Editing Jewish languages

{{Short description|Languages and dialects developed in the Jewish diaspora}}
{{Merge from|List of Jewish diaspora languages|discuss=Talk:Jewish languages#Proposed merge of List of Jewish diaspora languages into Jewish languages|date=February 2025}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|languages}}
{{Jewish culture}}
'''Jewish languages''' are the various [[language]]s and [[dialect]]s that developed in [[Jew]]ish communities in the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]]. The original Jewish language is [[Hebrew]], supplanted as the primary vernacular by [[Aramaic]] following the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian exile]]. Jewish languages feature a [[syncretism]] of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Judeo-Aramaic languages|Judeo-Aramaic]] with the languages of the local non-Jewish population.

==Ancient history==
Early [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]] (ENWS) materials are attested through the end of the [[Bronze Age]]—2350 to 1200&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="enws">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|pp=6–7}}</ref> At this early state, [[Biblical Hebrew]] was not highly differentiated from the other Northwest Semitic languages ([[Ugaritic]] and [[Amarna letters|Amarna]] [[Canaano-Akkadian language|Canaanite]]), though noticeable differentiation did occur during the [[Iron Age]] (1200–540&nbsp;BCE).<ref name="wo8-9">{{Harvcoltxt|Waltke|O'Connor|1990|pp=8–9}}</ref> Hebrew as a separate language developed during the latter half of the [[2nd millennium BC|second millennium&nbsp;BCE]] between the [[Jordan River]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]], an area known as [[Canaan]].<ref name="s1">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=1–2}}</ref>

The earliest distinctively Hebrew writing yet discovered was found at [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]] and dates to the 10th century&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="eurekalert.org">{{Harvcoltxt|Feldman|2010}}</ref><ref name="bar">{{Harvcoltxt|Shanks|2010}}</ref> The Israelite tribes established a kingdom in Canaan at the beginning of the first millennium&nbsp;BCE, which later split into the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] in the north and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] in the south after a dispute of succession.<ref name="sthist">{{Harvcoltxt|Steiner|1997|p=145}}</ref>

The kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the [[Assyrians in Israel|Assyrians]] in 722&nbsp;BCE, and the kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonians in 586&nbsp;BCE, its higher classes exiled and the [[first Temple]] destroyed.<ref name="sthist" /><ref name="s112" /> Aramaic became the primary language of the Jews deported to [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonia]], with the first attestations of Jewish/Judean Aramaic found in [[Elephantine papyri|scrolls]] from the 5th century BCE on the island of [[Elephantine]].<ref name=Handbook/> Later the Persians made Judah a province and permitted Jewish exiles to return and [[Second Temple|rebuild the Temple]].<ref name="sthist" /> Aramaic became the common language in the north of Israel, in [[Galilee]] and [[Samaria]], though Hebrew remained in use in Judah with Aramaic influence.<ref name="s112">{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=112–113}}</ref>

[[Alexander the Great]] conquered Judah in 332&nbsp;BCE, beginning the period of [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenistic]] domination.<ref name="s112" /> During the [[Hellenistic period]] Judea became independent under the [[Hasmonean]]s, but later the Romans ended their independence, making [[Herod the Great]] their governor.<ref name="sthist" /> One Jewish revolt against the Romans led to the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in 70&nbsp;CE, and the second [[Bar-Kochba revolt]] in 132–135 CE led to a large departure of the Jewish population of Judea.<ref name="sthist" /> Biblical Hebrew after the Second Temple period evolved into [[Mishnaic Hebrew]], which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sáenz-Badillos|1993|pp=166, 171}}</ref> Hebrew remained in widespread use among [[Jewish diaspora|diasporic]] communities as the medium of writing and liturgy, forming a vast corpus of literature which includes rabbinic, medieval, and modern literature prior to the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language.<ref name=Handbook/><ref>[[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann, Ghil'ad]], 2003. [https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781403917232 ''Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew'']. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|9781403917232}} / {{ISBN|9781403938695}}.</ref>

