Editing Job rotation

{{Short description|Technique used by employers}}
'''Job rotation''' is the lateral transfer of [[employees]] between jobs in an organization without a change in their hierarchical rank or salary grade. Rotated employees usually do not remain in these jobs permanently and may also not return to former jobs. The frequency and duration of intervals in a job rotation can vary widely from daily to periods of years. The practice serves several functions including staffing, employee motivation, managing employee fatigue, employee orientation and placement, and career development.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens |date=1994 |title=Career-related antecedents and outcomes of job rotation. |journal=Academy of Management Journal |volume=37 |issue=6|pages=1518–1542 |jstor=256797 }}</ref>

Job rotation is used systematically by a large number of companies.<ref name=":1" /> This can be through structured job rotation programmes, or informally though the frequent lateral transfers that occur in organizations. Rotations are more common among lower performing staff who don’t generally achieve sizeable performance gains after a rotation. The rotation of higher performing staff is less prevalent, but has been shown to be beneficial for them with sizeable performance increases within two years of a job rotation. Most companies using job rotation have less strict attendance policies due to increased employee engagement and flexibility, while most organizations that implement job rotation focus on productivity and skill development, which can lead to more adaptive workplace policies. Rotation differs from promotion, which refers to an upward movement or rise in rank in an organizational hierarchy, usually indicated by an increase in responsibility and status and change in compensation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Kampkötter, Harbring, & Sliwka |date=2016 |title=Job rotation and employee performance – evidence from a longitudinal study in the financial services industry. |journal=The International Journal of Human Resource Management |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=1709–1735|doi=10.1080/09585192.2016.1209227 }}</ref>

Job rotation contradicts the principles of [[Departmentalization|specialization]] and the [[Division of labour|division of labor]], which suggest employees specialize in narrowly defined tasks as a way to increase productivity. It also differs from practices such as traditional craft production, where a [[craftsperson]] may perform all the tasks to produce a final product, and [[job enlargement]] where the scope of a job may be extended.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Cosgel & Miceli |date=1998 |title=On Job Rotation |url=https://opencommons.uconn.edu/econ_wpapers/199802 |journal=Economics Working Papers |issue=199802}}</ref>

== History ==
Records show job rotation has been used by communal societies, such as the [[Shakers]] since the nineteenth century.<ref name=":0" />

There is evidence that job rotation has been practiced by firms in [[Japan]] since the early 1950’s.<ref name=":0" /> [[Mazda Motor Corporation|Toyo Kogyo Company]] the Japanese firm that now produces Mazda automobiles, has been one such company.<ref name="Lohr1982">{{cite news |last1=Lohr |first1=Steve |date=12 July 1982 |title=How job rotation works for Japanese |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/07/12/business/how-job-rotation-works-for-japanese.html |work=The New York Times}}</ref> Toyo has used job rotation to redeploy staff during economic events, but does exclude some expert areas from their system (e.g. research and development).<ref name="Lohr1982" />

Potentially due to the widespread usage of job rotation in Japan and the success of Japanese firms, interest in job rotation increased in the United States of America in the 1980's.<ref name=":0" />

The concept of job rotation has also been used to develop [[Active labour market policies|active labor market policies]]. A scheme introduced in [[Denmark]] in the early 1990’s supported unemployed people to rotate into the jobs of employed people, to enable them to participate in further training.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hutchinson |first=J |date=1999 |title=Job Rotation: Linking learning, business growth and unemployment? |url=https://doi-org.helicon.vuw.ac.nz/10.1080/02690949908726486 |journal=Local Economy |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=175–179|doi=10.1080/02690949908726486 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Benefits==
Job rotation offers numerous benefits for both organisations and employees:

=== Organisations ===

* '''Workforce flexibility:''' From an organizational perspective, job rotation promotes a more flexible workforce by allowing employees to gain experience across multiple areas.<ref name=":13">{{cite journal |last1=Ekanem |first1=E. U. |last2=Umeh |first2=I. I. |last3=Okeke |first3=C. O. |year=2022 |title=Job rotation and employee performance in public sector: A study of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam |journal=International Journal of Business Systems and Economics |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=61–83 |url=https://www.arcnjournals.org/images/2726452731374.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> Organizations benefit from this cross-functional experience because having a more flexible, multi-skilled workforce enables employees that can be redeployed as needed. Such flexibility minimizes operational disruptions and enables organisations to respond swiftly to shifting organizational demands such as in times of employee absence or organizational change.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal | doi=10.37227/JIBM-2021-12-3286 | title=Benefits and Implementation of Job Rotation: Recommendations for Kuwaiti Civil Service Commission | journal=Journal of International Business and Management | date=2022 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, a flexible workforce is better equipped to innovate and solve complex problems, thereby enhancing overall effectiveness and responsiveness.
* '''Improved performance:''' Job rotation can significantly enhance both individual and organizational performance.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} As employees are exposed to different areas, it facilitates knowledge transfer and best practice sharing throughout the organisation which can lead to increased innovation and improved processes. Also, through job rotation, employees gain broader experience and develop new skills, it results in them bringing fresh perspectives and innovative ideas to their roles, which can lead to improved overall job performance and increased value to the organisation.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":14" /> 
* '''Enhanced public service delivery:''' In the public sector, job rotation through various departments offers a holistic understanding of public service delivery.<ref name=":14" /> When staff members are familiar with multiple roles and departments, they can approach problems with a more comprehensive perspective,<ref name=":13" /> leading to more innovative and effective solutions. This holistic understanding allows employees to address public policy issues, ensuring that services are delivered more efficiently and effectively.

