Editing Johan Galtung

{{Short description|Norwegian sociologist and peace scholar (1930–2024)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Johan Galtung
| image             = Johan Galtung - Trento.JPG
| caption           = Galtung in 2012
| birth_name        = Johan Vincent Galtung
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1930|10|24|df=y}}
| birth_place       = [[Oslo]], Norway
| death_date        = {{death date and age|df=yes|2024|02|17|1930|10|24}}
| death_place       = Stabekk Helsehus og Hospice, Baerum, Norway
| children          = 4
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Ingrid Eide]]|1956|1968|end=divorced}}
* {{marriage|Fumiko Nishimura| 1969}}
}}
| fields            = [[Sociology]], [[peace and conflict studies]]
| workplaces        = [[Columbia University]], [[University of Oslo]], [[Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO)]]
| alma_mater        = [[University of Oslo]]
| known_for         = Principal founder of [[peace and conflict studies]]
| awards            = [[Right Livelihood Award]] (1987)
| module            = {{Infobox officeholder | embed = yes
 | office             = Founder and Director of [[Peace Research Institute Oslo]]
 | term_start         = 1959
 | term_end           = 1969
 | successor          = [[Asbjørn Eide]]
}}
}}
[[File:Johan Galtung - Amy Goodman Dialogue (Program).webm|thumb|right|Galtung in discussion with [[Amy Goodman]], 2012]]
'''Johan Vincent Galtung''' (24 October 1930 – 17 February 2024) was a Norwegian [[sociologist]] and the principal founder of the discipline of [[peace and conflict studies]].<ref>[[John David Brewer|John D. Brewer]], ''Peace processes: a sociological approach'', p. 7, Polity Press, 2010</ref> He was the main founder of the [[Peace Research Institute Oslo]] (PRIO) in 1959 and was its first director until 1970. He also established the ''[[Journal of Peace Research]]'' in 1964.

In 1969, he was appointed to the world's first [[Chair (academic)|chair]] in peace and conflict studies, at the [[University of Oslo]]. He resigned his Oslo professorship in 1977 and thereafter held professorships at several other universities; from 1993 to 2000 he taught as Distinguished Professor of Peace Studies at the [[University of Hawaii]]. He was the [[Mahathir Mohamad|Tun Mahathir]] Professor of Global Peace at the [[International Islamic University Malaysia]] until 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iais.org.my/e/index.php/events-sp-1744003054/past-events/517-public-lecture-seeking-peace-from-resolving-conflict-between-buddhists-and-muslims-in-myanmar-and-sri-lanka-by-prof-dr-johan-galtung.html |title=Public Lecture: "Seeking Peace from Resolving Conflict between Buddhists and Muslims in Myanmar and Sri Lanka" by Prof. Dr. Johan Galtung |access-date=2 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603050551/http://www.iais.org.my/e/index.php/events-sp-1744003054/past-events/517-public-lecture-seeking-peace-from-resolving-conflict-between-buddhists-and-muslims-in-myanmar-and-sri-lanka-by-prof-dr-johan-galtung.html |archive-date=3 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Background==
[[File:09252012GaltungITESMCCM02.JPG|thumb|Galtung speaking at the [[Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City]] in September 2012.]]
Galtung was born in [[Oslo]]. He earned the [[cand. real.]]<ref name="coe.int">{{cite web |url=http://www.coe.int/T/d/Com/Dossiers/Events/2002-10-interkultureller-Dialog/CV_Galtung.asp |title=CV_Galtung |publisher=Coe.int |access-date=18 November 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203824/http://www.coe.int/T/d/Com/Dossiers/Events/2002-10-interkultureller-Dialog/CV_Galtung.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> degree in mathematics  at the [[University of Oslo]] in 1956, and a year later completed the [[Magister (degree)#Denmark and Norway|mag. art.]] (PhD)<ref name="coe.int"/> degree in sociology at the same university.<ref name="nbl">[http://snl.no/.nbl_biografi/Johan_Galtung/utdypning "Johan Galtung"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926181900/http://snl.no/.nbl_biografi/Johan_Galtung/utdypning |date=26 September 2012 }}, ''[[Norsk Biografisk Leksikon]]''</ref> Galtung received the first of thirteen [[honorary doctorate]]s in 1975.<ref name=Galtung-Institut>{{cite web|url=https://www.galtung-institut.de/en/home/johan-galtung//|title=Johan Galtung|access-date=4 April 2017|archive-date=7 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807061952/https://www.galtung-institut.de/en/home/johan-galtung/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Galtung's father and paternal grandfather were both [[physician]]s. The Galtung name has its origins in [[Hordaland]], where his paternal grandfather was born. Nevertheless, his mother, Helga Holmboe, was born in central Norway, in [[Trøndelag]], while his father was born in [[Østfold]], in the south. Galtung was married twice, and had two children by his first wife [[Ingrid Eide]], Harald Galtung and Andreas Galtung, and two by his second wife Fumiko Nishimura, Irene Galtung and Fredrik Galtung.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://folk.uio.no/ingeba/family/1554.htm |title=Genealogical data for Johan Galtung |access-date=18 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803201324/http://folk.uio.no/ingeba/family/1554.htm |archive-date=3 August 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Galtung experienced [[World War II]] in German-occupied Norway, and as a 12-year-old saw his father arrested by the [[Nazi]]s. By 1951, he was already a committed peace mediator, and elected to do 18 months of social service in place of his obligatory military service. After 12 months, Galtung insisted that the remainder of his social service be spent in activities relevant to peace.<ref name="Life of Johan Galtung in Danish" />

