Editing Kabyle language

{{Short description|Berber language of northern Algeria}}
{{Distinguish|Kabiye language|Khabi language}}
{{cleanup rewrite|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Kabyle
| altname          = Kabylian
| nativename       = {{lang|kab|Taqbaylit}} / {{lang|kab-Tfng|ⵜⴰⵇⴱⴰⵢⵍⵉⵜ}} / {{lang|kab-Arab|ثاقبايليث}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|ber|θɐqβæjlɪθ||Kab-Taqbaylit.ogg}}
| states           = [[Algeria]]
| region           = [[Kabylia]] ([[Provinces of Algeria|Provinces]] of [[Béjaïa Province|Béjaïa]], [[Bouïra Province|Bouira]], [[Boumerdès Province|Boumerdes]], [[Tizi Ouzou Province|Tizi Ouzou]])
| ethnicity        = [[Kabyle people|Kabyles]]
| speakers         = 3 million in Algeria
| date             = 2004, 9.4% of the population
| ref              = <ref name=laval/>{{efn|name=LeclercUpdated2022}}
| speakers2        = 1 million diaspora<ref name=e26/>
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2             = [[Berber languages|Berber]]
| fam3             = [[Northern Berber languages|Northern]]
| stand1           = [[Standard Algerian Berber]]
| iso2             = kab
| iso3             = kab
| glotto           = kaby1243
| glottorefname    = Kabyle
| script           = [[Berber Latin alphabet|Latin]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radioalgerie.dz/news/fr/article/20180109/130683.html|title=Nouria Benghabrit : l'enseignement de Tamazight sera élargi à 10 autres wilayas et bénéficiera de 300 nouveaux postes budgétaires|website=Rafio Algérienne|quote=la graphie Tifinagh pour le Targui, Latine pour la Kabylie et Arabe pour le M’Zab et les Aurès|access-date=2019-02-03|archive-date=2022-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818054236/https://radioalgerie.dz/news/fr/article/20180109/130683.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tifinagh]] (limited use), [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02945641/document|title=Kabyle in Arabic Script: A History without Standardisation|access-date=2022-10-13|archive-date=2022-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013164209/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02945641/document|url-status=live}}</ref>
| map              = Kabyle_language_percent_speakers.png
| mapcaption       = Percentage of Kabyle speakers in northern Algeria{{image reference needed|date=December 2022}}
}}

'''Kabyle''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|b|aɪ|l}}) or '''Kabylian''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|b|ɪ|l|i|ən}}; native name: ''Taqbaylit'' {{IPA|ber|θɐqβæjlɪθ||Kab-Taqbaylit.ogg}}) is a [[Berber languages|Berber language]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kabyle {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kab/ |access-date=2024-01-09 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en |archive-date=2023-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309075203/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kab/ |url-status=live }}</ref> spoken by the [[Kabyle people]] in the north and northeast of [[Algeria]]. It is spoken primarily in [[Kabylia]], east of the capital [[Algiers]] and in Algiers itself, but also by various groups near [[Blida]], such as the Beni Salah and Beni Bou Yaqob.

Estimating the number of Berber speakers is very difficult and figures are often contested.{{sfn|Chaker|1983|p=7}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=George L. |author-link=George L. Campbell|title=Compendium of the World's Languages
 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |others=Gareth King |isbn=978-0-203-10653-2 |edition=3 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=854759616|page=223}}</ref> A 2004 estimate was that 9.4% of the Algerian population spoke Kabyle.<ref name=laval/>{{efn|name=LeclercUpdated2022|If that percentage held in 2022, the number of Kabyle speakers in Algeria would be 4.3 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Dashboard -Algeria |url=https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population/DZ |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=United Nations Population Fund |language=en |archive-date=2023-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401022803/https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population/DZ |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The number of diaspora speakers has been estimated at one million.<ref name=e26>{{e26|kab}}</ref>

==Classification==
[[File:WIKITONGUES-_Ghiles_speaking_Kabyle.webm|thumb|right|A Kabyle speaker, recorded in [[Algeria]]]]
Kabyle is one of the [[Northern Berber languages]], a branch of the [[Berber languages|Berber language family]] within [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]. It is believed to have broken off very early from [[proto-Berber language|Proto-Berber]], although after the [[Zenaga language]] did so.<ref>'The Saharan Berber diaspora and the southern frontiers of Vandal and [[Byzantine North Africa]]', J. Conant and S. Stevens (eds), North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam, ca. 500 – ca. 800 (Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Symposia and Colloquia. Washington, D.C.)</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Elizabeth Fentress|author2=Andrew Wilson|editor1-last=Stevens|editor1-first=Susan|editor2-last=Conant|editor2-first=Jonathan|title=North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|isbn=978-0-88402-408-8|page=52|chapter=The Saharan Berber Diaspora and the Southern Frontiers of Byzantine North Africa|year=2016}}</ref> According to [[Maarten Kossmann|Kossmann]] (2020), Kabyle appears to be quite distinct. In several respects, it shares certain linguistic innovations with the [[Atlas languages|western Moroccan dialect]] group. However, it is unclear whether these similarities result from an earlier expansion of that group into Algeria, which was later interrupted by the spread of [[Zenati languages|Zenati dialects]], or whether they represent independent, parallel developments.<ref>{{Citation |last=Kossmann |first=Maarten |title=Berber |date=2020-05-07 |work=The Oxford Handbook of African Languages |pages=284 |editor-last=Vossen |editor-first=Rainer |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/38608/chapter/334725433 |access-date=2025-05-26 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199609895.013.37 |isbn=978-0-19-960989-5 |quote=Kabyle seems to stand alone. [...] In a number of cases, Kabyle has undergone similar innovations to the western Moroccan block. It is difficult to decide, at this point, whether this points to an earlier extension of this block towards Algeria (separated by the incursion of Zenatic), or whether they represent parallel developments. |editor2-last=Dimmendaal |editor2-first=Gerrit J.}}</ref>

==Distribution==
=== Geographical distribution ===
[[File:Aires linguistiques du nord-est algérien.svg|thumb|Map of the linguistic situation of Kabyle in eastern Algeria.<ref>Salem Chaker, ''Textes en Linguistique Berbère'', Éditions du CNRS, Paris, 1984, ISBN 2-222-03578-3, p. 28 (carte LAPMO-YA);