=== Employee ===

* '''Skill development:''' One of the primary benefits of job rotation is that it helps develop workers’ knowledge and skills within the organisation.<ref name=":15">{{cite book | doi=10.2991/piceeba2-18.2019.96 | chapter=The effect of job rotation, compensation and organizational citizenship behaviour on employees' performance of PT Pegadaian (Persero) | title=Proceedings of the 2nd Padang International Conference on Education, Economics, Business and Accounting (PICEEBA-2 2018) | date=2019 | last1=Rasyid | first1=Rosyeni | last2=Wardi | first2=Yunia | last3=Musawir | first3=Musawir | isbn=978-94-6252-703-4 }}</ref><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":6" /> By rotating through various roles, employees are exposed to diverse tasks, responsibilities, and tools which broadens their skill sets and knowledge base.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} This experience equips employees with transferable skills, making them more adaptable to organizational changes{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} and more capable of managing complex tasks across different departments.
* '''Increased job satisfaction and motivation:''' Job rotation significantly contributes to increased job satisfaction and motivation.<ref name=":11" /> By introducing of new tasks and responsibilities, it provides new challenges, reduces boredom,<ref name=":16">{{cite journal | jstor=40752598 | title=Using Optional Job Rotation Programs to Gauge On-the-Job Learning | last1=Arya | first1=Anil | last2=Mittendorf | first2=Brian | journal=Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics  | date=2006 | volume=162 | issue=3 | pages=505–515 | doi=10.1628/093245606778387401 }}</ref> helps prevent burnout <ref name=":13" /><ref name=":6" /> and leads to improved staff morale.<ref name=":15" /> This variety helps to foster engagement and a positive work environment, improving overall job satisfaction.
* '''Broader organizational understanding:''' Job rotation provides employees with an opportunity to gain insights into the organization's diverse work<ref name=":15" /> and how their roles impact overall operations. By working across various roles and departments, employees develop a holistic understanding of the organization's processes, goals, and interdependencies. This broader view enables employees to better understand how their work contributes to the organisation,{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} while also equipping employees to collaborate more effectively across teams, share knowledge, break down silos and improve communication.
* '''Career growth opportunities:''' As a tool for training and development, this practice fosters diverse skill-building and better prepares individuals for career advancement.<ref name=":15" /> By experiencing various roles, employees gain a deeper understanding of different career paths and organizational functions. This is especially beneficial for those aspiring to management positions. Additionally, exposure to various roles and departments also enhances versatility and adaptability, making employees more competitive for promotions and leadership roles.
* '''Health and well-being:''' Incorporating job rotation can have a positive impact on employees' health and well-being. It alleviates physical strain and reduces stress, particularly in roles involving repetitive physical tasks and physically demanding jobs.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} Similarly, employees in mentally demanding roles can benefit from rotating into different tasks, which helps reduce mental fatigue and stress.<ref name=":13" /> By varying tasks and responsibilities, job rotation can help reduce the physical and mental stress that often comes with repetitive work, contributing to a healthier and more engaged workforce.<ref name=":13" />
* '''Employee retention:''' Fostering a sense of growth and value among employees can significantly impact retention. Employees who are given the opportunity to rotate through various roles often feel that their organisation is investing in their development, which encourages loyalty and reduces turnover. Providing growth opportunities internally through job rotation can also improve employee retention, as it prevents skilled workers from seeking them externally.<ref name=":16" /> The continuous learning opportunities provided through job rotation help maintain employee engagement, further reducing the likelihood of employees leaving the organisation.

