Editing Keres language

{{short description|Language isolate of New Mexico, United States}}
{{Redirect|Keresan|the US Navy cargo ship|USS Keresan (ID-1806)}}{{Distinguish|Kerek language}}{{Cleanup lang|date=September 2024|iso=mul}}{{Infobox language
| name             = Keresan
| nativename       = 
| states           = [[United States]]
| region           = [[New Mexico]]
| ethnicity        = [[Keres people|Keres]]
| speakers         = 13,190
| date             = 2013
| ref              = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-lang-tables.html|title = Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and over: 2009-2013}}</ref>
| familycolor      = American
| family           = [[Language isolate]] or [[Keresan languages|Keresan]]
| dia1             = East Keres
| dia2             = West Keres
| glotto           = kere1287
| glottorefname    = Keresan
| lc1              = kee
| ld1              = Eastern
| lc2              = kjq
| ld2              = Western
| map              = Keres langs.png
| mapcaption       = Pre-contact distribution of Keresan languages
| map2             = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Acoma-Laguna is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
}}

'''Keres''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|eɪ|ɹ|eɪ|s}}),<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Keres|accessdate=2024-06-02}}</ref> also '''Keresan''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɛ|ɹ|ə|s|ən}}), is a [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American language]], spoken by the [[Keres people|Keres]] [[Puebloans|Pueblo people]] in [[New Mexico]]. Depending on the analysis, Keres is considered a small [[language family]] or a [[language isolate]] with several [[dialect cluster|dialects]]. If it is considered a language isolate, it would be the most widely spoken language isolate within the borders of the [[United States of America|United States]]. The varieties of each of the seven Keres pueblos are [[mutually intelligible]] with its closest neighbors. There are significant differences between the Western and Eastern groups, which are sometimes counted as separate languages.

==Classification==
Keres is now considered a [[language isolate]]. In the past, [[Edward Sapir]] grouped it together with a [[Hokan languages|Hokan]]–Siouan stock. [[Morris Swadesh]] suggested a connection with [[Wichita language|Wichita]]. [[Joseph Greenberg]] grouped Keres with [[Siouan languages|Siouan]], [[Yuchi language|Yuchi]], [[Caddoan languages|Caddoan]], and [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]] in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of these proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research.

=== Internal classification ===
In 2007, there was an estimate total of 10,670 speakers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Keres language, alphabet, and pronunciation |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/keres.htm |website=Omniglot |access-date=April 28, 2021}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Keres'''
** '''Eastern Keres''': total of 4,580 speakers (1990 census)
*** '''[[Cochiti Pueblo]]''' ''Kotyit dialect'': 600 speakers (2007)
*** '''[[San Felipe Pueblo]]''' ''Katishtya dialect'': 2,340 speakers (2007)
***'''[[Kewa Pueblo]]''' (formally '''Santo Domingo Pueblo''') ''Kewa dialect'': 2,850 speakers (2007)
*** '''[[Zia Pueblo]]''' ''Ts'ia dialect'': 500 speakers (2007)
*** '''[[Santa Ana Pueblo]]''' ''Tamaiya dialect'': 390 speakers (2007)
** '''Western Keres''': total of 3,391 speakers (1990 census)
*** '''[[Acoma Pueblo]]'''  ''Áakʼu dialect'': 1,930 speakers (2007)
*** '''[[Laguna, New Mexico|Laguna Pueblo]]''' ''Kawaika dialect'': 2,060 speakers (2007)
{{tree list/end}}

==Phonology==
Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to a total of about 85 [[phoneme]]s, depending on the analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the [[World Atlas of Language Structures]], Keres is a language with a ''large'' consonant inventory.

The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between [[Voicelessness|voiceless]], [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] and [[Ejective consonant|ejective]] consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to the larger than average<ref>{{Cite book|title=Patterns of sounds|last=Ian.|first=Maddieson|date=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521113267|location=Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]|oclc=10724704}}</ref> number of [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and [[Affricate consonant|affricates]], the latter also showing the three-way distinction found in [[Stop consonant|stops]].

