Editing Joseph Rotblat

{{Short description|Polish physicist (1908–2005)}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
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{{Infobox scientist 
| honorific_prefix  = [[Sir]]
| name              = Joseph Rotblat
| honorific_suffix  = {{postnominals|country=GBR|KCMG|CBE|FRS}}
| image             = Joseph Rotblat Los Alamos identity badge photo.jpg
| caption           = [[Los Alamos, New Mexico|Los Alamos]] badge photograph,&nbsp;1944
| birth_name        = Józef Rotblat
| birth_date        = {{birth date|df=yes|1908|11|4}}
| birth_place       = [[Warsaw]], [[Congress Poland]]
| death_date        = {{death date and age|df=yes|2005|8|31|1908|11|4}}
| death_place       = London, United Kingdom
| nationality       = [[Poles in the United Kingdom|Polish-British]]
| field             = [[Physics]]
| work_institution  = {{plainlist|
* Scientific Society of Warsaw
* [[Free Polish University|Free University of Poland]]
* [[University of Warsaw]]
* [[University of Liverpool]]
* [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]
* [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]]
* [[University of London]]
* [[University of Edinburgh]]
}}
| alma_mater        = {{plainlist|
* [[Free Polish University|Free University of Poland]]
* [[University of Warsaw]]
* [[University of Liverpool]]
* [[University of London]]
}}
| thesis_title      = Determination of a number of neutrons emitted from a source
| thesis_url        = https://www.proquest.com/docview/301122892
| thesis_year       = 1950
| doctoral_advisor  = [[James Chadwick]]
| known_for         = {{plainlist|
* Campaigning for [[nuclear disarmament]]
* [[Manhattan Project]]
* [[Hippocratic Oath for scientists]]
}}
| prizes            = {{plainlist|
* [[Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George]] (1998)
* [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1995)
* [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] (1995)
* [[Albert Einstein Peace Prize]] (1992)
* [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (1965)
}}
| spouse            = Tola Gryn
| module            = {{Listen | embed=yes | filename=Joseph Rotblat in Great Lives b0194mxs.flac | title=Rotblat's voice | type=speech | description=from the [[BBC Radio 4]] programme ''[[Great Lives]]'' broadcast 13 January 2012<ref name="b0194mxs">{{cite episode|title=Joseph Rotblat|series=Great Lives|series-link=Great Lives|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0194mxs|access-date=18 January 2014|station=BBC Radio 4|date=13 January 2012|series-no=26|number=6|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225071853/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0194mxs%20|url-status=live}}</ref> }}
}}

'''Sir Joseph Rotblat''' {{postnominals|country=GBR|KCMG|CBE|FRS}} (4 November 1908 – 31 August 2005) was a Polish and British [[physicist]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manhattan Project: People > Scientists > JOSEPH ROTBLAT |url=https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/People/Scientists/joseph-rotblat.html |access-date=5 October 2022 |website=www.osti.gov}}</ref> During [[World War II]] he worked on [[Tube Alloys]] and the [[Manhattan Project]], but left the [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] on grounds of conscience after it became clear to him in 1944 that Germany had ceased development of an atomic bomb.

His work on [[nuclear fallout]] was a major contribution toward the ratification of the 1963 [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]].  A signatory of the 1955 [[Russell–Einstein Manifesto]], he was secretary-general of the [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]] from their founding until 1973 and shared, with the Pugwash Conferences, the 1995 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] "for efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international affairs and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms."<ref name="Nobel Prize" />

== Early life ==
Józef Rotblat was born on 4 November 1908 to a Polish-Jewish family in [[Warsaw]],<ref name="obit" /> then part of the Russian-ruled Kingdom of Poland, better known as [[Congress Poland]].{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=1–5}} He was one of seven children, two of whom died in infancy.<ref name="odnb">{{Cite ODNB| title = Rotblat, Sir Joseph (1908–2005)|first=Brian |last=Cathcart |author-link=Brian Cathcart  | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/96004 | year = 2004 }}</ref> His father, Zygmunt Rotblat, built up and ran a nationwide [[Carriage|horse-drawn carriage]] business, owned land and bred horses. Józef's early years were spent in what was a prosperous household but circumstances changed at the outbreak of [[World War I]]. Borders were closed and the family's horses were requisitioned, leading to the failure of the business and poverty for their family.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=1–5}} Despite having a religious background, by the age of ten, he doubted the existence of God,{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=5–6}} and later became an [[agnostic]].{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=151}}<ref>{{harvnb|Rotblat|Ikeda|2007|p=94}}. "I have to admit, however, that there are really many things that I do not know. I am not a particularly religious person, and this is the reason for my agnosticism. To be an agnostic simply means that I do not know and will keep seeking the answer for eternity. This is my response to questions about religion."</ref>