==Development of Jewish varieties of languages==
Jewish communities were dispersed around the world in the diaspora which followed the Jewish-Roman wars. Some adopted the languages of their neighbors, but many developed new varieties of these languages, collectively termed "Jewish languages".<ref name=Handbook/> Various reasons led to the development of distinctive Jewish varieties of the languages of their non-Jewish host populations. Jews have often had limited exposure to non-Jewish society for various reasons, including imposed [[ghettoization]] (whether self-imposed separation or the forced creation of the ghetto by the host city) and strict [[endogamy]], and as a result, Jewish languages diverged and developed separately from non-Jewish varieties in the territories they settled in. Due to frequent [[Expulsions of Jews|expulsions]] and migrations, single Jewish communities were often influenced by multiple distinct regional languages via [[language contact]]. For example, [[Yiddish]], while based on [[Middle High German]], has elements of [[Judeo-Latin|Romance]] and [[Slavic languages|Slavic]].<ref>[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/yiddish.html YIDDISH: History and Development]</ref> Jewish languages belong to a variety of genealogical language families, but these languages have common characteristics, making their study a distinct field of comparative linguistics known as [[Jewish linguistics]]. The common feature between the Jewish languages is the presence of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Judeo-Aramaic]] lexical components, stemming from the shared use of these languages in writing and liturgy. Many Jewish languages also display phonological, morphological, and syntactic features distinct from their non-Jewish counterparts. Most written Jewish languages are ''Hebraized'', meaning they use a modified version of the Hebrew alphabet. These languages, unless they already have an accepted name (i.e. Yiddish, Ladino), are prefixed with "Judeo" (e.g. [[Judeo-Italian]], [[Judeo-Arabic]], [[Judeo-Persian]], [[Judeo-Aramaic]], [[Judeo-Marathi]], [[Judeo-Malayalam]], etc).<ref name=Handbook>[https://books.google.com/books?id=sG3sCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PR1&focus=viewport&dq= Handbook of Jewish Languages]</ref> Bukharan Jews spoke [[Bukhori]], a dialect of Tajik, and Mountain Jews spoke [[Judeo-Tat]].

In the early 20th century, secularism among Jews and large population shifts prompted the beginning of a shift from Jewish to non-Jewish languages. Even so, the majority of Jews in [[Eurasia]] and [[Jews in Africa|Africa]], and many immigrants in [[North America]] and [[Palestinian Jews|Palestine]], still spoke Jewish languages. However, the [[Holocaust]] brought about a significant drop in the use of Jewish languages, especially [[Yiddish]]. Later, especially since the [[COVID-19]] pandemic, learning Yiddish has begun to see a significant increase in popularity and interest,<ref>{{cite web|title=Yiddish on the Rise|url =https://lifeandletters.la.utexas.edu/2019/11/yiddish-on-the-rise/|access-date=Nov 4, 2023|first=Tori|last=Miller|publisher=University of Texas|date=November 18, 2019}}</ref> with studies revealing a surge in registration to online Yiddish language learning resources.<ref>{{cite news|title=The pandemic and apps are fueling a surge of interest in Yiddish|url =https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2022/09/30/yiddish-pandemic-dua-lingo/|access-date=Nov 4, 2023|first=Noah|last=Smith|newspaper=Washington Post|date=September 30, 2022}}</ref>

== Classification ==
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2024}}
Jewish languages are generally defined as the unique linguistic [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of Jewish communities in the diaspora in their contact with surrounding non-Jewish languages.<ref name=Handbook/> Languages vary in their [[Abstand and ausbau languages|distance and divergence]] from their non-Jewish sister languages.<ref name=Handbook/> For example, [[Judeo-Yemeni Arabic]] is quite similar to some non-Jewish varieties of [[Yemeni Arabic]], while [[Yiddish]], a [[Germanic language]], shows a high degree of dissimilarity to modern German dialects. Due to continued liturgical and literary use of Hebrew and Aramaic, Jewish communities were naturally in a state of [[diglossia]].<ref name=Chaim>[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/rab_vi.pdf A Short History of the Hebrew Language: Hebrew in the Diaspora]</ref> Along with their vernacular Jewish language, most Jews could read and write in Hebrew, which was necessary to fulfill the religious commandment to learn [[Torah]] and teach it. Jews were expected to also have knowledge of Judeo-Aramaic, the language of religious commentary (''targumim'') as well as many prayers, including the [[Kaddish]]. Hebrew, the "Holy Tongue", was the highest linguistic [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] in these communities, used for liturgy and study. Hebrew-Aramaic is the only [[Stratum (linguistics)#adstratum|adstratum]] shared by all Jewish languages.<ref name=Handbook/> 
Some Jewish languages have multiple registers; for example, both Yiddish and [[Judaeo-Spanish|Judezmo]] have three [[Register (sociolinguistics)|linguistic register]]s: colloquial, written, and scholarly-liturgical.