</ref><ref>Pierre Bourdieu, ''Sociologie de l'Algérie'', PUF, coll. « Que sais-je ? » n° 802, Paris, 1980, 6e éd. (1e éd. 1958), ISBN 2-13-036387-3, p. 10.</ref>]]
Kabyle Berber is native to [[Kabylie|Kabylia]]. It is present in seven Algerian districts. Approximately one-third of Algerians are Berber-speakers, clustered mostly near [[Algiers]], in Kabylian and Shawi, but with some communities related to Kabyle in the west ([[Shenwa language]]s), east and south of the country.<ref name="laval">{{cite web |title=Algérie: Situation géographique et démolinguistique |publisher=Université Laval |first1=Jacques |last1=Leclerc |first2=Lionel |last2=Jean |date=2022-04-22 |url=https://axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie-1demo.htm |access-date=2023-02-26 |language=fr |archive-date=2023-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331102324/https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie-1demo.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The populations of Béjaïa (Bgayet), [[Bouïra|Bouïra (Tubirett)]] and [[Tizi Ouzou]] (Tizi Wezzu) provinces are in majority Kabyle-speaking. In addition, Kabyle is mainly spoken in the provinces of [[Boumerdès]], and as well as in [[Bordj Bou Arréridj]], [[Jijel]], and in [[Algiers]] where it coexists with [[Algerian Arabic]].{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

Kabyle Berber is also spoken as a native language among the Algerian Kabyle-descended diaspora in European and North American cities (mainly France). It is estimated that half of Kabyles live outside the Kabylian region.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

=== Number of speakers ===
Estimates on the number of Kabyle speakers in the region vary widely, with different dates and data given for different points of time. As such the number of Kabyle speakers varies considerably depending on different sources given. French ethnologist {{ill|Camille Lacoste-Dujardin|fr}} estimates four million Kabyle speakers in 2001 in Algeria.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lacoste-Dujardin |first=Camille |date=2001 |title=Géographie culturelle et géopolitique en Kabylie La révolte de la jeunesse kabyle pour une Algérie démocratique |url=http://www.cairn.info/revue-herodote-2001-4-page-57.htm |journal=Hérodote |language=fr |volume=103 |issue=4 |page=61 |doi=10.3917/her.103.0057 |issn=0338-487X |doi-access=free |access-date=2022-12-23 |archive-date=2022-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225040017/https://www.cairn.info/revue-herodote-2001-4-page-57.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the ''[[International Encyclopedia of Linguistics]]'' there were {{sigfig|2.537000|2}} million speakers in Kabylia in 2003 out of {{sigfig|3.123000|2}} million worldwide.<ref name="IEL2003">{{Cite book |last=Frawley |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC&pg=PA221 |title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: 4-Volume Set |date=May 2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-513977-8 |language=en |access-date=2023-01-29 |archive-date=2023-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221163540/https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC&pg=PA221 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2004, Canadian linguist {{ill|Jacques Leclerc (linguist)|fr|Jacques Leclerc (linguiste)}} estimated that there were {{sigfig|3.050800|2}} million Kabyle speakers in Algeria (9.4% of the total Algerian population)<ref name=laval/> and {{sigfig|537000|1}} in France.<ref>{{Cite web |title=France: 1) généralités |url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/europe/france-1demo.htm |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca |archive-date=2023-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222175742/https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/europe/france-1demo.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Salem Chaker]] estimated there were 5.5 million speakers in 2004, including 3 to 3.5 in Kabylia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chaker |first=S. |date=2004-05-01 |title=Kabylie : La langue |url=https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/1431 |journal=Encyclopédie berbère |language=fr |issue=26 |pages=4055–4066 |doi=10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1431 |issn=1015-7344 |doi-access=free |access-date=2022-12-22 |archive-date=2021-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183115/https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/1431 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''[[Encyclopædia Universalis]]'' gives 7 million Kabyle speakers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Définition de kabyle - Encyclopædia Universalis |url=https://www.universalis.fr/dictionnaire/kabyle/ |access-date=2022-12-23 |website=[[Encyclopædia Universalis]] |archive-date=2022-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223201947/https://www.universalis.fr/dictionnaire/kabyle/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Universalis>{{Cite book|chapter=Kabyle|title=Encyclopædia Universalis|language=fr|first1=M'Barek|last1=Redjala|first2=Bouziane|last2=Semmoud|url=https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/kabyles/|access-date=2023-02-23|editor-first=Gilles|editor-last=Quinsat|archive-date=2023-01-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117151634/https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/kabyles/|url-status=live}}</ref> The French [[Ministry of Culture (France)|Ministry of Culture]] estimated there were one million Kabyle speakers in France in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rapport du Comité consultatif pour la promotion des langues régionales et de la pluralité linguistique interne (2013) |url=https://www.culture.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Langue-francaise-et-langues-de-France/Agir-pour-les-langues/Promouvoir-les-langues-de-France/Nos-publications/Rapport-du-Comite-consultatif-pour-la-promotion-des-langues-regionales-et-de-la-pluralite-linguistique-interne-2013 |access-date=2022-12-25 |website=www.culture.gouv.fr |language=fr-FR |archive-date=2022-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225125050/https://www.culture.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Langue-francaise-et-langues-de-France/Agir-pour-les-langues/Promouvoir-les-langues-de-France/Nos-publications/Rapport-du-Comite-consultatif-pour-la-promotion-des-langues-regionales-et-de-la-pluralite-linguistique-interne-2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Linguist Matthias Brenzinger estimates the number of Kabyle speakers in Algeria at between 2.5 and 3 million in 2015.<ref name=Brenzinger>
{{Cite book |title=Language Diversity Endangered |date=2015 |first=Matthias |last=Brenzinger |editor-first1=Matthias |editor-last1=Brenzinger |isbn=978-3-11-090569-4 |location=Berlin |oclc=979749010|page=133|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110905694|url=https://archive.org/details/languagediversit0000unse_r6h5}}</ref> Bruce Maddy-Weitzman's 2018 estimate is more than 5 million Kabyle speakers in Kabylie.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2018-09-20 |last=Maddy-Weitzman |first=Bruce |title=The Berbers (Amazigh) |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315626031-23/berbers-amazigh-bruce-maddy-weitzman |journal=Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East |editor-first=Paul S |editor-last=Rowe|language=en |page=314 |doi=10.4324/9781315626031-23|isbn=9781315626031 |s2cid=187966078 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Maddy-Weitzman |first=Bruce |chapter=Berbers (Amazigh) |date=2015-12-30 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118663202.wberen411 |title=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism |page=1 |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Anthony D |editor-link1=Anthony D. Smith |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=Wiley |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118663202.wberen411 |isbn=978-1-118-66320-2 |access-date=2022-12-23 |editor2-last=Hou |editor2-first=Xiaoshuo |editor3-last=Stone |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Dennis |editor4-first=Rutledge |editor-link4=Rutledge Dennis |archive-date=2022-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223214637/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118663202.wberen411 |url-status=live }}</ref> Linguist [[Asya Pereltsvaig]] gives 5.6 million Kabyle speakers worldwide in 2020, mostly in Algeria.<ref name=Pereltsvaig2020>{{Cite book |last=Pereltsvaig |first=Asya|author-link=Asya Pereltsvaig|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108783071 |title=Languages of the World: An Introduction |date=2020-09-03 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-78307-1|chapter=6.3 Berber languages|page=203|doi=10.1017/9781108783071 }}</ref> In 2021, Amina Mettouchi, professor of Berber linguistics, estimated the number of speakers at five million worldwide and more than three million in Algeria.<ref name="Mettouchi">{{cite journal | last=Mettouchi | first=Amina | title=Negation in Kabyle (Berber) | year=2021 | publisher=Journal of African Languages and Literatures | doi=10.6092/JALALIT.V2I2.8059 | url=http://www.tema.unina.it/index.php/jalalit/article/view/8059 | access-date=22 Feb 2023 | archive-date=11 November 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111092157/http://www.tema.unina.it/index.php/jalalit/article/view/8059 | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2022, according to ''[[Ethnologue]]'' there were {{sigfig|7.489300|2}} million speakers worldwide, including {{sigfig|6.410000|2}} million in Algeria.<ref name=e26>{{e26|kab}}</ref>