The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between [[Vowel length|long]] and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: /é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː/, all of which are used to distinguish words in the language.

===Consonants===
The chart below contains the consonants of the [[Proto-language|proto]]-Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from [[Wick R. Miller|Miller]] & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from ''The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo'' (1964), ''Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics'' (1987), and ''The Phonemes of Keresan'' (1946), and the ''Grammar of Laguna Keres'' (2005).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=A Comparative Sketch of Pueblo Languages: Phonology|publisher=Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics|year=1987}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Phonemes of Keresan|last=Spencer|first=Robert F.|year=1946}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!colspan="2" | 
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPAlink|m}}
|{{IPAlink|n}}
|{{IPAlink|ɲ}}
|
|
|
|-
!<small>glottalized</small>
|{{IPAlink|mˀ}}
|{{IPAlink|nˀ}}
|{{IPAlink|ɲˀ}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|p}} || {{IPAlink|t}} || {{IPAlink|c}} || || {{IPAlink|k}} || {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|pʰ}} || {{IPAlink|tʰ}} || {{IPAlink|cʰ}} || || {{IPAlink|kʰ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|pʼ}} || {{IPAlink|tʼ}} || {{IPAlink|cʼ}}
| || {{IPAlink|kʼ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|ts}}
|{{IPAlink|tʃ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʂ}}
|
|
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|tsʰ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʃʰ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʂʰ}}
|
|
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
|
|{{IPAlink|tsʼ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʃʼ}}
|{{IPAlink|tʂʼ}}
|
|
|-
!rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
| || {{IPAlink|s}} || {{IPAlink|ʃ}} || {{IPAlink|ʂ}} || 
|{{IPA link|h}}
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
| || {{IPAlink|sʼ}} || {{IPAlink|ʃʼ}} || {{IPAlink|ʂʼ}} || 
|
|-
!rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
!<small>voiced</small>
|{{IPAlink|w}} || {{IPAlink|ɾ}} || {{IPAlink|j}} ||
| 
|
|-
!<small>[[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]]</small>
|{{IPAlink|wˀ}} || {{IPAlink|ɾˀ}} || {{IPAlink|jˀ}} ||
|
|
|}

===Vowels===
Keresan vowels have a [[Phoneme|phonemic]] distinction in [[Vowel length|duration]]: all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains the vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from ''The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo'' (1964),<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo, Smithsonian Bulletin 191, Anthropological Papers, No. 69|last=Davis|first=Irvine|year=1964}}</ref> ''The Phonemes of Keresan'' (1946),<ref name=":1" /> and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987).<ref name=":2" />
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" |Long
! colspan="3" |Short
|-
!
!''Phonemic''
!''Phonetic''
!''Phonemic''
!''Phonetic''
!''Voiceless''
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|'''/iː/'''
|{{IPA|[i]}}
|'''/i/''' 
|[i ɪ]
|[ɪ̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]-[[Front vowel|front]]
| '''/eː/'''
|[eː]
|'''/e/'''
|[e ɛ æ]
|[e̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]-[[Central vowel|central]]
|'''/ɨː/'''
|[əː ɨː]
|'''/ɨ/'''
|[ə ɨ ɤ]
|[ɨ̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|'''/ɑː/'''
|[aː ɑː]
|'''/ɑ/'''
|[a ɑ]
|[ḁ] 
|- style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" |[[Close vowel|Back-close]]
|'''/oː/'''
|[oː]
|'''/o/'''
|[o]
|[o̥]
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/uː/'''
|[uː]
|'''/u/'''
|[u ʊ o]
|[ʊ̥]
|}
Notes:
* Western Keres does not have phonemic /oː/ or /o/, though both vowels may occur phonetically.<ref name=":4" /> Eastern Keres words containing /o/ show /au/ in Western Keres.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=A study for a lexicon of Laguna Keresan|last=Valiquette|first=Hilaire|year=1990}}</ref> For instance, the first vowel in the word-sentence ''Sraúka̠cha̠'' – “I see you”:
** Kotyit Keres: [ʂóːkʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥]
** Kʼawaika Keres: [ʂɑ̌ukʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥]