Galtung died in Stabekk Helsehus og Hospice, Baerum, Norway, on 17 February 2024, at the age of 93.
<ref>{{cite news |title=Johan Galtung er død |url=https://www.dagbladet.no/nyheter/johan-galtung-er-dod/80992144 |access-date=17 February 2024 |publisher=Dagbladet |date=17 February 2024 |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217111517/https://www.dagbladet.no/nyheter/johan-galtung-er-dod/80992144 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Career==
Upon receiving his mag. art. degree, Galtung moved to [[Columbia University]], in [[New York City]], where he taught for five semesters as an assistant professor in the department of sociology.<ref name="Life of Johan Galtung in Danish">{{Cite web |url=http://www.visdomsnettet.dk/a-402-1/ |title=Life of Johan Galtung (in Danish) |access-date=27 November 2007 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304044026/http://www.visdomsnettet.dk/a-402-1/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1959, Galtung returned to Oslo, where he founded the [[Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO)]]. He was the institute's director until 1969.<ref name="PRIO biography for Johan Galtung">{{Cite web |url=http://www.prio.no/page/Project_detail/Staff_alpha_ALL/9244/47062.html |title=PRIO biography for Johan Galtung |access-date=17 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528063552/http://www.prio.no/page/Project_detail/Staff_alpha_ALL/9244/47062.html |archive-date=28 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1964, Galtung led PRIO to establish the first academic journal devoted to Peace Studies: the ''[[Journal of Peace Research]]''.<ref name="PRIO biography for Johan Galtung"/> In the same year, he assisted in the founding of the [[International Peace Research Association]].<ref>[http://soc.kuleuven.be/pol/ipra/about/history.html History of the IPRA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203152016/http://soc.kuleuven.be/pol/ipra/about/history.html |date=3 December 2011 }}</ref> In 1969, he left PRIO for a position as professor of peace and conflict research at the [[University of Oslo]], a position he held until 1978.<ref name="PRIO biography for Johan Galtung"/>

Galtung was the director general of the International University Centre in [[Dubrovnik]] and helped to found and lead the World Future Studies Federation.<ref name="E. Boulding 1982: 323">(E. Boulding 1982: 323)</ref><ref name="future">{{cite book |last1=Andersson |first1=Jenny |title=The future of the world: Futurology, futurists, and the struggle for the post-Cold War imagination |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198814337}}</ref> He has held visiting positions at other universities, including [[Santiago, Chile]], the [[United Nations University]] in [[Geneva]], [[Witten/Herdecke University]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=idw - Informationsdienst Wissenschaft |date=29 June 1999 |title=Friedensforscher Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Johan Galtung wird verabschiedet - Nach dreizehn Jahren Lehre verabschiedet sich Prof. Galtung aus Witten/Herdecke |trans-title=Peace researcher Prof. Dr Dr h.c. mult. Johan Galtung bids farewell - After thirteen years of teaching, Prof Galtung leaves Witten/Herdecke |url=https://idw-online.de/de/news12358 |access-date=19 August 2024}}</ref> in Germany, and at [[Columbia University|Columbia]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]] and the [[University of Hawaii]] in the USA.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=1058&a=97294&previousRenderType=2 |title=''Dagens Nyheter'' 2003-01-15. |access-date=27 September 2007 |archive-date=15 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515132012/http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=1058&a=97294&previousRenderType=2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2014, he was appointed the first Tun Mahathir Professor of Global Peace at the [[International Islamic University Malaysia]].<ref>[http://www.iium.edu.my/aikol/pgpf Tun Mahathir Perdana Global Peace Foundation (PGPF) Chair for Global Peace] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802073648/http://www.iium.edu.my/aikol/pgpf |date=2 August 2017 }}, [[International Islamic University Malaysia]]</ref>

Economist and fellow peace researcher [[Kenneth Boulding]] has said of Galtung that his "output is so large and so varied that it is hard to believe that it comes from a human".<ref name="K. Boulding 1977: 75">(K. Boulding 1977: 75)</ref> He was a member of the [[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnva.no/c26848/artikkel/vis.html?tid=27644|title=Gruppe 7: Samfunnsfag (herunder sosiologi, statsvitenskap og økonomi)|publisher=[[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]]|language=no|access-date=26 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927170048/http://www.dnva.no/c26848/artikkel/vis.html?tid=27644|archive-date=27 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1993, he co-founded TRANSCEND: A Peace Development Environment Network.<ref name="transcend">{{Cite web |url=http://www.transcend.org/ |title=Transcend.org |access-date=10 December 2003 |archive-date=30 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130075836/https://www.transcend.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="INTERNATIONALRELATIONS">{{cite web|url=http://www.e-ir.info/2014/05/27/interview-johan-galtung/|title=Interview - Johan Galtung|date=27 May 2014|access-date=16 November 2014|archive-date=5 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805183601/http://www.e-ir.info/2014/05/27/interview-johan-galtung/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1987, he was given the [[Right Livelihood Award]].