===Dialects===
[[File:Dialectes kabyles.PNG|thumb|right|Geographic distribution of Kabyle dialects<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Naït-Zerrad |first=K. |date=2004-05-01 |title=Kabylie : Dialectologie |url=https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/1433 |journal=Encyclopédie berbère |language=fr |issue=26 |pages=4067–4070 |doi=10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1433 |issn=1015-7344 |doi-access=free |access-date=2022-12-23 |archive-date=2017-10-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132959/http://encyclopedieberbere.revues.org/1433 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Many{{Who|date=July 2020}} identify two dialects: Greater Kabylie (west) and Lesser Kabylie (east), but the reality is more complex than that, Kabyle dialects constitute a [[dialect continuum]] that can be divided into four main dialects (from west to east):

*Far-western: villages such as Tizi-Ghennif, Boghni and Draa el Mizan.
*Western: villages such as At Menguellat, At Yiraten, At Aïssi, At Yanni, 
*Eastern: 
** Eastern-West: villages such as At Mlikeche, Eastern-center: At Aïdel, At Khiar
** Eastern-East: villages such as At Sliman.
*Far-eastern: villages such as Aokas, Melbou, At Smail. Also known as Tasaḥlit and considered as a separate language by some according to ''[[Ethnologue]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kab|title=Amazigh|access-date=2018-06-13|archive-date=2023-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309075203/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kab/|url-status=live}}</ref> Mutual intelligibility with Far-western is difficult to absent.

{| class="wikitable" 
|+ Phonological differences
|-
! colspan=1 rowspan=2 |
! colspan=1 rowspan=2 | Far-western 
! colspan=1 rowspan=2 | Western
! colspan=2 rowspan=1 | Eastern
! colspan=1 rowspan=2 | Far-eastern 
|- style="text-align:center;"
!  West || East 
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Gemination of /w/
| bbʷ || bbʷ || ggʷ || ββ || ww
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Assimilation of /n/ + /w/ 
| bbʷ || bbʷ || ! colspan=2 | ggʷ || nw
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Labialization
| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✗ || ✗
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Assimilation of /n/ + /y/ 
| gg || gg || gg || yy || y
|- style="text-align:center;"
! affricates /ts/ and /dz/ 
| ✓ || ✓ || ✓ || ✗ || ✗
|- style="text-align:center;"
! ḍ 
| ḍ || ḍ || ḍ || ṭ || ṭ 
|}

{| class="wikitable" 
|+ Grammatical differences
|-
! colspan=1 rowspan=2 |
! colspan=1 rowspan=2 | Far-western 
! colspan=1 rowspan=2 | Western
! colspan=2 rowspan=1 | Eastern
! colspan=2 rowspan=1 | Far-eastern 
|- style="text-align:center;"
!  West || East ||  || Aokas
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Verb-framing with n
|  ✓ || ✓ ||  ! colspan=2 | ✗ || ! colspan=2 | ✗
|- style="text-align:center;"
!  Possessive pronouns <br/> (ex: 3rd m)
|  -nnes || -is, -ines ||  ! colspan=2 | -is, -ines ||! colspan=2 | -is
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Aorist preverb ad
|   ad ||  ad ||  ! colspan=2 |  ad || ad || di
|}

====Lexical differences====

With the exception of the far-eastern dialect, much of the vocabulary of Kabyle is common across its dialects, though some lexical differences exist, e.g. the word ''dream'' in English (from west to east): bargu, argu, argu, bureg.

==Status and usage==
{{main|Standard Algerian Berber}}
[[File:Ansuf Yiswen.jpg|thumb|Entrance arch in [[Taourga]] with welcome sign (''Ansuf yiswen'') in Kabyle]]

=== Multilingualism and language shift ===
Almost all Berber speakers are multilingual, in Arabic and often also in French.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Souag |first=Lameen |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-02945922 |title=Berber |date=2020-05-20 |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-96110-251-8 |language=en |page=406 |access-date=2022-12-23 |archive-date=2022-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223174618/https://shs.hal.science/halshs-02945922 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kabyle is still strong in villages but urban Kabyles in Algeria are increasingly [[Language shift|shifting]] to Arabic and diaspora Kabyles to the surrounding language. A 2013 study found that 54% of Kabyles living in [[Oran]] spoke Arabic to their siblings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Souag |first=Lameen |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-02945922 |title=Berber |date=2020-05-20 |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-96110-251-8 |language=en |page=404 |access-date=2022-12-23 |archive-date=2022-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223174618/https://shs.hal.science/halshs-02945922 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Official status ===

After the 2001–02 widespread Kabyle protests known as the [[Black Spring (Algeria)|Black Spring]], the Berber (Amazigh) language (with all its Algerian dialects and varieties) was recognized as a 'national language' in the 2002 Algerian Constitution, but not as an 'official language' until 2016 after a long campaign by activists.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35515769 |title=Algeria reinstates term limit and recognises Berber language |work=BBC News |date=7 February 2016 |access-date=11 December 2017 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331213039/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-35515769 |url-status=live }}</ref> French is not recognized in any legal document of Algeria but enjoys a ''de facto'' position of an official language as it is used in every Algerian official administration or institution, at all levels of the government, sometimes much more than Arabic.