==== Voiceless vowels ====
All Keresan short vowels may be [[Voicelessness|devoiced]] in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels is controversial.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Grammar of Laguna Keres|last=Lachler|first=Jordan|publisher=University of New Mexico Dissertation|year=2005|location=Albuquerque}}</ref> Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced.<ref name=":3" />
* Word-final devoicing: {{IPA|[pɑ̌ːkʊ̥]}} ''because''
* Word-medial devoicing: {{IPA|[ʔìpʰi̥ʃɑ́]}} ''white paint''

===Tones===
Acoma Keres has four [[Tone (linguistics)|lexical tones]]: high, low, falling and rising.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Grammar of Acoma Keresan|last=Maring|first=Joel M.|publisher=Indiana University Dissertation|year=1967}}</ref> Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!''Tones''
!examples
!translation
|- style="text-align:center;"
!High
|[tɨ́j], [áwáʔáwá]
|''here, matrilineal uncle''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Low
|[mùːtètsá]
|''young boy''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Rising
|[pɑ̌ːkʊ̥]
|''because''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Falling
|[ʔêː], [hêːk'a] 
|''and, whole part''
|}

===Syllable structure===

Most Keresan syllables take a CV(V) shape.<ref name=":4" /> The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Spencer|first=Robert|date=1947|title=Spanish Loanwords in Keresan|journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology|volume=3|issue=2|pages=130–146|doi=10.1086/soutjanth.3.2.3628729|s2cid=164169397}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!''Syllable type''
!examples
!translation
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CV
|[sʼà], [ʔɪ]shv́v
|''I have it, left'' 
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CVV
|[mùː]dedza, a[táù]shi
|''young boy'', ''cooking pot''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CCV
|[ʃkʰí]srátsʼa
|''I'm not fat''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CCVV
|[ʃtùː]sra
|''bluejay''
|- style="text-align:center;"
!CVC
|í[miʔ], [kùm]banêeru
|''expression of fear, workmate'' (Spanish ''"compañero"'')
|}

Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters.
* Word-internal cluster: ''yʼâakạ srûunị'' ‘stomach’ /jˀɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni/ > [jɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni] ~ [jɑ̂ː'''kʂ'''ûːni]
* Word-final coda: ''úwàakạ'' ‘baby’; /úwɑ̀ːkḁ/ > [úwɑ̀ːkʰḁ] ~ [úwɑ̀ː'''kʰ''']

==== Phonotactics ====
The only sequence of consonants (i.e. [[consonant cluster]]) that occurs in native Keresan words is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the [[Syllable|syllable onset]]). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C<sub>1</sub>, it combines with alveolar and palatal C<sub>2</sub>, whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C<sub>2</sub>s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially.<ref name=":5" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | ''C<sub>1</sub>/C<sub>2</sub>''
! colspan="3" | ''Bilabial''
! colspan="3" | ''Alveolar''
! colspan="3" | ''Velar''
! colspan="3" | ''Postalveolar''
|-
!/p/
!/pʰ/
!/pʼ/
!/t/
!/tʰ/
!/tʼ/
!/k/
!/kʰ/
!/kʼ/
!/tʃ/
!/tʃʰ/
!/tʃʼ/
|- style="text-align:center;"
!/ʃ/
| colspan="3" |
|/ʃtáʊ̯rákʊ̥/
'''''shd'''áurákụ''

'frog, toad'
|/ʃtʰéràʃtʼíká/

'''''sht'''érashtʼígá''

'cricket'
|/ʃtʼìcɑ̀ːtʰɪ̥ʃɪ̥/
'''''shtʼ'''idyàatịshị''