Rotblat's parents could not afford to send him to a [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]], so Rotblat received his secondary education in a ''[[cheder]]'' taught by a local rabbi. He then attended a technical school, where he studied [[electrical engineering]], graduating with his diploma in 1923 in the newly established [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]]. After graduating, Rotblat worked as an [[electrician]] in Warsaw, but had an ambition to become a physicist.<ref name="odnb" /> He sat the entrance examinations of the [[Free Polish University|Free University of Poland]] in January 1929, and passed the physics one with ease, but was less successful in writing a paper about the [[Commission of National Education]], a subject about which he knew nothing. He was then interviewed by {{interlanguage link|Ludwik Wertenstein|pl}}, the Dean of the Science Faculty. Wertenstein had studied in Paris under [[Marie Curie]] and at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] under [[Ernest Rutherford]]. Wertenstein offered Rotblat a place.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=7–9}}

Rotblat earned a Master of Arts at the Free University in 1932. After, he entered the [[University of Warsaw]], and became a Doctor of Physics in 1938. He held the position of Research Fellow in the Radiological Laboratory of the Scientific Society of Warsaw, of which Wertenstein was the director, and became assistant Director of the Atomic Physics Institute of the Free University of Poland in 1938.<ref name="Curriculum Vitae"/>

==Marriage and early physics work==
During this period, Rotblat married a literature student, Tola Gryn, whom he had met at a student summer camp in 1930.<ref name="obit">{{cite journal |last=Noble |first=Holcomb B. |title=Joseph Rotblat, 96, Dies; Resisted Nuclear Weapons |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/02/obituaries/joseph-rotblat-96-dies-resisted-nuclear-weapons.html |date=2 September 2005 |access-date=3 June 2016 |archive-date=29 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529170209/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/02/obituaries/joseph-rotblat-96-dies-resisted-nuclear-weapons.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=13}}

Before the outbreak of [[World War II]], he conducted experiments that showed that in the [[Nuclear fission|fission process]], [[neutron]]s were emitted.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=20 May 1939 |title=Emission of Neutrons accompanying the Fission of Uranium Nuclei |first=J. |last=Rotblat |volume=143 |issue=470 |page=852 |doi=10.1038/143852a0 |bibcode=1939Natur.143..852R |s2cid=4129149 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In early 1939, he envisaged that a large number of fissions could occur and if this happened within a sufficiently short time, then considerable amounts of energy could be released. He went on to calculate that this process could occur in less than a [[microsecond]], and as a consequence would result in an explosion.<ref name="retro">{{Cite journal
 | last1 = Holdren | first1 = J. P.
 | doi = 10.1126/science.1121081
 | title = Retrospective: Joseph Rotblat (1908–2005)
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 310
 | issue = 5748
 | pages = 633
 | year = 2005
 | pmid = 16254178
| s2cid = 26854983
 }}</ref><ref name="dida">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/features/desert-island-discs/castaway/04f8ac96 |title=Joseph Rotblat BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs Castaway 8 November 1998 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=28 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110528082706/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/features/desert-island-discs/castaway/04f8ac96 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1939, through Wertenstein's connections, Rotblat was invited to study in Paris and at the [[University of Liverpool]] under [[James Chadwick]], winner of the 1932 Nobel Prize for discovering the neutron. Chadwick was building a particle accelerator called a "[[cyclotron]]" to study fundamental nuclear reactions, and Rotblat wanted to build a similar machine in Warsaw, so he decided to join Chadwick in Liverpool. He travelled to England alone because he could not afford to support his wife there.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=12–14}}