The Berber (Amazigh) language faces an unfavourable environment, despite a public radio in Algeria (Channel II, which dates back to 1925<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aïtel |first=Fazia |date=2013 |title=Between Algeria and France: The origins of the Berber movement |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0957155812464150 |journal=French Cultural Studies |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=70 |via=SageJournals |access-date=2024-02-26 |archive-date=2024-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226200006/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0957155812464150 |url-status=live }}</ref>), as well as a public TV channel in Morocco (Channel IV or Tamazight TV). Since private ownership of TV channels is illegal in Algeria, Kabyles have launched a private Kabyle speaking TV channel, called ''Berbère Television'', that broadcasts from France.<ref name=LavalDroitsLinguistiques/> There is no Kabyle newspaper. Some Algerian newspapers such as {{ill|La Dépêche de Kabylie|fr}} offer a small Kabyle section.<ref name=LavalDroitsLinguistiques/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tamazight |url=https://www.depechedekabylie.com/ddk-tamazight/ |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=La Dépêche de Kabylie |language=fr-FR |archive-date=2023-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226091658/https://www.depechedekabylie.com/ddk-tamazight/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1994, Kabyle pupils and students boycotted Algerian schools for a year, demanding the officialization of Berber, leading to the symbolic creation of the "[[Haut commissariat à l'amazighité]]" (HCA) in 1995. Berber was subsequently taught as a non-compulsory language in Berber speaking areas. The course being optional, few people attend.<ref name=LavalDroitsLinguistiques>{{cite web|url=https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie-4Berberes_ling.htm|first1=Jacques|last1=Leclerc|first2=Lionel|last2=Jean|publisher=Université Laval|title=Algérie: Les droits linguistiques des berbérophones|date=2021-07-27|access-date=2023-02-26|archive-date=2022-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812175130/https://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie-4Berberes_ling.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The Kabyle school boycott also resulted in the first recognition of Amazigh as a national language in November 1996.

President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika|Bouteflika]] has frequently stated that "Amazigh (the Berber language) will never be an official language, and if it has to be a national language, it must be submitted to a referendum".<ref name="boutefliqa">{{cite web| title = Boutefliqa et l'amazighophobie| publisher = Amazigh World| date = n.d.| url = http://www.amazighworld.org/history/amazighophobia/algeria/boutefliqa/boutef.php| access-date = 2010-03-19| language = fr| archive-date = 2023-06-04| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230604044018/http://www.amazighworld.org/history/amazighophobia/algeria/boutefliqa/boutef.php| url-status = usurped}}</ref> In 2005, President Bouteflika, stated that "there is no country in the world with two official languages" and "this will never be the case of Algeria".<ref name="benchabane">{{Harvcoltxt|Benchabane|2005}}</ref> Nevertheless, after four decades of pacific struggle, riots, strikes, and social mobilization, including the Berber spring (1980, riots and strikes in the Kabylie region of Tizi Ouzou, Bouira and Bejaïa, as well as Algiers) and the [[Black Spring (Kabylie)|Black Spring]] in 2001, President Bouteflika and his government recognized Amazigh (Berber) as a "national language" for the second time through a 2002 constitutional amendment.

In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic.<ref name="Constitution of Algeria">{{Cite book|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Algeria|title=Constitution of Algeria|access-date=2021-04-21|archive-date=2021-04-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421195005/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Algeria|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice}}
The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Kabyle.

===Vowels===
Kabyle has [[Vowel#Systems|three phonemic vowels]]:

{| class="wikitable" 
|+ Kabyle vowel phonemes<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dallet|1982|p=xxviii}}</ref>
|-
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}|| || {{IPA link|u}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Open vowel|Open]] 
| || {{IPA link|a}} ||
|}

{{angbr|e}} is used to write the epenthetic [[schwa]] vowel {{IPA|[ə]}} which occurs frequently in Kabyle. Historically, it is thought to be the result of a pan-Berber reduction or merger of three other vowels.

The phonetic realization of the vowels, especially {{IPA|/a/}}, is influenced by the character of the surrounding consonants; emphatic consonants invite a more open realization of the vowel, e.g. aẓru = {{IPA|[azˤru]}} 'stone' vs. amud = {{IPA|[æmud]}} 'seed'. Often /a, i, u/ are realized as {{IPA|[æ, ɪ, ʊ]}}.

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Kabyle consonant phonemes
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan=2 | 
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] 
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] 
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyn-<br>geal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! {{small|plain}} || {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
! {{small|plain}} || {{small|[[Pharyngealization|emph.]]}}
! {{small|plain}} || {{small|[[Pharyngealization|emph.]]}}
! {{small|plain}} || {{small|[[Pharyngealization|emph.]]}}
! {{small|plain}} || {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
! {{small|plain}} || {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
! {{small|plain}} || {{small|[[Labialization|lab.]]}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
! {{small|voiceless}}
|
|
| (t {{IPAblink|t̪}})
| ṭ {{IPAblink|tˤ}}
| tt {{IPAblink|ts}}
|
| č {{IPAblink|tʃ}}
|
|
|
| (k {{IPAblink|k}})
| k {{IPAblink|kʷ}}
| q {{IPAblink|q}}
| q {{IPAblink|qʷ}}
|
|
|-
! {{small|voiced}}
| (b {{IPAblink|b}})
| b {{IPAblink|bʷ}}
| (d {{IPAblink|d̪}})
|
| zz {{IPAblink|dz}}
|
| ǧ {{IPAblink|dʒ}}
|
|
|
| (g {{IPAblink|ɡ}})
| g {{IPAblink|ɡʷ}}
| (q {{IPAblink|ɢ}})
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
! {{small|voiceless}}
| f {{IPAblink|f}}
|
| t {{IPAblink|θ}}
|
| s {{IPAblink|s}}
| ṣ {{IPAblink|sˤ}}
| c {{IPAblink|ʃ}}
| c {{IPAblink|ʃˤ}}
| k {{IPAblink|ç}}
| k {{IPAblink|çᶣ}}
|
|
| x {{IPAblink|χ}}
| x {{IPAblink|χʷ}}
| ḥ {{IPAblink|ħ}}
| h {{IPAblink|h}}
|-
! {{small|voiced}}
| b {{IPAblink|β}}
|
| d {{IPAblink|ð}}
| ḍ {{IPAblink|ðˤ}}
| z {{IPAblink|z}}
| ẓ {{IPAblink|zˤ}}
| j {{IPAblink|ʒ}}
| j {{IPAblink|ʒˤ}}
| g {{IPAblink|ʝ}}
| g {{IPAblink|ʝᶣ}}
|
|
| ɣ {{IPAblink|ʁ}}
| ɣ {{IPAblink|ʁʷ}}
| ɛ {{IPAblink|ʕ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| m {{IPAblink|m}}
|
| n {{IPAblink|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
| r {{IPAblink|r}}
| ṛ {{IPAblink|rˤ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
|
|
| l {{IPAblink|l}}
| l {{IPAblink|lˤ}}
|
|
|
|
| y {{IPAblink|j}}
|
|
| w {{IPAblink|w}}
|
|
|
|
|}