'plot of land'
| colspan="3" |
|/ʃtʃɨ/
'''''shj'''v''

'upward'
|/ʃtʃʰúmúná/
'''''shch'''úmúmá''

'wasp'
|/ʃtʃʼísḁ/ 
'''''shchʼ'''ísạ''

'six'

|- style="text-align:center;"
!/ʂ/
|/ʂpúːná/
'''''srb'''úuná''

'water jug'
|/ʂpʰɑ̀ːtʼi/ 
'''''srp'''àat'i''

'mockingbird'
|/ʂpʼeruru/
'''''srpʼ'''eruru''

'it's full'

| colspan="3" |
|/ʂkɑ́ʂkɑ́ʊ̯kʼa/
'''''srg'''ásrgáukʼa''

'quail'
|/ʂkʰɨ́tútsʰɪ̥/

'''''srk'''v́dútsị''

'mound, hill'
|/ʂkʼàpɪ́hɪ́/
'''''srkʼ'''abíhí''

'female in-law'
| colspan="3" |
|}

== Orthography ==
Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandt|first=Elizabeth|date=1981|title=Native American Attitudes toward Literacy and Recording in the Southwest|journal=Journal of the Linguistic Association of the Southwest|volume=4 |issue=2|pages=185–195}}</ref> The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika)<ref name=":4" /> and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://keres.co/|title=The Keres Language Project|website=The Keres Language Project|access-date=2018-03-18}}</ref> both of which are remarkably consistent.

In the Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. [[digraph (orthography)|Digraphs]] represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These [[graphemes]] used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below.

=== Consonant symbols ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | 
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! Alveolar
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
!<small>voiced</small>
|⟨m⟩
|⟨n⟩
|⟨ny⟩
|
|
|
|-
!<small>glottalized</small>
|⟨mʼ⟩
|⟨nʼ⟩
|⟨nyʼ⟩
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| ⟨b⟩ || ⟨d⟩ || ⟨dy⟩ || || ⟨g⟩ || ⟨ʼ⟩
|-
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
| ⟨p⟩ || ⟨t⟩ || ⟨ty⟩  || || ⟨k⟩ 
|
|-
!<small>[[Ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
|  ⟨pʼ⟩  ||   ⟨tʼ⟩ || ⟨tyʼ⟩  || || ⟨kʼ⟩ 
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|⟨dz⟩
|⟨j⟩
|⟨dr⟩
|
|
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
|
|⟨ts⟩
|⟨ch⟩
|⟨tr⟩
|
|
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
|
|⟨tsʼ⟩
|⟨chʼ⟩
|⟨trʼ⟩
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
| || ⟨s⟩ || ⟨sh⟩|| ⟨sr⟩ ||
| ⟨h⟩
|-
! <small>ejective</small>
| || ⟨sʼ⟩ || ⟨shʼ⟩|| ⟨srʼ⟩ ||
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
! <small>voiced</small>
|  ⟨w⟩  || ⟨r⟩||  ⟨y⟩  ||
|
|
|-
! <small>[[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]]</small>
|  ⟨wʼ⟩  || ⟨rʼ⟩||  ⟨yʼ⟩  || ||
|
|}

==== Signage at Acoma Pueblo ====
Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from the symbols above, as shown in the table:
[[File:Ts'ikum'a K'aiya museum.jpg|thumb|296x296px|Signage at Acoma Pueblo]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison between general orthpgraphy and the orthography used at Acoma
!General
|⟨pʼ⟩
|⟨tʼ⟩
|⟨kʼ⟩
|⟨sʼ⟩
|⟨tsʼ⟩
|⟨mʼ⟩
|⟨wʼ⟩
|⟨yʼ⟩
|⟨nʼ shʼ srʼ tyʼ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Acoma signage
|⟨ṕ⟩
|⟨t́⟩
|⟨ḱ⟩
|⟨ś⟩
|⟨tś⟩
|⟨ḿ⟩
|⟨ẃ⟩
|⟨ý⟩
|?
|}