Before long, Chadwick gave Rotblat a [[Research fellow#United Kingdom|fellowship]] (the [[Oliver Lodge]] Fellowship), doubling his income, and in that summer of 1939, the young Pole returned home, intending to bring Tola back with him.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=23–24}} When the time came to leave Warsaw in late August, however, she was ill following an operation for appendicitis, and remained behind, expecting to follow within days; however, the outbreak of war brought calamity.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=25–27}} Tola was trapped, and desperate efforts in the ensuing months to bring her out through Denmark (with the help of [[Niels Bohr]]), Belgium, and finally Italy came to nothing, as each country in turn was closed off by the war.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=32–33}} He never saw her again; she was murdered in [[the Holocaust]] at the [[Belzec concentration camp]].{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=65}} This affected him deeply for the rest of his life, and he never remarried.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Underwood|first1=Martin|title=Liverpool University (1939–43)|year=2011|url=http://www.josephrotblat.com/nuclear-physics.html|publisher=Joseph Rotblat: The bomb, peace, and his archive|access-date=13 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713121201/http://www.josephrotblat.com/nuclear-physics.html|archive-date=13 July 2011}}</ref>

== Manhattan Project ==
While still in Poland, Rotblat had realised that [[nuclear fission]] might possibly be used to produce an [[atomic bomb]]. He first thought that he should "put the whole thing out of my mind",<ref name=Abe>{{cite web|url=http://www.irwinabrams.com/books/excerpts/annual95.html|first=Irwin|last=Abrams|title=The 1995 Nobel Peace Prize For Joseph Rotblat and the Pugwash Conference on Science And World Affairs|access-date=2 March 2007|archive-date=20 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220065400/http://www.irwinabrams.com/books/excerpts/annual95.html|url-status=live}}</ref> but he continued because he thought the only way to prevent Nazi Germany from using a nuclear bomb was if Britain had one to act as a deterrent. He worked with Chadwick on [[Tube Alloys]], the British atomic bomb project.<ref name=Abe />

In February 1944, Rotblat joined the [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] as part of Chadwick's [[British contribution to the Manhattan Project|British Mission]] to the [[Manhattan Project]].<ref name=Abe /> Although he was upset by the morality of the project, he believed the allies needed to be able to threaten retaliation in case Germany developed the bomb.<ref name="natureobit"/> The usual condition for people to work on the Manhattan Project was that they had to become [[US citizen]]s or [[British subject]]s. Rotblat declined, and the condition was waived.<ref name=telegraph>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1497409/Professor-Sir-Joseph-Rotblat.html|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|title=Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat|date=2 September 2005|access-date=2 April 2018|archive-date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203134907/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1497409/Professor-Sir-Joseph-Rotblat.html|url-status=live}}</ref> At Los Alamos, he was befriended by [[Stan Ulam]], a fellow Polish-Jewish scientist, with whom he was able to converse in Polish. Rotblat worked in [[Egon Bretscher]]'s group, investigating whether high-energy [[gamma rays]] produced by nuclear fission would interfere with the [[nuclear chain reaction]] process, and then with [[Robert R. Wilson]]'s cyclotron group.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=47–49}}

Rotblat continued to have strong reservations about the use of science to develop such a devastating weapon. In 1985, he related that, at a private dinner at the Chadwicks' house at Los Alamos in March 1944, he was shocked to hear the director of the Manhattan Project, [[Major General (United States)|Major General]] [[Leslie R. Groves, Jr.]], say words to the effect that the real purpose in making the bomb was to subdue the Soviets. Indeed, Groves testified under oath at the 1954 hearing about [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]'s security record that "there was never, from about two weeks from the time I took charge of this project, any illusion on my part but that Russia was our enemy and that the project was conducted on that basis."<ref name=Groves1954>{{
cite book
|author = United States Atomic Energy Commission and J. Robert Oppenheimer
|year = 1971
|title = In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer
|publisher = Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
|pages = 173
}}</ref><ref name="Leaving the Bomb Project" /> Despite Groves' testimony, in response to a suggestion by Andrew Brown that Groves' remark may have been made to test Rotblat's loyalty, [[Barton Bernstein]], who had questioned the accuracy of Rotblat's memory, commented in a letter to Brown: "It's an interesting, responsible interpretation, and cannot be dismissed, though I'm not prepared to embrace it."{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=295}}

By the end of 1944, it was also apparent that Germany had abandoned the development of its own bomb in 1942. Rotblat then asked to leave the project on grounds of conscience and returned to Liverpool.<ref name="natureobit">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Milne | first1 = S.
| last2 = Hinde | first2 = R.
| doi = 10.1038/437634a
| title = Obituary: Joseph Rotblat (1908–2005) Physicist who committed his life to the cause of nuclear disarmament
| journal = Nature
| volume = 437
| issue = 7059
| pages = 634
| year = 2005
| pmid = 16193034
| bibcode = 2005Natur.437..634M
| s2cid = 29764779
| doi-access = free
}}</ref>