====Assimilation====
In the Kabyle language there are various accents which are the result of assimilations (these accents are generally divided into western and eastern Kabyle). Some of these assimilations are present among all Kabyle "dialects" and some not. These assimilations are not noted in writing, such as:

*''Axxam n wergaz'' ("the house of the man") is pronounced either "axxam n wergaz", "axxam bb wergaz" or "axxam pp wergaz".{{Needs IPA|date=December 2023}} (N+W=BB)
*''D taqcict'' ("it's a girl") is pronounced "tsaqcict". (D+T=TS)
*Here is a list of some of these assimilations: D/T+T=TS, N+W=BB/PP, I+Y=IG.

[[Gemination]] affects the quality of certain consonants, turning [[semivowel]]s and [[fricative consonant|fricative]]s into [[stop consonant|stop]]s; in particular, geminated ''ɣ'' becomes ''qq'', geminated ''y'' becomes ''gg'', and geminated ''w'' becomes ''bb''.

====Fricatives vs. stops====
Kabyle is mostly composed of fricatives, phonemes which are originally stops in other Berber languages, but in writing there is no difference between fricatives and stops. Below is a list of fricatives vs. stops and when they are pronounced (note that [[gemination]] turns [[fricative consonant|fricative]]s into [[stop consonant|stops]]).

{| class="wikitable"
|- 
! style="text-align:right;" | Consonant
! B {{IPA|/β/}} || D {{IPA|/ð/}} || G {{IPA|/ʝ/}} || K {{IPA|/ç/}} || T {{IPA|/θ/}}
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Fricative
| {{IPAblink|β|audio=y}} || {{IPAblink|ð|audio=y}} || {{IPAblink|ʝ|audio=y}} || {{IPAblink|ç||audio=y}} || {{IPAblink|θ||audio=y}}
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Stop
| {{IPAblink|b||audio=y}} || {{IPAblink|d̪}} || {{IPAblink|ɡ||audio=y}} || {{IPAblink|k||audio=y}} || {{IPAblink|t̪}}
|- class="Unicode"
! style="text-align:right;" | Is a stop after
| m || l,n || b,j,r,z,ɛ || f,b,s,l,r,n,ḥ,c,ɛ || l,m,n 
|- class="Unicode"
! style="text-align:right;" | Is a stop in the words<br>(and their derivatives)
|  ||  || ngeb, ngeḥ, ngeẓwer, angaẓ, ngedwi, nages, ngedwal ||  ||  
|}

==Writing system==
{{Main|Berber Latin alphabet|Tifinagh}}
[[Image:Panneau de signalisation multilingue à Issers (Algérie).jpg|thumb|left|A trilingual sign in Algeria, written in Arabic, Kabyle (using Tifinagh), and French]]
[[Image:Beddel.png|thumb|Kabyle language edition of [[Wikipedia]]]]

The most ancient Berber writings were written in the [[Libyco-Berber alphabet|Libyco-Berber script]], mostly from [[Numidia]]n and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times. This script was an [[abjad]], and is not yet completely deciphered today.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Libyco-Berber |url=https://mnamon.sns.it/index.php?page=Scrittura&id=47&lang=en |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=mnamon.sns.it |language=en |archive-date=2022-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013194338/https://mnamon.sns.it/index.php?page=Scrittura&id=47&lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Deciphered scripts are mostly funerary, following a simple formula of "X son of Y" (X u Y) which is still used to this day in the Kabyle language.<ref name=":0" /> Such writings have been found in Kabylie (also known as Kabylia) and continue to be discovered by archeologists. The [[Tifinagh]] script of the Tuaregs was a direct continuation of this earlier script.

The Libyco-Berber alphabet disappeared in the region of Kabylia by the sixth century, when [[Latin]] became the official and administrative language in North Africa, as in the rest of the former Roman empire.

Kabyle became a mostly spoken language after the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|Arabic conquest of North Africa]], and while many examples of the Kabyle language written in a form of [[Berber Arabic alphabet|Berber-Arabic script]] survive, the number of Kabyle texts was relatively much smaller than those written in other Berber languages such as [[Shilha language|Shilha]], [[Mozabite language|Mozabite]], and [[Nafusi language|Nafusi]].

The first French–Kabyle dictionary was compiled by a French [[ethnologist]] in the 18th century. It was written in [[Latin script]] with an [[orthography]] based on that of [[French orthography|French]].

However, the Kabyle language really became a written language again in the beginning of the 19th century. Under French influence, Kabyle intellectuals began to use the [[Latin script]]. "''Tamacahutt n wuccen''" by [[Brahim Zellal]] was one of the first Kabyle books written using this alphabet.

After the [[History of Algeria|independence of Algeria]], some Kabyle activists tried to revive the Libyco-Berber script, which is still in use by the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]]. Attempts were made to modernize the writing system by modifying the shape of the letters and by adding vowels. This new version of Tifinagh has been called [[Neo-Tifinagh]] and has been adopted as the official script for Berber languages in [[Morocco]]. However, a majority of Berber activists (both in Morocco and Algeria) prefer the Latin script and see the Tifinagh as a hindrance to literacy in Berber. Kabyle literature continues to be written in Latin script. The use of Tifinagh is limited to [[logo]]s.

