaupouvoir0000bold }}.
* {{cite book|last1=Bolduc |first1=André |first2=Clarence |last2=Hogue|first3=Daniel |last3=Larouche |title= Hydro-Québec, l'hértitage d'un siècle d'électricité &#124; |location=Montreal |language=fr|publisher=Libre-Expression / Forces |year=1989 |isbn=2-89111-388-8 |edition=third }} (also available in English, under the title ''Hydro-Québec After 100 Years of Electricity'')
* {{cite book|first=Robert |last=Bothwell|title=Nucleus, the history of Atomic Energy of Canada |place=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1988|isbn=0-8020-2670-2}}
* {{cite book|publisher= Éditions du Jour |last = Bourassa |first = Robert |title = La Baie James |url= https://archive.org/details/labaiejames0000bour |url-access= registration |place = Montreal |year = 1973 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |publisher= Éditions La Presse |last = Bourassa |first = Robert |title = Deux fois la Baie James |url= https://archive.org/details/deuxfoislabaieja0000bour |url-access= registration |place = Montreal |year = 1981 |isbn=2-89043-068-5 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last=Bourassa |first=Robert |title=L'énergie du Nord : La force du Québec |place=Montreal |publisher=Libre Expression |year=1985 |isbn=2-89037-252-9 |language=fr |url=https://archive.org/details/lenergiedunordla0000bour }}
* {{cite book|first=Boyce |last=Richardson |title=Strangers devour the Land&nbsp;— A chronicle of the Assault upon the last coherent Hunting Culture in North America, the Cree Indians of Northern Quebec, and their vast primeval Homelands |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |place=New York |year=1976}}
* {{cite book| publisher = Fides | isbn = 978-2-7621-2160-5 | volume = 1 : La passion de la politique | last1 = Denis | first1 = Charles | title = Robert Bourassa | place = Montreal | access-date = 2010-01-22 | year = 2006  | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LMsFLQdCzGwC&pg=PA131 |language=fr}}
*{{cite book|title=White Gold: Hydroelectric Power in Canada |url=https://archive.org/details/whitegoldhydroel0000fros |url-access=registration |first=Karl |last=Froschauer |publisher=UBC Press |location=Vancouver |year=1999 |isbn=0-7748-0708-3}}
*{{cite book|publisher=La Presse |chapter=Robert Bourassa : "Il ne sera pas dit que nous vivrons pauvrement sur une terre aussi riche" |first1=Pierre |last1=Gravel |first2=Pierre |last2=Vennat |editor-first= Roger |editor-last=Leroux | title=La Baie James : projet du siècle |place=Montreal |year=1979a |pages=5–6 |language=fr}}
*{{cite book|publisher=La Presse |chapter=Sept mois après la crise d'Octobre : un projet qu'il fallait lancer en 1971! | first1=Pierre |last1=Gravel |first2=Pierre |last2=Vennat |editor-first= Roger |editor-last=Leroux |title= La Baie James : projet du siècle |place = Montreal |year= 1979b |pages=7–9 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hogue |first1=Clarence |last2=Bolduc |first2=André |last3=Larouche |first3=Daniel |title=Québec : un siècle d'électricité |place=Montreal |publisher=Libre Expression |year=1979 |isbn=2-89111-022-6 |language=fr |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/quebecunsieclede0000hogu }}.
* {{cite book |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |title=Social and Environmental Impacts of the James Bay Hydroelectric Project |editor-first=James F. |editor-last=Hornig |place=Montreal |year=1999 |isbn=0-7735-1837-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/socialenvironmen0000unse }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lacasse |first1=Roger |title=Baie James, une épopée |place=Montreal |publisher=Libre Expression |year=1983 |isbn=2-89111-109-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/baiejamesuneepop0000laca }}.
* {{cite book|last1 = Linteau |first = Paul-André |title = Histoire du Québec contemporain&nbsp;— Volume 2: Le Québec depuis 1930 |place = Montreal |publisher = Boréal |isbn = 2-89052-298-9 |series = Boréal Compact|year = 1989 |language=fr}}
*{{Cite book|last=McCutcheon|first=Sean|title=Electric Rivers: The Story of the James Bay Project|year=1991|publisher=Black Rose Books|location=New York}}
*{{cite book|last1=Schetagne |first1=R. |last2=Verdon |first2=R.|chapter=Post-impoundment evolution of fish mercury levels at the La Grande complex. Quebec, Canada (from 1978 to 1996) |editor-first=M. |editor-last=Lucotte |display-editors=et al |title=Mercury in the Biogeochemical Cycle: Natural Environments and Hydroelectric Reservoirs of Northern Quebec (Canada)|year=1999|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin/New York|isbn=3-540-65755-X }}
* {{cite book|last1=Simard |first1=Jean-Jacques |title=Tendances nordiques, les changements sociaux 1970-1990 chez les Cris et les Inuits du Québec |place=Québec |publisher=Université Laval |year=1996 |isbn=2-921438-12-7 |language=fr}}.
* {{cite book|last1=Turgeon |first1=Pierre |title=La Radissonie, le pays de la baie James |place=Montreal |publisher=Libre expression |year=1992  |isbn=2-89111-502-3 |language=fr}}.
* {{cite book|publisher=Springer|title=Greenhouse Gas Emissions&nbsp;— Fluxes and Processes |first1=Alain|last1=Tremblay |first2=Louis |last2=Varfalvy |first3=Charlotte |last3=Roehm |first4=Michel |last4=Garneau |year=2005  |isbn=3-540-23455-1 }}