Some Jewish languages show the effects of the history of language shift among the speakers, including Hebrew-Aramaic influence. Yiddish exemplifies such a language. Some Jewish languages may become marked as distinctively Jewish because some shift affected some parts of the language as a whole. For example, what is today known as [[Baghdad Jewish Arabic]] (because it is the [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic variety]] that was up until recently spoken by Baghdad's Jews) was originally the Arabic dialect of Baghdad itself and was used by all religious groups in Baghdad, but the Muslim residents of Baghdad later adopted Bedouin dialects of Arabic. Similarly, a dialect may be perceived as Jewish because its Jewish speakers brought the dialect of another region with them when they were displaced. In some cases, this may cause a dialect to be perceived as "Jewish" in some regions but not in others.

Some Jewish language varieties may not be [[Dialect#Dialect or language|classified]] as [[language]]s due to [[mutual intelligibility]] with their parent language, as with [[Judeo-Malayalam]] and [[Judaeo-Spanish|Judeo-Spanish]]. In the case of [[Judaeo-Spanish|Judeo-Spanish]], also known as Ladino, linguistically it is a dialect of [[Spanish language|Spanish]], mutually intelligible with other [[Spanish dialects and varieties]], albeit with [[influences on the Spanish language|each Spanish dialect having loanwords and influences]] from different source languages: [[Nahuatl]] and [[Mayan languages|Maya]] loanwords and influences for [[Mexican Spanish]]; [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]] in [[Peruvian Spanish]]; [[Italian language|Italian]], Quechua and [[Guarani language|Guaraní]] in [[Rioplatense Spanish|Argentinian Spanish]]; [[Maghrebi Arabic]] and [[Berber languages|Berber]] in "Ladino Occidental" (also known as [[Haketia]]); [[Levantine Arabic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] in "Ladino Oriental".

In some cases, as with Judeo-Spanish, a register may be developed for Biblical translation and exegesis in which Hebrew-Aramaic patterns are frequently [[calque]]d, though the number of true Hebrew and/or Aramaic loanwords may be low. Another possibility is that Jews may speak the same language as their non-Jewish neighbors, but occasionally insert Hebrew-Aramaic or other Jewish elements. This is a transitory state in the shift from the use of Jewish to a non-Jewish language, often made in the context of assimilation. This occurred, for example, with many educated German Jews who transitioned from Western Yiddish to German. This variety of German, used between 1760 and the end of the 19th century (the [[Haskala]]), was written with the [[Hebrew alphabet]], and contained a small number of Hebrew and Yiddish loans. An example is [[Moses Mendelssohn]]'s translation of the Hebrew Bible into German written with Hebrew letters.

[[Judaeo-Papiamento|Judeo-Papiamento]], the only living Jewish [[ethnolect]] endemic to the [[Americas]] and likely the only one that is also a [[creole language]], has lexical differences from its non-Jewish counterpart that go beyond the influence of Hebrew and Aramaic. In formal contexts, Sephardic Jewish speakers of [[Papiamento]] tend to use extensive borrowing from [[French language|French]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], whereas non-Jewish [[Curaçao]]ans mostly use [[Spanish language|Spanish]] loanwords in similar contexts.<ref>{{cite magazine|last = Shabashewitz|first = Dor|date = 2023|title = A yidishe kreol-shprakh in di Karibishe indzlen [A Jewish creole language in the Caribbean]|url = https://forward.com/yiddish/551529/a-jewish-creole-language-in-the-caribbean/|language = yi|magazine = [[Forverts]]|accessdate = 2023-06-26}}</ref>

[[File:Nayot 1.JPG|thumb|240px|Signpost in [[Israel]], showing directions in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and transliterated into [[Latin script]].]]
[[File:KJ bus stop sign.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Signs in [[English language|English]] and [[Yiddish]] in the predominantly [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] area of [[Kiryas Joel, New York]]]]