[[Mouloud Mammeri]] codified a new orthography for the Kabyle language which avoided using French orthography. His script has been adopted by all Berber linguists,{{Citation needed|date=April 2017}} the [[INALCO]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2017}} and the Algerian HCA.{{Citation needed|date=April 2017}} It uses diacritics and two letters from the extended Latin alphabet: [[Č]]č [[Ḍ]]ḍ [[Ɛ]]ɛ [[Ǧ]]ǧ [[Ɣ]]ɣ Ḥḥ [[Ṣ]]ṣ [[Ṭ]]ṭ [[Ẓ]]ẓ.

== Grammar ==
{{Main|Kabyle grammar}}

===Nouns===

Kabyle has two [[Grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine and feminine. As in most [[Berber languages]], masculine nouns and adjectives generally start with a vowel (''a-'', ''i-'', ''u-''), while feminine nouns generally start with ''t-'' and end with a ''-t'', e.g. '''a'''qcic 'boy' vs. '''t'''aqcic'''t''' 'girl'.

Plurals generally are formed by replacing initial ''a-'' with ''i-'', and either suffixing ''-en'' ("regular/external" plurals), changing vowels within the word ("broken/internal" plurals), or both. Examples: <!-- what about feminine nouns? -->
::'''a'''rgaz → '''i'''rgaz'''en''' "men"
::adrar → id'''u'''rar "mountains"
::'''a'''fus → '''i'''fass'''en''' "hands"

As in all Berber languages, Kabyle has two types of states or [[grammatical case|cases]] of the [[noun]]: ''free state'' and [[construct state]] (or 'annexed state'). The free state is morphologically unmarked. The construct state is derived either by changing initial /a-/ to /u-/, loss of initial vowel in some feminine nouns, addition of a semi-vowel word-initially, or in some cases no change occurs at all:
::''a''drar → '''we'''drar "mountain"
::t'''a'''mdint → t'''e'''mdint "town"
::t'''a'''murt → tmurt "country"
::asif → '''w'''asif "river"
::iles → '''y'''iles "tongue"
::taddart → taddart "village"

As in [[Central Morocco Tamazight]], construct state is used for subjects placed after their verbs, after prepositions, in noun complement constructions, and after certain numerals. Kabyle also places nouns in construct state when they head a [[noun phrase]] containing a co-referential bound pronoun earlier in the utterance.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Creissels|2006|pp=3–4}}</ref>

Examples:

*Free: ''Yewwet '''a'''qcic''. "He has beaten a boy". (Verb–object)
*Annexed: ''Yewwet '''we'''qcic''. "The boy has beaten". (Verb–subject)

After a preposition (with the exception of "ar" and "s"), all nouns take their annexed state:

*Free state: '''A'''man (water), Kas n '''wa'''man (a glass of water).

=== Verbs ===

Verbs are conjugated for three tenses: the [[preterite]] (past), intensive aorist (present perfect, present continuous, past continuous) and the future (ad+aorist). Unlike other Berber languages, the [[aorist]] alone is rarely used in Kabyle (in the other languages it is used to express the present).

*"Weak verbs" have a preterite form that is the same as their aorist. Examples of weak verbs that follow are conjugated at the first person of the singular:

{| class="wikitable"
! Verb
! Preterite
! Ad + aorist
! Intensive aorist 
|- 
! If (to outdo)
| ifeɣ
| ad ifeɣ
| ttifeɣ
|- 
! Muqel (to observe)
| muqleɣ
| ad muqleɣ
| ttmuquleɣ
|- 
! Krez (to plough)
| kerzeɣ
| ad kerzeɣ
| kerrzeɣ
|}

*"Strong verbs" or "irregular verbs":

{| class="wikitable"
! Verb
! Preterite
! Ad + aorist
! Intensive aorist 
|- 
! Aru (to write)
| uriɣ
| ad aruɣ
| ttaruɣ 
|}

<div style="float:right; margin-left:20px">
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Kabyle subject affixes
! colspan="2" | Person 
! sg.
! pl.
|- 
! colspan="2" | 1
| ... -ɣ
| n-...
|- 
! rowspan="2" | 2
! <small>m</small>
| rowspan="2" | t-... -ḍ
| t-... -m
|- 
! <small>f</small>
| t-... -mt
|- 
! rowspan="2" | 3
! <small>m</small>
| i/y-...
| ... -n
|- 
! <small>f</small>
| t-...
| ... -nt
|}
</div>

Verbs are conjugated for person by adding affixes. These suffixes are static and identical for all tenses (only the theme changes). The epenthetic vowel ''e'' may be inserted between the affix and the verb. Verbs are always marked for subject and may also inflect for person of direct and indirect object.

Examples:
: « Yuɣ-it. » – "He bought it." (He.bought-it)
: « Yenna-yas. » – "He said to him." (He.said-to.him)
: « Yefka-yas-t. » – "He gave it to him." (He.gave-to.him-it)

Kabyle is a [[Verb framing|satellite-framed]] based language, Kabyle verbs use two particles to show the path of motion:
*''d'' orients toward the speaker, and could be translated as "here".
*''n'' orients toward the interlocutor or toward a certain place, and could be translated as "there".

Examples:
* « iruḥ-'''d''' » (he came), « iruḥ-'''n''' » (he went).
* « awi-'''d''' aman» (bring the water), « awi-'''n''' aman » (carry away the water).

Kabyle usually expresses negation in two parts, with the [[Grammatical particle|particle]] ''ur'' attached to the verb, and one or more negative words that modify the verb or one of its [[argument]]s. For example, simple verbal negation is expressed by « ''ur'' » before the verb and the particle « ''ara'' » after the verb:
*« Urareɣ » ("I played") → « '''Ur''' urareɣ '''ara''' » ("I did not play")
Other negative words (acemma... etc.) are used in combination with ''ur'' to express more complex types of negation. This system developed via [[Jespersen's cycle]].

Verb derivation is performed by adding affixes. There are three types of derivation forms: [[causative]], [[Reflexive verb|reflexive]] and [[Passive tense|passive]].