==Work and views==
{{more citations needed|section|date=February 2024}}

===Conflict Triangle===
In Galtung's 1969 paper, "'''Violence, Peace and Peace Research'''",<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Galtung|first=Johan|date=1969|title=Violence, Peace and Peace Research|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=6|issue=3|pages=167–191|doi=10.1177/002234336900600301|s2cid=143440399}}</ref> he presents his theory of the Conflict Triangle, a framework used in the [[Peace and conflict studies|study of peace and conflict]], with the purpose of defining the three key elements of violence that form this "triangle." The theory is based on the principle that peace must be defined by widely accepted social goals, and that any state of peace is characterized by the absence of violence. When a conflict has features of all three areas of violence, the result is a more consolidated, static state of violence in a social system, which may include a conflict or a nation-state, whereas the absence of these three typologies of violence results in peace.

==== Structural Violence ====
Galtung's concept of [[structural violence]] refers to the indirect forms of violence originating from social, economic, and political structures and manifesting primarily as oppression and exploitation.<ref name=":05">{{Cite book |last=Meng |first=Wenting |title=Developmental Peace: Theorizing China's Approach to International Peacebuilding |date=2024 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=9783838219073 |series=Ibidem |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=16}} These indirect forms of violence result in injustices in the distribution of political power and economic benefits.<ref name=":05" />{{Rp|page=16}}

Rather than conveying a physical image, structural violence is an avoidable impairment of [[fundamental human needs]]. Structural violence is increased in situations where low income individuals also suffer in the rank dimensions of education, health, and power. This is due to an overall consolidation of factors in the social structure, resulting in a high correlation between social class and disempowerment. Structural violence can be recognized through its relative stability, having been built into the social structure. This can make structural violence difficult to ascertain, despite its often vast consequences. This concept has been applied in a large number of cases, some of the most notable are listed below.

[[Akhil Gupta]] argued in 2012<ref>{{Cite book|title=Red Tape: Bureaucracy, Structural Violence and Poverty in India|last=Gupta|first=Akhil|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2012}}</ref> that structural violence has been the key influence in the nature and distribution of extreme suffering in India, driven by the Indian state in its alleged corruption, overly bureaucratic standards of governance used to exclude the middle and working classes from the political system through a system of politicized poverty.

Jacklyn Cock's 1989 paper<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cock|first=Jacklyn|date=1989|title=Keeping the Fires Burning: Militarization and the Politics of Gender in South Africa|journal=Review of African Political Economy|volume=16|issue=45–46|pages=50–64|doi=10.1080/03056248908703825|hdl=10539/8529|hdl-access=free}}</ref> in the ''[[Review of African Political Economy]]'' applied Galtung's theory of structural violence, analysing the role of militarized society under the [[Apartheid|apartheid regime of South Africa]] in the development of patriarchal values that is a form of structural violence against women. Cock found that tacit misdirection of women in society by its leadership focused their energies toward the direct and indirect incorporation of the patriarchal regime in order to maintain the status quo.

Mats Utas claimed<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Utas|first=Mats|date=2003|title=Sweet Battlefields: Youth and the Liberian Civil War|journal=Uppsala University Dissertations in Cultural Anthropology}}</ref> that even those youth in Liberia indirectly unaffected by direct violence in the [[First Liberian Civil War|civil war of 1989-1996]] suffered from structural violence in the form of association with different blocs, leading to poverty, joblessness and marginalisation effects.

==== Cultural Violence ====
Galtung defines cultural violence as ideas, consciousness, language, art, or science that can be used to legitimize or enable direct violence or structural violence.<ref name=":05" />{{Rp|pages=16–17}} The existence of prevailing or prominent social norms make direct and structural violence seem natural or at least acceptable, and serves to explain how prominent beliefs can become so embedded in a given culture that they function as absolute and inevitable and are reproduced uncritically across generations. Galtung expanded on the concept of cultural violence in a 1990 paper<ref name=":0a">{{Cite journal|last=Galtung|first=Johan|date=1990|title=Cultural Violence|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=27|issue=3|pages=291–305|doi=10.1177/0022343390027003005|s2cid=220989188}}</ref> also published in the Journal of Peace Research. This concept has been applied in a limited number of cases, with most occurring after Galtung's follow up paper in 1990,<ref name=":0a" /> some of the most notable of which are listed below.