=== Vowel symbols ===
Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and [[diphthongs]]). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel /ɨ/. Some versions simply use the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound /v/ as in ''veal'' does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with a dot below (see table).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |Long vowels
! colspan="2" |Short vowels
! colspan="2" |Voiceless vowels
|-
!Phoneme
!Grapheme
!Phoneme
!Grapheme
!Phoneme
!Grapheme
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/ iː /'''
|⟨ii⟩
|'''/ i /'''
|⟨i⟩
|'''/ ɪ̥ /'''
|⟨i̱⟩ or ⟨ị⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/ eː /'''
|⟨ee⟩
|'''/ e /'''
|⟨e⟩
|'''/ e̥ /'''
|⟨e̱⟩ or ⟨ẹ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/ ɨː /'''
|⟨ɨɨ⟩ or ⟨vv⟩
|'''/ ɨ /'''
|⟨ɨ⟩ or ⟨v⟩
|'''/ ɨ̥ /'''
|⟨ɨ̱⟩ or ⟨ṿ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/ ɑː /'''
|⟨aa⟩
|'''/ ɑ /'''
|⟨a⟩
|'''/ ḁ /'''
|⟨a̱⟩ or ⟨ạ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/ oː /'''
|⟨oo⟩
|'''/ o /'''
|⟨o⟩
|'''/ o̥ /'''
|⟨o̱⟩ or ⟨ọ⟩
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''/ uː /'''
|⟨uu⟩
|'''/ u /'''
|⟨u⟩
|'''/ ʊ̥ /'''
|⟨u̱⟩ or ⟨ụ⟩
|}

==== Diacritics for tone ====
Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for [[Navajo language|Navajo]], diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!High tone
!Low tone
!Rising tone
!Falling tone
|-
!'''Long Vowel'''
|⟨áa⟩, ⟨úu⟩
|⟨àa⟩, ⟨ùu⟩ or unmarked
|⟨ǎa⟩, ⟨ǔu⟩ or ⟨aá⟩, ⟨uú⟩
|⟨âa⟩, ⟨ûu⟩ or ⟨aà⟩, ⟨uù⟩
|-
!'''Short Vowel'''
|⟨á⟩, ⟨ú⟩
|⟨à⟩, ⟨ù⟩ or unmarked
| colspan="2" |-
|}

=== Keres orthography and alphabetical order ===
Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this [http://dictionary.keres.co/ dictionary] of Western Keres, [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. The symbol for the glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩, for long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters.
{| style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS; font-size:1.4em; border-color:#000000; border-width:1px; border-style:solid; border-collapse:collapse; background-color:#F8F8EF"
|+Alphabetical order in the Acoma Keres Audio Dictionary
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |A a
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |B b
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |CH ch
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |CHʼ chʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |D d
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |DR dr
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |DY dy
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |DZ dz
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |E e
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |G g
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |H h
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |I i
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |(Ɨ ɨ)
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |J j
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |K k
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Kʼ kʼ
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |M m
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Mʼ mʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |N n
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Nʼ nʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |NY ny
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |NYʼ nyʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |(O o)
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |P p
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Pʼ pʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |R r
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Rʼ rʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |S s
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Sʼ sʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SH sh
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SHʼ shʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SR sr
|-
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |SRʼ srʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |T tʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TR tr
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TRʼ trʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TS ts
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TSʼ tsʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TY ty
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |TYʼ tyʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |U u
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |W w
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |(V v)
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Wʼ wʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Y y
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |Yʼ yʼ
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |
| style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" |
|}

Letters〈f q x z〉are not used to write Keres, whereas the letters ⟨ɨ o v⟩ are only used in some dialects.