== Drawbacks ==
Job rotation also presents several challenges for organisations and employees:

=== Organisations ===
* '''Increased training resource costs''': Job rotation incurs both direct and indirect costs. Direct expenses include the financial cost for [[training]] employees across other roles, while indirect costs arise from the time and resources needed for effective role transitions.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Dhanraj |first1=Dayanath |last2=Parumasur |first2=Sanjana Brijball |date=2014 |title=EMPLOYEE PERCEPTIONS OF JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND CHALLENGES OF JOB ROTATION |url=https://virtusinterpress.org/EMPLOYEE-PERCEPTIONS-OF-JOB.html |journal=Corporate Ownership and Control |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Ronnie E. S. |last2=da Silva |first2=Fabio Q. B. |last3=Baldassarre |first3=Maria Teresa |last4=de Magalhães |first4=Cleyton V. C. |date=2017 |title=Benefits and limitations of project-to-project job rotation in software organizations: A synthesis of evidence |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950584917303646 |journal=Information and Software Technology |volume=89 |pages=78–96 |doi=10.1016/j.infsof.2017.04.006 |hdl=11586/194262 |issn=0950-5849|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Thongpapanl |first1=Narongsak |last2=Kaciak |first2=Eugene |last3=Welsh |first3=Dianne H.B. |date=2018 |title=Growing and aging of entrepreneurial firms: Implications for job rotation and joint reward |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJEBR-03-2018-0135/full/html |journal=International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1087–1103 |doi=10.1108/IJEBR-03-2018-0135 |issn=1355-2554|url-access=subscription }}</ref> During the learning phase, employees may make more errors, leading to further costs and reduced [[operational efficiency]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> Given that approximately one-third of U.S. employees and one fifth of Europe employees change jobs within a 12-month period, the costs associated with job rotation may not be justified for some organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cooper-Thomas |first1=Helena |last2=Anderson |first2=Neil Robert |last3=Cash |first3=Melanie |date=2011 |title=Investigating organizational socialization: A fresh look at newcomer adjustment strategies |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235267962 |journal=Personnel Review |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=41–55|doi=10.1108/00483481211189938 |hdl=2292/24632 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* '''Temporary productivity losses''': Job rotation is often associated with an initial temporary reduction in [[productivity]], as employees undergo a learning curve while transitioning into new roles.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> Loss of productivity occurs as employees learn new roles, transfer skills and familiarize themselves with new team dynamics.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last1=Santos |first1=Ronnie E. S. |last2=Da Silva |first2=Fabio Q. B. |last3=De Magalhães |first3=Cleyton V. C. |last4=Monteiro |first4=Cleviton V. F. |chapter=Building a theory of job rotation in software engineering from an instrumental case study |date=2016 |title=Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Software Engineering |language=en |pages=971–981 |doi=10.1145/2884781.2884837|isbn=978-1-4503-3900-1 |s2cid=10185202 }}</ref> This productivity loss can affect both the department the employee is leaving and the department receiving the employee.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Casad |first=Scott |date=2012 |title=Implications of job rotation literature for performance improvement practitioners |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/piq.21118 |journal=Performance Improvement Quarterly |language=en |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=27–41 |doi=10.1002/piq.21118|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Santos |first1=Ronnie E. S. |last2=da Silva |first2=Fabio Q. B. |last3=de Magalhães |first3=Cleyton V. C. |chapter=Benefits and limitations of job rotation in software organizations: A systematic literature review |date=2016 |title=Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering |chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2915970.2915988 |series=EASE '16 |location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1145/2915970.2915988 |isbn=978-1-4503-3691-8}}</ref>  
* '''Employees’ resistance to change''': Employees may resist job rotation due to unfamiliar roles, anxiety or lack of motivation to learn new tasks.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Richardson |first1=Annette |last2=Douglas |first2=Margaret |last3=Shuttler |first3=Rachel |last4=Hagland |first4=Martin R |date=2003 |title=Critical care staff rotation: outcomes of a survey and pilot study |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1478-5153.2003.00011.x |journal=Nursing in Critical Care |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=84–89 |doi=10.1046/j.1478-5153.2003.00011.x |pmid=12737193 |issn=1362-1017|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Triggs |first1=Donald. D |last2=King |first2=Phyllis. M |date=2000 |title=Job rotation |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/200413731 |journal=Professional Safety |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=32|id={{ProQuest|200413731}} }}</ref> Some employees may feel protective of their current role, especially if they have developed expertise and derive personal satisfaction from their position. Additionally, concerns about losing skills, job stability or the perception that increased responsibilities from rotation are not adequately reflected in wages may fuel resistance.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />
* '''Decreased employee accountability''': Frequent job rotations can diminish individual [[accountability]], as employees may feel less responsible for long-term outcomes, reducing efforts and engagement.<ref name=":4" /> This can make it challenging for expectations to be met, leading to increased stress.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" />