Johan Galtung has written about Zionism and violence. He has discussed various forms of violence, including structural and cultural violence, in his extensive body of work. Galtung has been critical of Zionism, particularly in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and has linked it to broader themes of structural violence. He has framed Zionism within his broader theories of structural and cultural violence, suggesting  that the establishment and actions of the state of Israel have contributed to ongoing conflict and suffering in the region.



Gregory Phillips argues in his 2003 book, Addictions and Healing in Aboriginal Country,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Addictions and Healing in Aboriginal Country|last=Philips|first=Gregory|year=2003}}</ref> that resistance to the Western medical sphere driven by [[List of massacres of Indigenous Australians|previous atrocities]] committed against the [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal community]] has led to a fierce resistance effort against modern medicine, addiction treatment and perhaps fuels a desire to seek out drugs and illicit substances as a starting point of addiction. Wide scale suspicion against medical practitioners and government representatives has become engendered in the Aboriginal community.

In Enduring Violence: Ladina Women's Lives in Guatemala,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Enduring Violence|last=Menjívar|first=Cecilia|year=2011}}</ref> the 2011 book by [[Cecilia Menjívar]], it is argued that the preexisting cultural conditions of ''mediania'', or half and half, agriculture led to women facing large scale cultural violence due to high rents, low returns and high required investment with additionally harsh conditions due to the conflict in Guatemala. Given the patriarchal culture of Guatemala, any earnings would go to the partner of the working woman, leaving a large poverty gap enshrined in the demographic diversity of the country.

The Austrian peace researcher Franz Jedlicka has tried to measure the level of cultural violence in a "Culture of Violence Scale" in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jedlicka |first=Franz |date=2023 |title=The Culture of Violence Scale 2023 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.22929.81760 |access-date=27 July 2024 |website=Researchgate|doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.22929.81760 }}</ref>

==== Direct Violence ====
Direct Violence is characterised as having an actor that commits the violence, and is thus able to be traced back to persons as actors. Direct violence shows less stability, given it is subject to the preference sets of individuals, and thus is more easily recognised. Direct violence is the most visible, occurring [[Physical abuse|physically]] or [[Verbal abuse|verbally]], and the victim and the offender can be clearly identified. Direct violence is highly interdependent with structural and cultural violence: cultural and structural violence causes direct violence which on the other hand reinforces the former ones. This concept has been applied in a large number of cases, some of which are listed below.

A 2011 paper<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Solutions-to-End-Child-Marriage.pdf|title=Solutions to End Child Marriage|last=Malhotra|first=Anju|website=ICRW|access-date=29 April 2023|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325220813/https://icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Solutions-to-End-Child-Marriage.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> by the [[International Center for Research on Women]] (ICRW) demonstrated the widespread nature of [[child marriage]] in [[South Asia]]. The ICRW highlighted marriage before the age of 18 as a fundamental human rights violation, one that leads to early childbearing, with significantly higher maternal mortality and morbidity rates as well as higher infant mortality rates amongst women. The paper most directly presented evidence to show that child brides are at heightened risk of violence in the home.

In Matthew Chandler's 2009 paper<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chandler|first=Matthew|date=2009|title=When armed combatants employ nonviolent action: A case study of Hezbollah|journal=ProQuest Dissertations Publishing|id={{ProQuest|304844175}}}}</ref> on so-called "non-violent" techniques utilised by [[Hezbollah]] still include forms of Direct Violence, most notably the threat of violence toward [[Fouad Siniora]]'s allies after his 2008 order to dismantle the Hezbollah telecommunications network in 2008, which led to the freezing of the order. Further, Hezbollah are argued to have used their operation of [[Hezbollah social services|social services]], in lieu of government operations, as a ransom for support as well as rewarding their fighters with guaranteed healthcare and support for their families. Chandler argues this is due to opposition within the group to harming Lebanese civilians, who they view as "their own", or exacerbating conflict through civil war.

In 2005, Steven Wright made the case<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wright|first=Steven|date=2005|title=Violent Peacekeeping: The Rise and Rise of Repressive Techniques and Technologies|journal=Politics and Ethics Review|volume=1|pages=60–69|doi=10.1177/1743453X0500100106|s2cid=219960032|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/526/1/Violent%20Peacekeeping.pdf|access-date=29 April 2023|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921235822/http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/526/1/Violent%20Peacekeeping.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> for Peacekeeping efforts to be regarded as violence due to increasing use of techniques such as pre-interrogation treatment, and the use of non-lethal weapons such as tear gas for crowd dispersal and plastic bullets, which he terms "torture-lite", being increasingly common in peacekeeping manuals across a number of nation-states and supranational organisations.