*'''Causative''': obtained by prefixing the verb with s- / sse- / ssu-:
::ffeɣ "to go out" → ssuffeɣ "to make to go out"
::kcem "to enter" → ssekcem "to make to enter, to introduce"
::irid "to be washed" → ssired "to wash".
*'''Reflexive''': obtained by prefixing the verb with m- / my(e)- / myu-:
::ẓer "to see" → mẓer "to see each other"
::ṭṭef "to hold" → myuṭṭaf "to hold each other".
*'''Passive''': is obtained by prefixing the verb with ttu- / ttwa- / tt- / mm(e)- / n- / nn-:
::krez "to plough" → ttwakrez "to be ploughed"
::ečč "to eat" → mmečč "to be eaten".
*'''Complex forms''': obtained by combining two or more of the previous prefixes:
::enɣ "to kill" → mmenɣ "to kill each other" → smenɣ "to make to kill each other"
Two prefixes can cancel each other:
::enz "to be sold" → zzenz "to sell" → ttuzenz "to be sold" (ttuzenz = enz !!).

Every verb has a corresponding [[agent noun]]. In English it could be translated into verb+er. It is obtained by prefixing the verb with « am- » or with « an- » if the first letter is b / f / m / w (there are exceptions, however).

*Examples:
::ṭṭef "to hold" → anaṭṭaf "holder"
::inig "to travel" → iminig "traveller"
::eks "to graze" → ameksa "shepherd"

Verbal nouns are derived differently from different classes of verbal stems (including 'quality verbs'). Often ''a-'' or ''t(u)-'' is prefixed:
::ffer "to hide" → tuffra "hiding" (stem VI), « Tuffra n tidett ur telhi » – "Hiding the truth is bad".
::ɣeẓẓ "to bite" → aɣẓaẓ
::zdi "to be united" → azday
::ini "to say" → timenna

=== Pronouns ===
Pronouns may either occur as standalone words or bound to nouns or verbs.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Person 
! Singular 
! Plural 
|- 
! rowspan="2" | 1st
! m
| nekk / nekkini
| nekni
|- 
! f
| nekk / nekkini	
| nekkenti
|- 
! rowspan="2" | 2nd
! m
| kečč / kečči / keččini
| kunwi / kenwi
|- 
! f
| kemm / kemmi / kemmini
| kunnemti / kennemti
|- 
! rowspan="2" | 3rd
! m
| netta / nettan / nettani
| nutni / nitni
|- 
! f
| nettat
| nutenti / nitenti
|}

Example: « Ula d nekk. » – "Me too."

Possessive pronouns are bound to the modified noun.

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Person 
! Singular 
! Plural 
|- 
! rowspan="2" | 1st
! m
| (i)w / inu 
| nneɣ
|- 
! f
| (i)w / inu 
| nnteɣ
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd
! m
| (i)k / inek 
| nwen
|- 
! f
| (i)m / inem	
| nkent
|- 
! rowspan="2" | 3rd
! m
| (i)s / ines	
| nsen
|- 
! f
| (i)s / ines	
| nsent
|}

Example : « Axxam-nneɣ. » – "Our house." (House-our)

There are three demonstratives, [[deixis|near-deictic]] ('this, these'), far-deictic ('that, those') and absence. They may either be suffixed to nouns, or appear in isolation. Examples: « Axxam-a / Axxam-agi» – "This house.", (House-this), «Wagi yelha» – "This is nice." (This is-nice).

===Prepositions===
[[Prepositions]] precede their objects: « ''i medden'' » "to the people", « ''si taddart'' » "from the village". All words preceded by a preposition (except « ''s'' » and « ''ar'' », "towards", "until" ) take the annexed state.

Some prepositions have two forms: one is used with pronominal suffixes and the other form is used in all other contexts, e.g. ''ger'' 'between' → ''gar''.

Some prepositions have a corresponding [[relative pronoun]] (or [[interrogative pronoun|interrogative]]), for example: 
::« '''i''' » "for/to" → « '''iwumi''' » "to whom"
::« Tefka aksum '''i''' wemcic » "she gave meat '''to''' the cat" → « Amcic '''iwumi''' tefka aksum » "The cat '''to whom''' she gave meat."

=== Syntax ===
'''Negation'''

'''Predicative particle 'd''''

The predicative particle 'd' is an indispensable tool in speaking Kabyle (or any other Amazigh language). "d" is equivalent to both "it is + adjective" and "to be + adjective", but cannot be replaced by the verb "ili" (to be). <!-- explain! --> It is always followed by a noun in free state.

Examples:
*''D taqcict'' 'it's a girl'
*''D nekk'' 'it's me'
*''Nekk d argaz'' 'I'm a man'
*''Idir d anelmad'' 'Idir is a student'
*''Idir yella d anelmad'' 'Idir was a student'

The predicative particle "d" should not be confused with the particle of coordination "d"; indeed, the latter is followed by a noun at its annexed state while the first is always followed by a noun at its free state.

==Vocabulary==
Kabyle has absorbed [[Arabic]], [[French language|French]], [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Punic language|Punic]] vocabulary.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Baldauf |first1=Richard B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sabe8l9hox0C&pg=PA50 |title=Language Planning and Policy in Africa |last2=Kaplan |first2=Robert B. |date=2007-01-01 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-84769-011-1 |language=en |access-date=2023-01-29 |archive-date=2023-01-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131153531/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sabe8l9hox0C&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> Arabic loanwords representing 22.7% to 46%<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kossmann |first=Maarten |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Se-BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |title=The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber |date=2013-07-18 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-25309-4 |pages=98 |language=en |access-date=2023-05-28 |archive-date=2023-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604182441/https://books.google.com/books?id=Se-BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |url-status=live }}</ref> of the total Kabyle vocabulary, with many estimates putting it at about 35%.<ref name=":1"/> The number of French [[loanword]]s has not been studied yet. These loanwords are sometimes Berberized and sometimes kept in their original form. The Berberized words follow the regular grammar of Kabyle (free and annexed state).

Examples of Berberized Arabic or French words:

:''kitāb'' (Ar.) > ''taktabt'' "book"
:''machine'' (Fr.) > ''tamacint'' "machine"

Many loanwords from Arabic have often a different meaning in Kabyle:

:''al-māl'' "property" (Ar.) > ''lmal'' "domestic animals" (cf. the etymologies of English ''[[wikt:cattle|cattle]]'' and ''[[wikt:fee|fee]]'')

All verbs of Arabic origin follow a Berber conjugation and verbal derivation:

: ''fahim'' (Ar.) > ''fhem'' "to understand" > ''ssefhem'' "to explain".