=== Sample texts ===

==== Orthography marking tone ====
;Woodpecker and Coyote<ref name=":5" />

:⟨Ái dítʼîishu srbígà kʼánâaya dyáʼâʼu. Shʼée srbígà ái dyěitsị ái náyáa shdyɨ dyáʼa.⟩
:/ ɑ́ì títʼîːʃù ʂpíkɑ̀ kʼɑ́nɑ̂ːjɑ̀ cɑ́ʔɑ̂ʔù | ʃʼéː ʂpíkɑ̀ ɑ́ì cěǐtsʰi̥ ɑ́ì nɑ́jɑ́ː ʃcɨ̀ cɑ́ʔɑ̀ /

==== Orthography without tone marking ====
;Boas text<ref name=":4" />

:Baanaʼa, egu kauʼseeʼe, atsi sʼaama-ee srayutse.

== Morphosyntax ==
Keresan is a [[Split ergativity|split-ergative]] language in which verbs denoting states (i.e. [[stative verb]]s) behave differently from those indexing actions, especially in terms of the [[Grammatical person|person]] [[affix]]es they take. This system of [[Argument (linguistics)|argument]] marking is based on a split-intransitive pattern, in which [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]] are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described.

The morphology of Keresan is mostly [[prefix]]ing, although [[suffix]]es and [[reduplication]] also occur.<ref name=":5" /> Keresan distinguishes [[noun]]s, verbs, [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] and [[Grammatical particle|particles]] as word classes. Nouns in Keresan do not normally distinguish [[Grammatical case|case]] or [[Grammatical number|number]], but they can be [[Agreement (linguistics)|inflected]] for [[Grammatical possession|possession]], with distinct constructions for [[Inalienable possession|alienable]] and inalienable possession. Other than possession, Keresan nouns show no comprehensive [[noun class]]es.

=== Word order ===
Keresan is a [[Word order|verb-final]] language, though word order is rather flexible.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":4" />

{{interlinear|indent=2|glossing3=yes|style4=font-variant: small-caps;
|top= Laguna Keres:<ref name=":4" />
|John Bill gukacha
|J. B. g-Ø-ukacha
|John Bill 3S-3S-see
|subject object verb
|'John saw Bill.'}}

==== Negation ====
Negation is doubly marked in Keresan. In addition to the adverb ''dzaadi'', verbs index negation through a suffix (e.g. ''-u'').
* ''Gukacha'' 'S/he saw her/him'
* '''''Dzaadi''' gukacha'''u''''' 'S/he didn't see her/him'

=== Verbal morphology ===
The [[verb]] is a central [[grammatical category]] in Keres, conveying the most information about events in communicative acts.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":3" /> Through its [[morpheme]]s, Keresan verbs code not only person and number of the initiator of the action (e.g. “Tammy drink'''s''' decaf”) as is common in [[Indo-European languages]], but also how the initiator is implicated in the action. For instance, the three verbs that describe Tammy's actions in “Tammy kicked the ball” vs. “Tammy jumped” vs. “Tammy sneezed” require different levels of effort from Tammy, that is when ''kicking'' vs. ''jumping'' vs. ''sneezing''.

Additionally, the person and number of the undergoer of the action are all coded on the verb (e.g. the word ''gukacha'' means “S/he sees her/him”, a full sentence in English). The ways the speaker assesses the action (i.e. [[evidentiality]], as in “I think Tammy arrived from class” vs. “Tammy arrived from class”). Finally, the internal temporal structure of the action (i.e. [[Aspect (grammar)|aspect]], as in “Tammy '''was''' sneez'''ing''' in class” vs. “Tammy sneez'''ed''' in class”) is also coded in Keresan verbs.