==== Reinforcing Factors ====
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2024}}
Galtung focuses a section of the paper on the means of direct and structural violence, in particular, developing groups of factors that may be included as types of such forms and methods of maintaining and reinforcing the mechanisms of such violence. In terms of reinforcing factors, Galtung identifies six key areas:

;Linear Ranking Order
:Systems in which there is an open and complete ranking of actors leaves no doubt as to the actor who is ranked more highly, and is thus a mechanism of structural violence due to the reinforcement of an existing power dynamic.
;Acyclical Interaction Pattern
:Systems in which all actors are connected via a one-way ‘correct’ path of interaction, where outcomes are structurally dependent on using this system in the intended way of its design. This makes structural systems stable, as change can only be achieved through this consolidated [[Selectorate theory|power-seeking and power-retaining system]].
;Rank-Centrality Correlation
:Within the social system, actors that are higher ranked are more central within the system itself, reinforcing their importance to the status quo as well as their incentives to maintain it.
;(4)  System Congruence
:Social systems are made up of similar components, allowing those who are ranked highly and are successful at mobilising one system shifting from a comparative advantage within one system to an absolute advantage over all systems of desired operation.
;Rank Concordance
:Actors that are ranked highly within one metric, such as income, are also ranked highly on other metrics such as education and health. This congruence is also present in actors ranked low within these metrics, and serves to limit [[Social mobility|mobility within the social system]].
;Interlevel High Rank Coupling
:Collaboration amongst the highest ranks results in the system being defined in such a way that benefits the most powerful actors, usually through a sub optimally ranked representative (not the highest ranked actor), which limits allegations of system consolidation by the most powerful.

Beyond Galtung's initial paper and thesis, scholars have applied the Conflict Triangle to a broad array of conflicts, struggles and occupations since 1969, and retroactively.

==== Criticism of the model ====
Galtung's Conflict Triangle and Peace Research paper are widely cited as the foundational pieces of theory<ref>{{Cite book|title=Peace processes: a Sociological Approach|last=Brewer|first=John D.|publisher=Polity Press|year=2010}}</ref> within peace and conflict studies. However, they are not without criticism. Galtung uses very broad definitions of [[violence]], [[Conflict (process)|conflict]] and [[peace]], and applies the terms of mean both direct and indirect, negative and positive, and violence in which one cannot distinguish actors or victims, which serves to limit the direct application of the model itself.

Galtung uses a [[Positivism|positivist]] approach,<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Question of Values: Johan Galtung's Peace Research|last=Lawler|first=Peter|publisher=Lynne Rienner|year=1995}}</ref> in that he assumes that every rational tenet of the theory can be verified, serving to reject social processes beyond relationships and actions. This approach enforces a paradigm of clear-cut, currently testable propositions as the ‘whole’ of the system, and thus is often deemed [[Reductionism|reductionist]]. Galtung also wields an explicit [[normative]] orientation in the paper, in which there is a weighting toward evaluative statements that may show bias or simply opinion, or indeed a trend toward the [[institution]]s and concepts of peace in the West, which may serve to limit the applicability of the model more widely.

=== Peacebuilding ===
Galtung proposes resolving conflicts through peacekeeping, peacemaking, and [[peacebuilding]].<ref name=":05" />{{Rp|page=17}} Peacekeeping and peacemaking primarily involve eliminating violence and bringing about immediate peace.<ref name=":05" />{{Rp|page=17}} In Galtung's view, addressing the root causes of violence requires peacebuilding which goes beyond ending direct violence to end structural violence and cultural violence.<ref name=":05" />{{Rp|page=17}}

The peacebuilding structures needed to address the root causes of conflict and support local capacity for peace management and conflict resolution.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pbso/pbun.shtml PEACEBUILDING & THE UNITED NATIONS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180514143152/https://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pbso/pbun.shtml |date=14 May 2018 }} Peacebuilding Support Office, United Nations</ref> Galtung has held several significant positions in international [[research]] councils and has been an advisor to several [[international organisations]]. Since 2004, he has been a member of the Advisory Council of the [[Committee for a Democratic UN]].

Galtung is strongly associated with the following concepts:
* [[Structural violence]] – widely defined as the systematic ways in which a regime prevents individuals from achieving their full potential. Institutionalized racism and sexism are examples of this.
* [[Negative peace|Negative]] vs. [[positive peace]] – popularized the concept that peace may be more than just the absence of overt violent conflict (negative peace), and will likely include a range of relationships up to a state where nations (or any groupings in conflict) might have collaborative and supportive relationships (positive peace). Though he did not cite them, these terms were, in fact, previously defined and discussed in a series of lectures starting in 1899 by [[Jane Addams]] (in her 1907 book she switched to calling it 'newer ideals of peace' but continued to contrast them to the term negative peace), and in 1963 in the letter from a Birmingham jail by [[Letter from Birmingham Jail|Martin Luther King Jr.]]