==Status==
Among the most widely spoken Jewish languages to develop in the diaspora are [[Yiddish]], [[Judaeo-Spanish|Judeo-Spanish]], and the [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judeo-Arabic]] group of languages. [[Yiddish]] is the Judeo-German language developed by [[Ashkenazi Jews]] who lived in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] before [[World War II]]. [[Judaeo-Spanish|Judeo-Spanish]], also called ''Judezmo'' and ''Muestra Spanyol'', is the Judeo-Spanish language developed by [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic Jews]] who lived in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] before the expulsion by the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. [[Judeo-Catalan]] (also called ''Catalanic'' or ''Qatalanit''), was the Jewish language spoken by the Jewish communities in [[Catalonia]], [[Valencia]], and the [[Balearic Islands]]. [[Judeo-Provençal]] and [[Judeo-Gascon]] were two Jewish varieties of [[Occitan language]] as it was historically spoken by [[French Jews]].<ref>{{citation | last = Nahon | first = Peter | year=2017 | title=Diglossia among French Sephardim as a motivation for the genesis of 'Judeo-Gascon' | journal=Journal of Jewish Languages | volume=5| issue=1 | pages=104–119 | doi=10.1163/22134638-12340080 | url = https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01942642/file/JJL%281%29.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{citation | last = Nahon | first = Peter | year=2021 | title=Modern Judeo-Provençal as Known from Its Sole Textual Testimony: ''Harcanot et Barcanot'' (Critical Edition and Linguistic Analysis) | journal=Journal of Jewish Languages | volume=9| issue=2 | pages=165–237 | doi=10.1163/22134638-bja10014 | s2cid = 243838176 | url = https://hal.science/hal-03775737/file/22134638_bja10014_text.pdf }}.</ref>

Many ancient and distinct Jewish languages, including [[Judaeo-Georgian|Judeo-Georgian]], [[Judeo-Arabic dialects|Judeo-Arabic]], [[Judeo-Berber language|Judeo-Berber]], [[Krymchak language|Krymchak]], [[Judeo-Italian languages|Judeo-Italian]], [[Judeo-Malayalam]] have largely fallen out of use due to the impact of the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] on [[History of the Jews in Europe|European Jewry]], the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]], the assimilation policies of [[Israel]] in its early days and other factors.

Yiddish was the language spoken by the largest number of Jews in the 1850s, but today the three most commonly spoken languages among Jews are English, [[modern Hebrew]], and Russian—in that order.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp |title=Jewish Languages |access-date=2008-07-03 |publisher=[[Beth Hatefutsoth|Beth Hatefutsoth, The Nahum Goldmann Museum of the Jewish Diaspora]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725085641/http://www.bh.org.il/Links/JewishLangs.asp |archive-date=2008-07-25 }}</ref> Yiddish, as well as several other Jewish languages, has contributed to the vocabulary of coterritorial non-Jewish languages, such as [[Yiddish words used in English|English]] or [[French language|French]].<ref>For Yiddish loanwords in French, see P. Nahon, « Notes lexicologiques sur des interférences entre yidich et français moderne », Revue de linguistique romane 81, 2017, p. 139-155.</ref>

[[Kol Yisrael]], Israel's former public-service broadcaster, had long maintained short daily news and featured programming in many Jewish languages and dialects. For domestic audiences, it broadcast in [[Judeo-Iraqi Arabic]] on its Arabic network, while also producing in Yiddish, Judeo-Spanish, [[Judeo-Moroccan Arabic]], [[Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)|Bukharian]] and [[Judeo-Tat]] for both domestic and overseas shortwave audiences in relevant areas. In addition, for over two decades starting in the late 1970s, a daily 30-minute shortwave transmission was made to [[Yemen]] in [[Judeo-Yemeni Arabic]].

[[Radio Exterior|Radio Exterior de España]], [[Spain]]'s international public broadcaster, provides programming in Judeo-Spanish, which they refer to as Sefardi.<ref>[http://www.rtve.es/programas/sefardi REE programs in Ladino]</ref>

In the [[United States]]<ref>{{cite web |title=American Yiddish Radio |url=https://blogs.loc.gov/folklife/2021/05/american-yiddish-radio/ |access-date=September 15, 2024 |date=May 17, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Station Identification: A Cultural History of Yiddish Radio in the United States |url=https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/book/station-identification-a-cultural-history-of-yiddish-radio-in-the-united-states |website=Jewish Book Council |access-date=September 15, 2024 |date=August 25, 2011}}</ref> as well as in [[Birobidzhan|Birobidzhan, Russia]], there are some local radio programs in Yiddish.<ref>{{cite web |last1=GUR |first1=HAVIV RETTIG |title=Yiddish returns to Birobidzhan |url=https://www.jpost.com/jewish-world/jewish-features/yiddish-returns-to-birobidzhan |website=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=September 15, 2024 |date=April 17, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Shaun |date=September 27, 2024 |title=Revival of a Soviet Zion: Birobidzhan celebrates its Jewish heritage |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/27/revival-of-a-soviet-zion-birobidzhan-celebrates-its-jewish-heritage |access-date=September 15, 2024 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>