There are ''yiwen'' (f. ''yiwet'') "one", ''sin'' (f. ''snat'') "two". The noun being counted follows it in the [[genitive]]: ''sin n yirgazen'' "two men".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tessa|date=July 30, 2015|title=Blog: Les chiffres berbères|url=http://tessa008.blogspot.com/2015/07/les-chiffres-berberes.html|access-date=2021-01-18|website=Blog|archive-date=2021-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122212052/http://tessa008.blogspot.com/2015/07/les-chiffres-berberes.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Sample text==
In Moulieras (Auguste), ''Les fourberies de Si Djeh'a.''

{{interlinear|indent=2
|Yiwen wass, Ǧeḥḥa yefka-yas baba-s frank, akken ad {d-yaɣ aqerruy n tixsi}. Yuɣ-it-id, yečča akk aksum-is. Yeqqim-d uceqlal d ilem, yewwi-yas-t-id i baba-s. Ihi, mi t-iwala yenna-yas: "acu-t wa?" yenna-yas: {"d aqerruy n tixsi".}
|One day, Jehha he.gave-to.him father-his cent, so.that he.buys {head of ewe}. He.bought-it-here, he.ate all meat-its. Stayed-here carcass it.is empty, he.brought-to.him-it-here to father-his. Then, when it-he.saw he.said-to.him: "what-it that?" he.said-to.him: {"head of ewe".}
|One day, Jehha's father gave him one cent, to buy a ewe head. He bought it, and ate it all till only an empty carcass was left and brought it to his father. When his father saw that, he said: "what is that?" Jehha said: "a ewe head".}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|-A ccmata, anida llan imeẓẓuɣen-is?
|-Oh vile, where are ears-its?
|-You vile (boy), where are its ears (the ewe)?}}

{{interlinear|indent=4
|-Tella d taɛeẓẓugt.
|-She.was it.is deaf.
|-It was deaf.}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|-Anida llant wallen-is?
|-Where are eyes-its?
|-Where are its eyes?}}

{{interlinear|indent=4
|-Tella d taderɣalt.
|-She.was it.is blind.
|-It was blind.}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|-Anida yella yiles-is?
|-Where is tongue-its?
|-Where is its tongue?}}

{{interlinear|indent=4
|-Tella d tagugamt.
|-She.was it.is dumb.
|-It was dumb.}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|-I weglim n uqerruy-is, anida yella?
|-And skin of head-its, where it.is?
|-And the skin of its head, where is it?}}

{{interlinear|indent=4
|-Tella d taferḍast.
|-She.was it.is bald.
|-It was bald.}}

'''Note''': the predicative particle '''d''' was translated as "it.is", the particle of direction d was translated as "here".

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite book |title=A Reference Grammar of Tamazight |last=Abdel-Massih |first=Ernest T. |year=1971b |publisher=University of Michigan |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=0-932098-05-3}}
*Achab, R. : 1996 – La néologie lexicale berbère (1945–1995), Paris/Louvain, Editions Peeters, 1996.
*Achab, R. : 1998 – Langue berbère. Introduction à la notation usuelle en caractères latins, Paris, Editions Hoggar.
*F. Amazit-Hamidchi & M. Lounaci : Kabyle de poche, [[Assimil]], France, {{ISBN|2-7005-0324-4}}
* {{cite web| last = Benchabane| first = A.| title = Bouteflika ébranle la Kabylie| publisher = Algeria-Watch| year = 2005| url = http://www.algeria-watch.org/fr/article/pol/kabylie/declarations_bouteflika.htm| access-date = 2010-03-19|language=fr}} 
* {{cite conference|last = Creissels|first = Denis|year = 2006|title = The construct form of nouns in African languages: a typological approach|conference = 36th Colloquium on African Languages and Linguistics|conference-url = http://www.hum.leidenuniv.nl/tca/onderzoek/call/call2006.html|url = http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/fulltext/Creissels/Creissels_2006c.pdf|access-date = 2010-03-21|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110728031837/http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/fulltext/Creissels/Creissels_2006c.pdf|archive-date = 2011-07-28|url-status = dead}}
* {{cite book|last=Dallet|first=Jean-Marie|date=1982|title=Dictionnaire kabyle-français: parler des At Mangellat, Algérie, Volume 1|publisher=Société d'études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France|isbn=9782852971431|issn=0757-7699}}
* Hamid Hamouma. n.d. ''Manuel de grammaire berbère (kabyle)''. Paris: Edition Association de Culture Berbère.
* Kamal Nait-Zerrad. ''Grammaire moderne du kabyle, tajerrumt tatrart n teqbaylit''. Editions KARTHALA, 2001. {{ISBN|978-2-84586-172-5}}
* {{Citation|last=Lucas |first=Christopher |title=Jespersen's Cycle in Arabic and Berber |year=2007b |journal=Transactions of the Philological Society |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=398–431 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.2007.00189.x |url=http://people.pwf.cam.ac.uk/cbl23/revisedjesaraber.pdf |access-date=2010-03-22 }}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*Mammeri, M. : 1976 – Tajerrumt n tmaziɣt (tantala taqbaylit), Maspero, Paris.
*Naït-Zerrad, K. : 1994 – Manuel de conjugaison kabyle (le verbe en berbère), L’Harmattan, Paris.
*Naït-Zerrad, K. : 1995 – Grammaire du berbère contemporain, I – Morphologie, ENAG, Alger.
* {{Cite book |last=Chaker |first=Salem |author-link=Salem Chaker |title=Un parler berbère d'Algérie (Kabylie) : syntaxe |date=1983 |publisher=Publications Université de Provence |isbn=2-85399-075-3 |location=Aix en Provence |oclc=11317509|language=fr}}
*Tizi-Wwuccen. Méthode audio-visuelle de langue berbère (kabyle), Aix-en-Provence, Edisud, 1986.

==External links==
{{Portal|Languages}}
{{InterWiki|code=kab}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070603085927/http://www.inalco.fr/crb/crb_2/fiches_dialectes/kabyle.htm INALCO report on Kabyle]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061125190805/http://stl.recherche.univ-lille3.fr/sitespersonnels/bendjaballah/bendjaballah2.pdf Negative Preterite], The negative preterite in Kabyle Berber.

{{Languages of Algeria}}
{{Berber languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Northern Berber languages]]
[[Category:Kabyle people|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Algeria]]