===Criticism of the United States===
In 1973, Galtung criticised the "structural fascism" of the US and other Western countries that make war to secure materials and markets, stating: "Such an economic system is called [[capitalism]], and when it's spread in this way to other countries it's called imperialism", and praised [[Fidel Castro]]'s Cuba in 1972 for "break[ing] free of imperialism's iron grip". Galtung stated that the US is a "killer country" guilty of "neo-fascist [[state terrorism]]" and compared the US to [[Nazi Germany]] for bombing Kosovo during the [[1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia]].<ref name="The Peace Racket">{{cite web|last=Bawer|first=Bruce|url=http://www.city-journal.org/html/17_3_peace_racket.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313094336/http://www.city-journal.org/html/peace-racket-13030.html|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=dead|title=The Peace Racket|website=City Journal|date=Summer 2007|access-date=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="barbarians"/>{{Unreliable source?|reason=Sources are from biased opinion pieces. |date=November 2024 }}

In an article published in 2004, Galtung predicted that the US empire will "decline and fall" by 2020. He expanded on this hypothesis in his 2009 book titled ''The Fall of the US Empire - and Then What? Successors, Regionalization or Globalization? US Fascism or US Blossoming?''.<ref>{{YouTube|rDUEJb1uz_I|Prof. J. Galtung: 'US empire will fall by 2020'}} Russia Today.</ref><ref name=USempirefall>[http://www.oldsite.transnational.org/SAJT/forum/meet/2004/Galtung_USempireFall.html On the Coming Decline and Fall of the US Empire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170725163913/http://www.oldsite.transnational.org/SAJT/forum/meet/2004/Galtung_USempireFall.html |date=25 July 2017 }} by Johan Galtung, Transnational Foundation and Peace and Research (TFF), 28 January 2004.</ref>

Following the election of [[Donald Trump]] in 2016, Galtung revised forward his theory of American global power decline, citing Trump's deportation policy and critical views of [[NATO]] would accelerate it.<ref name=indy>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-us-power-to-collapse-predicted-ussr-fall-johan-galtung-a7460516.html |title=Donald Trump will cause US power to collapse, says man who correctly predicted fall of USSR |author=Harriet Agerholm |date=2016-12-07 |work=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/politics/donald-trump/man-who-correctly-predicted-fall-of-ussr-predicts |title=Nobel Nominee Who Correctly Predicted Fall of U.S.S.R. Predicts Same Fate for U.S. Under Trump |author=Joe Allen |date=2016-12-08 |publisher=Paste }}</ref>

=== Views on Communist regimes ===
During his career, Galtung statements and views have drawn criticism including his criticism of Western countries during and after the [[Cold War]] and what his critics perceived as a positive attitude to the [[Soviet Union]], [[Cuba]] and [[People's Republic of China|Communist China]]. A 2007 article by [[Bruce Bawer]] published by the ''[[City Journal (New York)|City Journal]]'' magazine<ref name="The Peace Racket" /> and a subsequent article in February 2009 by [[Barbara Kay]] in the ''[[National Post]]''<ref name=barbarians>[https://nationalpost.com/story.html?id=1299901 Barbarians within the gate] by Barbara Kay, National Post, 18 February 2009. {{dead link|date=July 2022}}</ref> criticised Galtung's opinion of China during the rule of [[Mao Zedong]]. China, according to Galtung, was "repressive in a certain liberal sense", but he insisted "the whole theory about what an 'open society' is must be rewritten, probably also the theory of 'democracy'—and it will take a long time before the West will be willing to view China as a master teacher in such subjects."<ref name="The Peace Racket" /> Calling Galtung a "lifelong enemy of freedom", Bawer said Galtung discouraged Hungarian resistance against the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Soviet invasion in 1956]], and criticized his description in 1974 of [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] and [[Andrei Sakharov]] as "persecuted elite personages".<ref name="The Peace Racket" />

=== Views on Jews and Israel ===
Galtung recommended that people should read [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], a fabricated antisemitic text purporting to describe a Jewish plan for global domination.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Zondag |first=Martin H. W. |date=24 April 2012 |title=– En trist sorti for Galtung |url=https://www.nrk.no/norge/_-en-trist-sorti-for-galtung-1.8098250 |website=NRK |language=nb-NO |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928181147/https://www.nrk.no/norge/_-en-trist-sorti-for-galtung-1.8098250 |url-status=live }}</ref> In defending his claims that Jews control American media companies, Galtung cited an article published by [[National Vanguard (American organization)|National Vanguard]], a neo-Nazi organization.<ref name=":0" /> Galtung's rhetoric has been criticized by Terje Emberland, a historian at the [[Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities]] in Oslo, and Øystein Sørensen, a University of Oslo historian known for his scholarship on conspiracy theories.<ref name=":0" /> Asked by [[NRK]] about his controversial remarks, Galtung reiterated his recommendation that people should read The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.<ref name=":0" /> Galtung rejected that he was anti-Semitic.<ref name=":0" />