[[Judeo-Marathi]] ({{Langx|mr|जुदाव मराठी}}) is a form of [[Marathi language|Marathi]] spoken by the [[Bene Israel]], a [[Jewish ethnic divisions|Jewish ethnic group]] that developed a unique identity in [[India]]. Judeo-Marathi, like other Marathi dialects, is written in the [[Devanagari]] script. It may not be sufficiently different from Marathi as to constitute a distinct language, although it is characterized by a number of [[loanword]]s from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]] as a result of influence from the [[Cochin Jews|Cochin Jewish]] community, as well as from [[Judeo-Malayalam]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and also some influence from the [[Urdu]] language.

==Alphabets==
[[Image:120 Bombay 1890.png|thumb|right|250px|A page from a Haggada shel Pesah in Judeo-Marathi which was printed in Mumbai in 1890.]]
{{main article|Hebrew alphabet|}}
For centuries Jews worldwide spoke the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive [[dialect]]al forms or branching off as independent languages. The usual course of development for these languages was through the addition of Hebrew words and phrases used to express uniquely Jewish concepts and concerns. Often they were written in Hebrew letters, including the block letters used in Hebrew today and [[Rashi script]].

Conversely, Judeo-Spanish, formerly written in Rashi script or [[Solitreo]], since the 1920s is usually written in Turkey in the Latin alphabet with a spelling similar to [[Turkish alphabet|that of Turkish]], and has been occasionally printed in the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets.<ref>''Verba Hispanica'' X: [http://hispanismo.cervantes.es/documentos/smidX.pdf Los problemas del estudio de la lengua sefardí] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407074136/http://hispanismo.cervantes.es/documentos/smidX.pdf |date=2008-04-07 }}, Katja Smid, Ljubljana, pages 113–124: ''Es interesante el hecho que en Bulgaria se imprimieron unas pocas publicaciones en alfabeto cirílico búlgaro y en Grecia en alfabeto griego. [...] Nezirović (1992: 128) anota que también en Bosnia se ha encontrado un documento en que la lengua sefardí está escrita en alfabeto cirilico''. The Nezirović reference is: Nezirović, M., ''Jevrejsko-Spanjolska knjitévnost''. Institut za knjifevnost, Svjeálost, Sarajevo, 1992.</ref>

Also, some Yiddish-speakers have adopted the use of the Latin alphabet, in place of the Hebrew alphabet. This is predominantly to enable communications over the internet, without the need for special Hebrew keyboards.

== See also ==
* [[List of Jewish diaspora languages]]
* [[Religiolect]]
* [[Para-Romani]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite web|last=Feldman|first=Rachel|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/uoh-mah010710.php|year=2010|title=Most ancient Hebrew biblical inscription deciphered|access-date=15 June 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110607150148/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/uoh-mah010710.php| archive-date= 7 June 2011 | url-status= live}}
*{{cite book|last1=Kahn|first1=Lily|last2=Rubin|first2=Aaron D.|title=Handbook of Jewish Languages|year=2016|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9789004345775}}
*{{cite book|last=Sáenz-Badillos|first=Angel|title=A History of the Hebrew Language|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-55634-1}}
*{{cite journal|last=Shanks|first=Hershel|title=Oldest Hebrew Inscription Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine Border|journal=Biblical Archaeology Review|year= 2010|pages=51–6|volume=36|issue=2|url=https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/36/2/9 |url-status=live |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190602104058/https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/36/2/9 |archive-date=2019-06-02}}
*{{citation |last=Steiner|first=Richard C.|year=1997|contribution = Ancient Hebrew|pages=145–173|title = The Semitic Languages |editor-last=Hetzron|editor-first=Robert|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-05767-1}}
*{{cite book|last1=Waltke|first1=Bruce K.|last2 = O'Connor|first2=M.|title = An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax|year=1990|publisher=Eisenbrauns|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|isbn=0-931464-31-5}}
* [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann, Ghil'ad]] (ed.) 2014. [https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/ijsl.2014.2014.issue-226/ijsl-2014-frontmatter226/ijsl-2014-frontmatter226.pdf ''Jewish Language Contact''] (''[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]]'' 226)

==External links==
{{commons category|Jewish languages}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131226035047/http://www.jewish-languages.org/ Jewish Languages Official website]

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{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Languages of Israel}}

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