Chadwick learned that the chief of security held a security dossier in which Rotblat was accused of intending to return to England so that he could be flown over Poland and parachute into Soviet territory to pass on the secrets of the atomic bomb. He was also accused of visiting someone in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] and leaving them a blank cheque to finance the formation of a communist cell.<ref name=Abe />

Rotblat was able to show that much of the information within the dossier had been fabricated.<ref name=Abe /> In addition, FBI records show that in 1950, Rotblat's friend in Santa Fe was tracked down in California, and she flatly denied the story; the cheque had never been cashed and had been left to pay for items not available in the UK during the war. In 1985, Rotblat recounted how a box containing "all my documents" went missing on a train ride from Washington D.C. to New York as he was leaving the country,<ref name="Leaving the Bomb Project">{{cite journal |last=Rotblat |first=Joseph |title=Leaving the Bomb Project |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=August 1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwYAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA16 |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=16–19 |doi=10.1080/00963402.1985.11455991 |bibcode=1985BuAtS..41g..16R |access-date=31 October 2020 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110181332/https://books.google.com/books?id=uwYAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA16 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> but the presence of large numbers of Rotblat's personal papers from Los Alamos now archived at the [[Churchill Archives Centre]] "is totally at odds with Rotblat's account of events".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Underwood |first=Martin |title=Joseph Rotblat's Archive: Some Anomalies and Difficulties |journal=AIP History Newsletter |year=2011 |volume=43 |pages=5–7|url=https://www.aip.org/sites/default/files/history/files/newsletter-pdf/Summer2011HistoryNewsletter.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Underwood | first1 = M. C.
| title = Joseph Rotblat, the Bomb and Anomalies from His Archive
| doi = 10.1007/s11948-011-9345-4
| journal = Science and Engineering Ethics
| volume = 19
| issue = 2
| pages = 487–90
| year = 2011
| pmid = 22190230
| s2cid = 32392242
}}</ref>

== Nuclear fallout ==
Rotblat returned to Britain to become senior lecturer and acting director of research in nuclear physics at the [[University of Liverpool]].<ref name="Curriculum Vitae">{{cite web  |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-bio.html  |title=Joseph Rotblat – Biographical – Curriculum Vitae  |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=11 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011164907/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-bio.html  |url-status=live  }}</ref> He was naturalised as a British subject on 8 January 1946.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=37461|date=8 February 1946 |page=865}}</ref> Most of his family had survived the war. With the help of a Polish man, his brother-in-law Mieczysław (Mietek) Pokorny had created false Polish Catholic identities for Rotblat's sister Ewa and niece Halina. Ewa, taking advantage of the fact that she was an ash blonde who, like Rotblat, spoke fluent Polish as well as [[Yiddish]], smuggled the rest of the family out of the [[Warsaw Ghetto]]. Mietek, Rotblat's brother Mordecai (Michael) and Michael's wife Manya, Rotblat's mother Scheindel, and two Russian soldiers lived in a concealed bunker underneath a house near [[Otwock]], in which Ewa and Halina lived with a Polish family. Displays of Polish anti-Semitism that she witnessed during the [[Warsaw Ghetto uprising]] embittered Ewa towards Poland, and she petitioned Rotblat to help the family emigrate to England. He therefore now accepted Chadwick's offer of British citizenship so he could help them escape from Poland.{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=65–69}} They lived with him in London for some time before becoming established.{{sfn|Brown|2012|p=97}} Halina would go on to graduate from [[Somerville College, Oxford]], and [[University College London]], and become an editor of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2009/aug/12/obituary-halina-sand |title=Obituary – Halina Sand |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |last=Sand |first=Katherine |date=13 August 2009 |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124095902/https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2009/aug/12/obituary-halina-sand |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rotblat felt betrayed by the use of atomic weapons against Japan, and gave a series of public lectures in which he called for a three-year moratorium on all atomic research.<ref name=Abe /> Rotblat was determined that his research should have only peaceful ends, and so became interested in the medical and biological uses of radiation. In 1949, he became Professor of Physics at [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]] ("Barts"), London,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Burrows | first1 = H. | last2 = Gibson | first2 = W. | last3 = Rotblat | first3 = J. | doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.80.1095 | title = Angular Distributions of Protons from the Reaction O16(d,p)O17 | journal = Physical Review | volume = 80 | issue = 6 | pages = 1095 | year = 1950  | bibcode = 1950PhRv...80Q1095B }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qmul.ac.uk/alumni/alumninetwork/notablealumni/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222045836/http://www.qmul.ac.uk/alumni/alumninetwork/notablealumni/index.html |archive-date=22 December 2008 |title=Queen Mary, University of London Notable Alumni and Staff |access-date=23 September 2007}}</ref> a teaching hospital associated with the University of London. He remained there for the rest of his career, becoming a [[professor emeritus]] in 1976.<ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/sep/02/obituaries.obituaries |title=Obituary – Sir Joseph Rotblat |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=2 September 2005 |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513123323/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/sep/02/obituaries.obituaries |url-status=live }}</ref> He received his PhD from Liverpool in 1950, having written his thesis on the "Determination of a number of neutrons emitted from a source".<ref name="rotblatphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Joseph|last=Rotblat |title=Determination of a number of neutrons emitted from a source |publisher=University of Liverpool |year=1950 |id={{ProQuest|301122892}}}}</ref> He also worked on several official bodies connected with nuclear physics, and arranged the ''Atom Train'', a major travelling exhibition for schools on civil nuclear energy.<ref name="Leaving the Bomb Project" />