The Israeli newspaper ''[[Haaretz]]'' accused Galtung in May 2012 of [[antisemitism]] for (1) suggesting the possibility of a link between the [[2011 Norway attacks]] and Israel's intelligence agency [[Mossad]]; (2) maintaining that "six Jewish companies" control 96% of world media; (3) identifying what he contends are ironic similarities between the banking firm [[Goldman Sachs]] and the conspiratorial antisemitic forgery ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]''; and (4) theorizing, although not justified, antisemitism in post–[[World War I]] [[Weimar Republic|Germany]] was a predictable consequence of [[History of the Jews in Germany|German Jews]] holding influential positions.<ref name="Haaretz">{{cite news|last=Aderet|first=Ofer|title=Pioneer of global peace studies hints at link between Norway massacre and Mossad|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/pioneer-of-global-peace-studies-hints-at-link-between-norway-massacre-and-mossad-1.427385|newspaper=Haaretz|date=30 April 2012|access-date=7 September 2012|archive-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502120136/http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/pioneer-of-global-peace-studies-hints-at-link-between-norway-massacre-and-mossad-1.427385|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of such statements, TRANSCEND International, an organisation co-founded by Galtung, released a statement in May 2012 attempting to clarify his opinions.<ref>{{cite web|title=TRANSCEND International's Statement Concerning the Label of anti-Semitism Against Johan Galtung|url=https://www.transcend.org/galtung/statement-may-2012/|publisher=TRANSCEND International|access-date=8 September 2012|archive-date=26 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126085342/https://www.transcend.org/galtung/statement-may-2012/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 8 August 2012, the World Peace Academy in [[Basel]], Switzerland announced it was suspending Galtung from its organization, citing what it posited were his "reckless and offensive statements to questions that are specifically sensitive for Jews."<ref>{{Cite news |author=Weinthal, Benjamin |title=Swiss group suspends 'anti-Semitic' Norway scholar |url=http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=280726 |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=9 August 2012 |access-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812043506/http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=280726 |archive-date=12 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Galtung said the claims were "smearing and libel".<ref>{{Cite web|title = STELLUNGNAHME/035: Professor Galtung zu den Vorwürfen des Antisemitismus (Johan Galtung)|url = http://www.schattenblick.de/infopool/politik/meinung/pms00035.html|website = Schattenblick|access-date = 12 January 2016|date = 14 December 2012|archive-date = 5 March 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305012452/http://www.schattenblick.de/infopool/politik/meinung/pms00035.html|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2012 |title=Grenzach-Wyhlen: Zwei Vorträge mit Johan Galtung |url=http://www.suedkurier.de/region/hochrhein/grenzach-wyhlen/Zwei-Vortraege-mit-Johan-Galtung;art372596,5804931 |access-date=12 January 2016 |work=[[Südkurier]] |archive-date=15 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915013415/http://www.suedkurier.de/region/hochrhein/grenzach-wyhlen/Zwei-Vortraege-mit-Johan-Galtung;art372596,5804931 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Selected awards and recognitions==
{{more citations needed|section|date=February 2024}}
*Dr honoris causa, [[University of Tampere]], 1975, peace studies
*Dr honoris causa, [[University of Cluj]], 1976, future studies
*Dr honoris causa, [[Uppsala University]], 1987, Faculty of Social Sciences<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.uu.se/en/about-uu/traditions/prizes/honorary-doctorates/ | title=Honorary doctorates - Uppsala University, Sweden | access-date=29 July 2016 | archive-date=3 March 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303094210/http://www.uu.se/en/about-uu/traditions/prizes/honorary-doctorates/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
*Dr honoris causa, [[Soka University]], Tokyo, 1990, peace/Buddhism
*Dr honoris causa, [[University of Osnabrück]], 1995, peace studies
*Dr honoris causa, [[University of Torino]], 1998, sociology of law
*Dr honoris causa, [[FernUniversität Hagen]], 2000, philosophy
*Dr honoris causa, [[University of Alicante]], 2002, sociology
*Dr honoris causa, [[Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla]], 2006, law
*Dr honoris causa, [[Complutense University]], Madrid, 2017, politics and sociology
*Honorary professor, [[University of Alicante]], Alicante, 1981
*Honorary professor, [[Free University of Berlin]], 1984–1993
*Honorary professor, [[Sichuan University]], Chengdu, 1986
*Honorary professor, [[Witten/Herdecke University]], Witten, 1993
*Distinguished professor of peace studies, [[University of Hawaii]], 1993-
*John Perkins University Distinguished Visiting Professor, 2005-
*[[Right Livelihood Award]], 1987
*First recipient of the Humanist Prize of the [[Norwegian Humanist Association]], 1988
*[[Jamnalal Bajaj International Award]] for Promoting Gandhian Values, 1993<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamnalal Bajaj Awards Archive |url=http://www.jamnalalbajajfoundation.org/awards/archives/2010 |publisher=[[Jamnalal Bajaj Foundation]] |access-date=7 April 2012 |archive-date=17 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817053124/http://www.jamnalalbajajfoundation.org/awards/archives/2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Brage Prize]], 2000
*First [[Morton Deutsch]] Conflict Resolution Award, 2001
*Honorary Prize of the Norwegian Sociological Association, 2001
*Premio Hidalgo, Madrid, 2005
*Augsburg Golden Book of Peace, 2006
*Member of the [[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]]
*Honorary member of the [[Green Party (Norway)|Green Party]], 2009
*[[Erik Bye]] Memorial Prize, 2011