* '''Organizational resistance to job rotation''': Implementing job rotation may face resistance from both leadership and employees. In larger or more complex organizations, where knowledge-sharing systems and job structures are more [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratic]], the effectiveness of job rotation strategies may diminish. Additionally, resistance may also arise from [[organizational culture]]s that are reluctant to share knowledge or adapt to changes brought by job rotation.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brunold |first1=Julia |last2=Durst |first2=Susanne |date=2012 |title=Intellectual capital risks and job rotation |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/14691931211225021/full/html |journal=Journal of Intellectual Capital |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=178–195 |doi=10.1108/14691931211225021 |issn=1469-1930|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* '''Factors limit the implementation of job rotation''': In industries requiring highly specialized skills, such as in law or medicine, job rotation may be impractical.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} Additionally, the growing prevalence of [[artificial intelligence]] and [[automation]] of repetitive tasks reduces the need for job rotation in certain sectors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Du |first=Jiaxing |date=2024 |title=AI and Your Job What's Changing and What's Next |url=https://discovery.researcher.life/article/ai-and-your-job-what-s-changing-and-what-s-next/a649f5b0f92a32a187bbdea82677d0f8 |journal=Frontiers in Science and Engineering |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=116–124 |language=en |doi=10.54691/0dbksd82|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Employees ===
* '''Burnout and exhaustion''': Frequent or poorly managed job rotation can lead to employee exhaustion and burnout.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Foroutan |first1=Taraneh |last2=Safavi |first2=Homayoun Pasha |last3=Bouzari |first3=Mona |date=2021 |title=The ugly side of job rotation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278431921000724 |journal=International Journal of Hospitality Management |volume=95 |pages=102929 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102929 |issn=0278-4319|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Employees might experience mental fatigue or heighten stress from constantly having to adapt to new roles, particularly when there isn’t adequate support.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ollo-Lopez |first1=Andrea |last2=Bayo-Moriones |first2=Alberto |last3=Larraza-Kintana |first3=Martin |date=2010 |title=The Relationship between New Work Practices and Employee Effort |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022185609359446 |journal=Journal of Industrial Relations |language=en |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=219–235 |doi=10.1177/0022185609359446 |issn=0022-1856|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* '''Increased workload and underperformance''': Employees may excel in certain roles, but underperform in others, especially when rotations occur too quickly or without adequate training. Furthermore, employees may be rotated into a role they are not well-suited for.<ref name=":6" /> If a previous employee underperforms within a role, it can lead to an increased workload for the next employee, who must compensate for unfinished tasks or mistakes.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
* '''Increased injury risk''': Job rotation is often used to reduce physical strain from repetitive tasks. However evidence on its effectiveness in preventing [[Human musculoskeletal system|musculoskeletal]] complaints is contradictory and open to interpretation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leider |first1=Priscilla C. |last2=Boschman |first2=Julitta S. |last3=Frings-Dresen |first3=Monique H. W. |last4=van der Molen |first4=Henk F. |date=2015 |title=Effects of job rotation on musculoskeletal complaints and related work exposures: a systematic literature review |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25267494/ |journal=Ergonomics |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=18–32 |doi=10.1080/00140139.2014.961566 |issn=1366-5847 |pmid=25267494}}</ref> Rotating employees into jobs with a high risk of injury can increase the overall risk of workplace injuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mehdizadeh |first1=Amir |last2=Vinel |first2=Alexander |last3=Hu |first3=Qiong |last4=Schall |first4=Mark C. |last5=Gallagher |first5=Sean |last6=Sesek |first6=Richard F. |date=2020 |title=Job rotation and work-related musculoskeletal disorders: a fatigue-failure perspective |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31951779/ |journal=Ergonomics |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=461–476 |doi=10.1080/00140139.2020.1717644 |issn=1366-5847 |pmid=31951779}}</ref> Insufficient training or rotating unskilled workers into more physical or mentally demanding roles may further elevate the risk of injury.<ref name=":10" />
* '''Reduced expertise and role clarity''': Frequent job rotation can hinder employees from developing deep expertise in one area, creating confusion about employee’s individual roles and responsibilities.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> This reduction in task specialization can lower productivity and reduce product quality.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":10" />
* '''Increased job dissatisfaction and slowed career growth''': Job rotation can make it challenging for managers to assess individual’s long-term contributions and skill developments, potentially limiting recognition and slowing career progression. Employees may feel overlooked, leading to increased job dissatisfaction.<ref name=":5" />

== See also ==

* [[Job crafting]]
* [[Job enlargement]]
* [[Job satisfaction]]
* [[Division of labour|Division of labor]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}{{Jobs}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Job Rotation}}
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[[Category:Human resource management]]
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