At St Bartholomew's, Rotblat worked on the effects of radiation on living organisms, especially on ageing and fertility. This led him to an interest in [[nuclear fallout]], especially [[strontium]]-90 and the safe limits of ionising radiation. In 1955, he demonstrated that the contamination caused by the [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] after the [[Castle Bravo]] [[Nuclear testing|nuclear test]] at [[Bikini Atoll]] by the United States had been far greater than that stated officially.  Until then the official line had been that the growth in the strength of atomic bombs was not accompanied by an equivalent growth in radioactivity released.  Japanese scientists who had collected data from a fishing vessel, the ''[[Daigo Fukuryū Maru|Lucky Dragon]]'', which had inadvertently been exposed to fallout, disagreed with this. Rotblat was able to deduce that the bomb had three stages and showed that the fission phase at the end of the explosion increased the amount of radioactivity by forty times. His paper was taken up by the media and contributed to the public debate that resulted in the ending of atmospheric tests by the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty]].{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=107–118}}

== Peace work ==
Rotblat believed that scientists should always be concerned with the ethical consequences of their work.<ref name="oath">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1126/science.286.5444.1475
| last1 = Rotblat
| first1 = J.
| author-link = Joseph Rotblat
| title = A Hippocratic Oath for scientists
| journal = Science
| volume = 286
| issue = 5444
| pages = 1475
| year = 1999
| pmid = 10610545
| s2cid = 4959172
}}</ref> He became one of the most prominent critics of the [[nuclear arms race]], was the youngest signatory of the [[Russell–Einstein Manifesto]] in 1955, and chaired the press conference that launched it.  After the positive coverage of the manifesto, [[Cyrus Eaton]] offered to fund the influential [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]], an [[international organisation]] that brought together scholars and public figures to work toward reducing the danger of [[armed conflict]] and to seek solutions to [[global security]] threats, particularly those related to [[nuclear warfare]]. With [[Bertrand Russell]] and others, Rotblat organised the first of these in 1957 and continued to work within their framework until his death. In 1958, Rotblat joined the executive committee of the newly launched [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] (CND). Despite the [[Iron Curtain]] and the [[Cold War]], he advocated establishing links between scientists from the West and East. For this reason, the Pugwash conferences were viewed with suspicion. Initially the British government thought them little more than "Communist front gatherings".<ref name=witt>{{cite web |url=http://hnn.us/articles/14428.html |title=The Political Rehabilitation of Józef Rotblat |first=Lawrence S. |last=Wittner |year=2005 |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303151648/http://hnn.us/articles/14428.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