According to Maring (1967), the Keresan verb is organized around the following grammatical categories (pp.&nbsp;39–40)<ref name=":3" />

* '''''Subject/Object relations'''''
** ''Subject of intransitive verbs:'' marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
** ''Subject of transitive verbs:'' marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
** ''Object of transitive verbs:'' marked by a prefix that combines with the subject prefix, or by a [[suffix]]
* '''''Number relations'''''
** ''Singular:'' usually marked by a prefix
** ''Dual:'' can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication or by suffixes
** ''Plural:'' can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication, by suffixes or by [[Suppletion|suppletive stem forms]] (i.e. singular and plural forms are not related [[Etymology|etymologically]])
* '''''Temporal relations'''''
** ''Future:'' is marked on the verb by a series of prefixes that also encode number
* '''''Modality relations'''''
** ''Indicative''
** ''[[Dubitative]]''
** ''[[Hortative]]''
*** ''Negative hortative''
** ''Negative''
*** ''Future negative''
* '''''Voice relations'''''
** ''Active''
** ''[[Passive voice|Passive]]''
** ''[[Reflexive voice|Reflexive]]''
** ''Reciprocal''
* '''''Aspect'''''
** ''Imperfective''
** ''Inceptive''
** ''Repetitive''
** ''Continuative''
** ''Habitual''
** ''Inchoative''
** ''Perfective''

==== The verbal prefix ====
In Keres, the verbal prefix carries information from five different grammatical categories: [[Argument (linguistics)|argument role]], [[Grammatical mood|modality]], [[Affirmation and negation|polarity]],<ref name=":4" /> person and number. That is, a single Keresan verb prefix codes who initiated the action and how implicated that entity is (the subject/case), whom underwent the effects of the action (the direct object), the speaker's assessment of the action (the modality)<ref>{{Cite book|title=The evolution of grammar : tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world|last=L.|first=Bybee, Joan|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|others=Perkins, Revere D. (Revere Dale), Pagliuca, William.|isbn=0226086631|location=Chicago|oclc=29387125}}</ref> and whether it occurred or not (polarity). On the other hand, information about when the action took place (i.e. [[Tense–aspect–mood|tense]]) is expressed elsewhere in a clause, mostly by adverbs.<ref name=":5" />

===== Number =====
Keresan verbs distinguish three numbers: [[Grammatical number|singular]], [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] (two entities) and [[plural]] (more than two entities);  and four [[Person (grammar)|persons]]: [[Grammatical person|first]] (the speaker), second (the hearer), third (a known, definite or salient entity being talked about) and [[Obviative|fourth]] (a non-salient, unknown or indefinite entity being talked about, also known as obviative) persons. The plural and dual forms are often marked by reduplication of part of the stem ('''''gu'''kacha'' ‘s/he saw it’ vs '''''guʼu'''kacha'' ‘the two of them saw it’).

===== Argument role =====
Languages encode two main types of actions: those in which the main participant initiates an action that produces change in an object (e.g. ''kick <u>a ball</u>, buy <u>a gift</u>, cook <u>a dish</u>, read <u>a book</u>'');  and those in which the action produces no (perceived) change in the world or that have no object (''sneezing, breathing, growing, diving'', etc.).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Syntax : an introduction. Volume 1|author=Givón, Talmy|date=2001|publisher=J. Benjamins|isbn=1588110656|edition= Rev.|location=Amsterdam|oclc=70727915}}</ref>  Actions that take an object are encoded by [[transitive verbs]], whereas those that take no object are expressed via [[intransitive verb]]s.

====== Intransitive verbs ======
In [[Indo-European languages]] like English, all intransitive verbs behave similarly (‘They sneeze/breathe/dive/think’/etc.). In Keresan, actions that take no object are conceptualized in two distinct ways depending on how the initiator of the action is implicated. More active-like intransitive verbs (e.g. ‘to sneeze’) are coded through one set of morphemes, whereas actions conceptualized as involving the initiator at a lesser degree (e.g. ‘to believe’) are coded using a separate set of prefixes.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Degrees of involvement of the initiator in Keres<ref name=":4" />
!
!Actions
!Intransitive verb type
|-
|'''More'''
|''to write'' (-dyàatra), ''to steal as a thief'' (-chʼáwʼa), ''to have diarrhea'' (-ushchʼi), 
''to leave'' (-mi), ''to whistle'' (-srbiitsa), ''to sweat'' (-shdyuwàan’i)
|Active
|-
|'''Less'''
|''to believe'' (-hima), ''to be born'' (-dyá), ''to sleep (''-bái), 
''to be afraid'' (-tyishu), ''to forget'' (-dyúmidruwi)
|Inactive
|}