==Selected works==
Galtung has published more than a thousand articles and over a hundred books.<ref name="transcend.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.transcend.org/t_database/members.php?showcv=1&idm=112 |title=TRANSCEND biography on Johan Galtung |access-date=26 January 2005 |archive-date=21 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521135629/http://www.transcend.org/t_database/members.php?showcv=1&idm=112 |url-status=live }}</ref>

* ''Statistisk hypotesepröving'' (''Statistical hypothesis testing'', 1953)
* ''Gandhis politiske etikk'' (''Gandhi's political ethics'', 1955, with philosopher [[Arne Næss]])
* ''[https://archive.org/details/theorymethodsofs0000galt_w0y5 Theory and Methods of Social Research]'' (1967)
* ''[[Violence Peace and Peace Research|Violence, Peace and Peace Research]]'' (1969)
* ''Members of Two Worlds'' (1971)
* ''Fred, vold og imperialisme'' (''Peace, violence  and  imperialism'', 1974)
* ''Peace: Research – Education – Action'' (1975) 
* ''Learning from China?'' (1977, with [[Fumiko Nishimura]])
* ''Europe in the Making'' (1989)
* ''Global Glasnost: Toward a New World Information and Communication Order?'' (1992, with Richard C. Vincent)
* [http://activity.scar.gmu.edu/sites/default/files/ICAR%20occasional%20paper%2011.pdf ''Global Projections of Deep-Rooted U.S Pathologies''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818052750/http://activity.scar.gmu.edu/sites/default/files/ICAR%20occasional%20paper%2011.pdf |date=18 August 2017 }} (1996) 
* ''Peace By Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization'' (1996)
* ''Johan uten land. På fredsveien gjennom verden'' (''Johan without land. On the Peace Path Through the World'', 2000, autobiography for which he won the [[Brage Prize]])
* ''50 Years: 100 Peace and Conflict Perspectives'' (2008)
* ''Democracy – Peace – Development'' (2008, with Paul D. Scott)
* ''50 Years: 25 Intellectual Landscapes Explored'' (2008)
* ''Globalizing God: Religion, Spirituality and Peace'' (2008, with Graeme MacQueen)<ref>{{cite web|title=Johan Galtung's Publications 1948-2010|url=http://www.transcend.org/files/Galtungs_Production_1948-2010.pdf|access-date=8 September 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901134528/http://www.transcend.org/files/Galtungs_Production_1948-2010.pdf|archive-date=1 September 2012}}</ref>

==  See also ==
* [[Cost of conflict]], a tool which attempts to calculate the price of conflict to the human race
* [[Democratic peace theory]], a theory which posits that [[Democracy|democracies]] are hesitant to engage in [[armed conflict]] with other identified democracies
* [[Critical race theory]], a critical examination of society and culture, to the intersection of [[Race (human categorization)|race]], [[law]], and [[Power (social and political)|power]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Sources==
* Boulding, Elise. 1982. "Review: Social Science—For What?: Festschrift for Johan Galtung." ''Contemporary Sociology''. 11(3):323-324. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2067141 JSTOR Stable URL]
* Boulding, Kenneth E. 1977. "Twelve Friendly Quarrels with Johan Galtung." ''Journal of Peace Research''. 14(1):75-86. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/423312 JSTOR Stable URL]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Johan Galtung}}
* [http://www.transcend.org/ TRANSCEND: A Peace Development Environment Network]
* [http://www.galtung-institute.com/ Galtung-Institute for Peace Theory and Peace Practice]
* [http://www.prio.no/ Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO)]
* Biography on [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928232825/http://rightlivelihood.org/galtung.html Right Livelihood Award]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130501054708/http://www.sandiego.edu/peacestudies/institutes/ipj/programs/distinguished_lecture_series/biographies/johan_galtung.php Lecture transcript and video of Galtung's speech at the Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace & Justice at the University of San Diego, December 2010]
* [https://www.mediathek.at/nc/type/8000/searchQuery/955/hash/KKe11D0L/ Audio recordings with Johan Galtung]{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} in the Online Archive of the [[Österreichische Mediathek]] (Interviews and lectures in German). Retrieved 18 September 2019

{{Jamnalal Bajaj Award winners}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Galtung, Johan}}
[[Category:1930 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:Norwegian anti-Zionists]]
[[Category:Peace and conflict scholars]]
[[Category:Norwegian male writers]]
[[Category:Norwegian sociologists]]
[[Category:Norwegian mathematicians]]
[[Category:Nonviolence advocates]]
[[Category:Writers from Oslo]]
[[Category:European pacifists]]
[[Category:Norwegian political scientists]]
[[Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters]]
[[Category:Norwegian expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:Norwegian expatriates in France]]
[[Category:Norwegian expatriates in Japan]]
[[Category:Norwegian expatriates in Malaysia]]