However, he persuaded [[John Cockcroft]], a member of the [[United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority]], to suggest who might be invited to the 1958 conference.  He successfully resisted a subsequent attempt to take over the conferences,<ref name=witt /> causing a [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|Foreign Office]] official to write that "the difficulty is to get Prof. Rotblat to pay any attention to what we think&nbsp;... He is no doubt jealous of his independence and scientific integrity", and that securing "a new organizer for the British delegation seems to be the first need, but I do not know if there is any hope of this."<ref name=witt /> By the early 1960s the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] thought that the Pugwash Conferences were "now a very respectable organization", and the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|Foreign Office]] stated that it had "official blessing" and that any breakthrough may well originate at such gatherings.<ref name=witt /> The Pugwash Conferences are credited with laying the ground work for the [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]] of 1963, the [[Nonproliferation Treaty]] of 1968, the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]] of 1972, the [[Biological Weapons Convention]] of 1972 and the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] of 1993.<ref name="obit" /> In parallel with the Pugwash Conferences, he joined with [[Albert Einstein]], [[Robert Oppenheimer]], [[Bertrand Russell]] and other concerned scientists to found the [[World Academy of Art and Science]], which was proposed by them in the mid-1950s and formally constituted in 1960.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldacademy.org/content/history |title=History |publisher=World Academy of Art and Science |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=21 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221231338/http://www.worldacademy.org/content/history |url-status=live }}</ref>

He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a [[world constitution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961 |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8 |access-date=2023-07-01 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials |url=https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6 |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=Helen Keller Archive |publisher=American Foundation for the Blind}}</ref> As a result, for the first time in human history, a [[World Constituent Assembly]] convened to draft and adopt a [[Constitution for the Federation of Earth]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preparing earth constitution {{!}} Global Strategies & Solutions {{!}} The Encyclopedia of World Problems |url=http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465 |url-status= |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=The Encyclopedia of World Problems {{!}} Union of International Associations (UIA)}}</ref>

== Later life ==
Rotblat retired from St Bartholomew's in 1976. In 1975 and 1976, he was Montague Visiting Professor of International Relations at the [[University of Edinburgh]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Joseph Rotblat – Biographical|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-bio.html|publisher=Nobel Foundation|access-date=8 October 2013|archive-date=3 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003085912/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-bio.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sir Joseph Rotblat|url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/obituaries/sir-joseph-rotblat-1-1093890|work=The Scotsman|date=5 September 2005|access-date=8 October 2013|archive-date=17 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217224303/http://www.scotsman.com/news/obituaries/sir-joseph-rotblat-1-1093890|url-status=live}}</ref> He believed that scientists have an individual [[moral responsibility]] and, just as the [[Hippocratic Oath]] provides a [[code of conduct]] for physicians, he thought that scientists should have their own [[Moral core|code of moral conduct]], a [[Hippocratic Oath for scientists]].<ref name="oath" /> During his tenure as president of the Pugwash conferences, Rotblat nominated Israeli nuclear technician [[Mordechai Vanunu]] for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] every year from 1988 to 2004. Vanunu had disclosed the extent of [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|Israel's nuclear weapons programme]] and consequently spent 18 years in prison, including more than 11 years in [[solitary confinement]].{{sfn|Brown|2012|pp=267–268}}

Rotblat campaigned ceaselessly against nuclear weapons. In an interview shortly before the 2004 US presidential election, he expressed his belief that the Russell–Einstein Manifesto still had "great relevance today, after 50 years, particularly in connection with the election of a president in the United States",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecommunity.com/rotblat_full.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716225715/http://www.thecommunity.com/rotblat_full.html |title=Interview |archive-date=16 July 2011 |publisher=TheCommunity.com |year=2004 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and above all, with respect to the potential pre-emptive use of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medact.org/article_wmd.php?articleID=324 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051103050902/http://www.medact.org/article_wmd.php?articleID=324 |archive-date=3 November 2005 |title=Remember Your Humanity – Message from Nobel Laureate Sir Joseph Rotblat |publisher=[[MEDACT]] |url-status=dead }}</ref> Central to his view of the world were the words of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto with which he concluded his acceptance lecture for the Nobel Prize in 1995:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-lecture.html|title=Nobel Prize lecture|access-date=19 May 2006|archive-date=25 April 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060425154137/http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-lecture.html|url-status=live}}</ref>  "Above all, remember your humanity".<ref name="humanity">{{Cite journal | last1 = Rotblat | first1 = J.| author-link1 = Joseph Rotblat| title = Remember your humanity* | doi = 10.1080/13623699608409284 | journal = Medicine and War | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–201 | year = 1996 }}</ref> He also served as editor-in-chief of the journal ''[[Physics in Medicine and Biology]]'' from 1960 to 1972.<ref name="Curriculum Vitae" /> He was the president of several institutions and professional associations and also a co-founder and member of the governing board of the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], as well as a member of the Advisory Committee on Medical Research of the [[World Health Organization]].<ref name="Curriculum Vitae" /> Rotblat was a programme advisor to the [[BAFTA]] award-winning nuclear docudrama ''[[Threads (1984 film)|Threads]]'', produced in 1984.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0744723/ |title=Joseph Rotblat on IMDb.com |website=[[IMDb]] |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217102027/http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0744723/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rotblat suffered a stroke in 2004, and his health declined. He died of [[septicaemia]] at the [[Royal Free Hospital]] in [[London Borough of Camden|Camden]], London, on 31 August 2005.<ref name="odnb" />