=== Journals ===
*{{cite journal|last=Baxter|first=R. M.|title=Environmental effects of dams and impoundments|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|year=1977|volume=8|pages=255–283 [275]|doi=10.1146/annurev.es.08.110177.001351 }}
* {{cite journal | first1=Guy | last1=Mercier | first2=Gilles | last2=Ritchot | title=La Baie James : les dessous d'une rencontre que la bureaucratie n'avait pas prévue | journal=Les Cahiers de géographie du Québec | date=September 1997 | issue=113 | pages=137–169 | issn=0007-9766 | doi=10.7202/022639ar | volume=41 | doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal|last=Prinsenberg|first=S. J.|title=Man-made changes in the freshwater input rates of Hudson and James Bays|journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|year=1980|volume=37|pages=1101–1110|doi=10.1139/f80-143|issue=7}}
*{{cite book|last=Roebuck|first=B. D.|chapter=Elevated Mercury in Fish as a Result of the James Bay Hydroelectric Development: Perception and Reality|pages=[https://archive.org/details/socialenvironmen0000unse/page/73 73–92]|editor-last=Hornig|editor-first=James|title=Social and Environmental Impacts of the James Bay Hydroelectric Project|year=1999|publisher=McGill-Queen's UP|isbn=0773518371|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/socialenvironmen0000unse/page/73}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Sarkar|first1=Amin U.|first2=Serkan|last2=Karagoz|title=Sustainable development of hydroelectric power|journal=Energy|date=2 February 1995|volume=20|issue=10|pages=977–981 [979]|url=http://bsesrv214.bse.vt.edu/Grisso/Ethiopia/Books_Resources/Hydro-electric/SUSTAINABLE%20DEVELOPMENT%20OF%20HYDROELECTRIC%20POWER.pdf|access-date=20 February 2013| doi= 10.1016/0360-5442(95)00059-P|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208132145/http://bsesrv214.bse.vt.edu/Grisso/Ethiopia/Books_Resources/Hydro-electric/SUSTAINABLE%20DEVELOPMENT%20OF%20HYDROELECTRIC%20POWER.pdf| archive-date= 8 December 2015}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Senécal|first1=Pierre|first2=Dominique |last2=Égré|title=Human impacts of the La Grande hydroelectric complex on Cree communities in Québec|journal=Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal| year= 1999| volume= 17| issue= 4| pages= 319–329 [321]|doi=10.3152/147154699781767648 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Trudel|first1=Marc|first2=Alain |last2=Tremblay |first3=Roger |last3=Schetagne |first4=Joseph B. |last4= Rasmussen|title=Why are dwarf fish so small? An energetic analysis of polymorphism in lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis)|journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|year=2001|volume=58|pages=394–405 [395]| doi= 10.1139/cjfas-58-2-394|issue=2 }}
*{{cite journal|last=Whiteman|first=Gail|title=The impact of economic development in James Bay, Canada: The Cree tallymen speak out|journal=Organization and Environment|year=2004|volume=17|pages=425–449 [431]|doi=10.1177/1086026604270636|issue=4|s2cid=144864173}}

=== Hydro-Québec publications ===
* {{cite book |last=Hayeur |first=Gaëtan |year=2001 |title=Summary of Knowledge Acquired in Northern Environments from 1970 to 2000 |place=Montreal |publisher=Hydro-Québec |isbn=2-550-36964-5 |url=http://www.hydroquebec.com/sustainable-development/documentation/pdf/autres/pop_06_08.pdf |access-date=2012-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209111952/http://www.hydroquebec.com/sustainable-development/documentation/pdf/autres/pop_06_08.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-09 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book|publisher=Hydro-Québec |title=Baie-James, Nottaway-Broadback-Rupert et Eastmain, description sommaire |author=Hydro-Québec |place=Montreal |date=May 1972  |language=fr}}
* {{cite book|publisher=Hydro-Québec |title=Complexe NBR |author=Hydro-Québec |place=Montreal |year=1990  |language=fr}}
* {{cite book|author=Société d'énergie de la Baie James |author-link=James Bay Energy |title=Complexe hydroélectrique de la Grande-Rivière. Réalisation de la première phase |year=1987 |publisher=Société d'énergie de la Baie James/Éditions de la Chenelière |place=Montreal  |isbn=2-89310-010-4  |language=fr}}.

=== Official reports ===
* {{cite book|publisher=Quebec Department of Natural Resources and Wildlife |title=Using energy to build the Québec of tomorrow |author=Government of Quebec |location=Quebec City |year=2006 |isbn=2-550-46952-6 |url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/english/publications/energy/strategy/energy-strategy-2006-2015.pdf |access-date=2010-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720074347/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/english/publications/energy/strategy/energy-strategy-2006-2015.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-20 }}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Complexe La Grande}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060328161226/http://www.hydroquebec.com/generation/hydroelectric/la_grande/index.html The La Grande Complex and commission dates] (Hydro-Québec)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071102155606/http://www.hydroquebec.com/transenergie/en/reseau/bref.html Hydro-Québec Transmission lines]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060506033852/http://www.hydroquebec.com/eastmain1a/en/pdf/milieu_humain.pdf Human Environment of the James Bay region] (detailed map of the James Bay region)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051228025403/http://www.municipalite.baie-james.qc.ca/html/e_accueil00.htm James Bay Municipality] (English, French)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070822033527/http://www.gcc.ca/ Grand Council of the Crees (of Quebec)] (English, French, Cree)
* [http://www.hydroquebec.com/sebj/en/index.html Société d'énergie de la Baie-James] (English, French)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051125125737/http://www.bip-pio.qc.ca/ Public Information Office on the Rupert River Diversion Project] (English, French, Cree)

{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|53.777123|N|77.464600|W|region:CA-QC_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:James Bay Project| ]]
[[Category:Hydro-Québec]]
[[Category:First Nations history in Quebec]]
[[Category:1974 establishments in Quebec]]