== Awards and honours ==
Rotblat was appointed a [[Order of the British Empire|Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] in the [[1965 New Year Honours]].<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=43529|date=1 January 1965 |page=11 |supp=y}}</ref> He won the [[Albert Einstein Peace Prize]] in 1992, and was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1995|Fellow of the Royal Society]] (FRS) in 1995.<ref name="frs">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hinde | first1 = R. A. | author-link1 = Robert Hinde| last2 = Finney | first2 = J. L. | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2007.0023 | title = Joseph (Józef) Rotblat 4 November 1908&nbsp;– 31 August 2005: Elected FRS 1995 | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] | volume = 53 | pages = 309 | year = 2007 | s2cid = 74731514 | doi-access =  }}</ref> He was appointed a [[Order of St Michael and St George|Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George]] in the [[1998 Birthday Honours]] for services to international understanding.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=55155|date=15 June 1998 |page=3 |supp=y}}</ref> His certificate of election to the [[Royal Society]] read {{blockquote|He made important contributions to nuclear physics, both before and after working during the war on atomic energy problems at Liverpool and at Los Alamos. This included observations on the angular distribution of protons from the (d,p) reaction, which led to an important tool for determining the spin and parity of nuclear levels. He worked on the medical applications of nuclear physics, and later on the biological effects of radiation. His outstanding distinction is in his work for the Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs. He was one of the founders of these conferences, and for the past 37 years has been untiring in his support and enthusiasms [sic] for the conferences, which have enabled scientists from all over the world and with opposing ideologies to talk objectively about the issues dividing them. His untiring devotion to this cause and his inspiration have been vital for the development and continuing existence of the conferences.<ref name="royal">{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqDb=Catalog&dsqCmd=show.tcl&dsqSearch=(RefNo==%27EC%2F1995%2F28%27) |title=Library and Archive Catalogue Rotblat |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=17 December 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131217170400/http://royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqDb=Catalog&dsqCmd=show.tcl&dsqSearch=(RefNo=='EC/1995/28') |location=London |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
Rotblat shared, with the [[Pugwash Conferences]], the 1995 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for efforts toward nuclear disarmament.<ref>{{cite web  |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-facts.html  |title=Joseph Rotblat – Biographical – Facts  |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124055923/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-facts.html  |url-status=live  }}</ref> His citation read: "for efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international affairs and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms."<ref name="Nobel Prize">{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/ |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1995 |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124094008/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Towards the end of his life, he was also elected honorary member of the [[International Association of Physics Students]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.iaps.info/members/list-of-iaps-members |title= List of IAPS Members |publisher= International Association of Physics Students |access-date= 30 November 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150323214529/http://www.iaps.info/members/list-of-iaps-members |archive-date= 23 March 2015 |url-status= dead }}</ref> and the [[Jamnalal Bajaj]] Foundation of India awarded him the [[Jamnalal Bajaj Award]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jamnalalbajajfoundation.org/awards/archives/1999/international/sir-joseph-rotblat |title=Prof. Sir Joseph Rotblat – 1999 – Jamnalal Bajaj Award for Promoting Gandhian Values Outside India |publisher=Jamnalal Bajaj Foundation |access-date=24 November 2016 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124092208/http://www.jamnalalbajajfoundation.org/awards/archives/1999/international/sir-joseph-rotblat |url-status=live }}</ref>
He was an honorary editorial board member for ‘Journal of Environment Peace’ published from the library of University of Toronto, now from Noble International University, edited by Professor Bob Ganguly and Professor Roger Hansell.

A plaque commemorating Joseph Rotblat, unveiled in 2017 in the presence of Polish Ambassador Arkady Rzegocki, can be found outside the offices of British Pugwash, on the corner of Bury Place and Great Russell Street in London.<ref name="Sir Joseph Rotblat honoured by Polish Heritage Society plaque
">{{cite web | url=http://britishpugwash.org/sir-joseph-rotblat-plaque-unveiling/ | title=Sir Joseph Rotblat honoured by Polish Heritage Society plaque | publisher=British Pugwash | date=18 November 2020 | access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Poles#Physics|List of Poles]]
*[[List of Polish Nobel laureates]]
*[[List of Jewish Nobel laureates]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Andrew |year=2012 |title=Keeper of the Nuclear Conscience: The Life and Works of Joseph Rotblat |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-958658-5 |oclc=963830214 }}
* {{cite book |last=Górlikowski |first=Marek |year=2018 |title=Noblista z Nowolipek. Józefa Rotblata wojna o pokój |publisher= [[Znak (publisher)|Znak]] |location=Kraków |isbn=9788324055401 |oclc=1050817827 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rotblat |first1=Joseph  |first2=Daisaku |last2=Ikeda |title=A Quest for Global Peace: Rotblat and Ikeda on War, Ethics and the Nuclear Threat |year=2007 |location= London |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-84511-278-3 |oclc= 123195789 }}

== External links ==
*[https://archivesearch.lib.cam.ac.uk/repositories/9/resources/1815 The Papers of Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat] held at the [https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/ Churchill Archives Centre]
*[http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/joseph-rotblats-interview 1989 Audio Interview with Joseph Rotblat by Martin Sherwin] Voices of the Manhattan Project.
*[http://culture.pl/en/article/dr-rotblat-or-how-i-learned-to-start-worrying-fear-the-bomb Dr. Rotblat: Or How I Learned to Start Worrying & Fear the Bomb] via [[Culture.pl]]
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Rotblat,+Józef Annotated Bibliography for Józef Rotblat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513045030/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FRotblat%2C+J%C3%B3zef |date=13 May 2016 }} from the [[Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]].
*[https://www.nfb.ca/film/strangest_dream/ ''The Strangest Dream''], a [[National Film Board of Canada]] film that tells Rotblat's life story.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070213024552/http://openvault.wgbh.org/wapina/barcode9411rotblat_4/index.html Interview about the Manhattan Project] for the [[WGBH-TV]] series [https://web.archive.org/web/20070509083727/http://openvault.wgbh.org/series/War+and+Peace+in+the+Nuclear+Age/ ''War and Peace in the Nuclear Age''].
*[http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programmeset/2 Series 1 video interviews (recorded in 2002) with Sir Józef Rotblat] by the [[Vega Science Trust]].
*[http://vega.org.uk/video/programme/153 Series 2 video interview (recorded in 2005) with Sir Józef Rotblat] by the Vega Science Trust.
* {{Nobelprize}}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/17/opinion/the-50year-shadow.html Op-Ed: The 50-Year Shadow] by Józef Rotblat, ''[[The New York Times]]'', 17 May 2005.
*[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1995/rotblat-lecture.html Józef Rotblat – Nobel Lecture]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110805081548/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0902-03.htm Man of Peace Dies: Scientist Who Turned Back on A-bomb Project] ''[[The Guardian]]'' 2 September 2005.
*[http://vega.org.uk/video/programme/153 Interview with Józef Rotblat] recorded in 2005 a few months before he died.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120607000737/http://www.josephrotblat.com/ Józef Rotblat: A site dedicated to his life, work, and archive], assembled by Dr Martin Underwood.
*[http://sounds.bl.uk/View.aspx?item=021M-C0464X0017XX-0100V0.xml Listen to a life story oral history interview with Sir Joseph Rotblat], recorded for [http://www.bl.uk/nls National Life Stories] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425192058/http://www.bl.uk/nls |date=25 April 2014 }} at the [[British Library]].
*{{C-SPAN|43587}}
*[https://culture.pl/en/article/dr-rotblat-or-how-i-learned-to-start-worrying-fear-the-bomb Dr. Rotblat: Or How I Learned to Start Worrying & Fear the Bomb]

{{Nobel Peace Prize laureates}}
{{1995 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Anti-nuclear movement}}
{{FRS 1995}}
{{Jamnalal Bajaj Award winners}}
{{Portal bar|History of science|Politics|Medicine|Nuclear technology|Physics|Poland}}
{{World Constitutional Convention call signatories}}
{{Authority control}}

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