Ideas expressed in Indo-European languages with adjectives are most often encoded by verbs in Keresan. That is, in Keresan one express the idea in the sentence ‘He is selfish’ by saying something along the lines of ‘He ''selfishes''’. In such “actions”, the entity that is characterized by them is not implicated in the action directly (i.e. it's beyond their control), and thus belong in the Inactive intransitive category. The different sets of prefixes are shown below:

{| class="wikitable"
|+
Intransitive Prefixes by Verb Type
!
! colspan="3" |Active intransive
! colspan="3" |Inactive intransitive
|-
!
!Prefix
! colspan="2" |Example
!Prefix
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
|First
|'''s(i)-'''
|sudyàatra
|''I write''
|'''srk-'''
|srkuhima
|''I believe''
|-
|Second
|'''sr-'''
|srúuchʼáwʼa
|''you steal''
|'''kɨdr-'''
|kɨdrâidyá
|''you were born''
|-
|Third
|'''k-'''
|kashdyuwàanʼi
|''s/he sweats''
|'''dz-'''
|dzíibái
|''he is sleeping''
|}

====== Transitive verbs ======

{| class="wikitable"
|+Transitive verb - Indicative mood (''-ukạchạ'' 'to see')
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="5" |[[Object (grammar)|Direct object]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
| colspan="5" |'''Singular'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| rowspan="9" |[[Subject (grammar)|'''Subject''']]
|
|'''First''' ('me’)
|'''Second''' (‘you’)
|'''Third''' (‘her’/‘him’)
|'''Fourth'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| rowspan="2" |'''First'''
(‘I’)
| rowspan="2" | -
|'''srà-'''ukạchạ
|'''sì-'''ukạchạ
| rowspan="4" | -
|- style="text-align:center;"
|''I see you''
|''I see her/him''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| rowspan="2" |'''Second'''
(‘you’)
|'''dyù'''-ukạchạ
| rowspan="2" | - 
|'''srù'''-ukạchạ
|- style="text-align:center;"
|''you see me''
|''you see her/him''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| rowspan="2" |'''Third'''
(‘she’/‘he’)
|'''srgù'''-ukạchạ
|'''kudrù''' -ukạchạ
|'''g-'''ukạchạ
|'''gù-'''ukạchạ
|- style="text-align:center;"
|''s/he sees me''
|''s/he sees you''
|''s/he sees her/him''
|''s/he sees something''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| rowspan="2" |'''Fourth'''
(‘one’)
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | -
|'''dzì-'''ukạchạ
| rowspan="2" | -
|- style="text-align:center;"
|''one sees it''
|}

=== Aspect ===
Aspect in Keresan is signalled by suffixes.

{|
|+'''''-ajanu'' 'to rain'<nowiki/>'''
!
!
|-
|kájáni
|''it rains''
|-
|káajáni
|''it is raining''
|-
|kájásɨ
|''it keeps raining''
|-
|káajatú
|''it rained''
|}

=== Time (tense) adverbials ===
The category of tense is expressed in Keresan via adverbs that indicate when the action about which one is speaking took place.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Time adverbials in Acoma Keres<ref name=":3" />
! colspan="2" |Past
! colspan="2" |Future
|-
|tsikʼínuma
|''long ago''
|kúsra
|''tonight''
|-
|háma
|''once, formerly''
|nacháma
|''tomorrow''
|-
|súwa
|''yesterday''
|naháayashi
|''day after tomorrow''
|}

== Lexicon ==
New words are coined through a number of roots that are combined to pre-existing ones. Compounding is a common strategy for word building, although [[Derivation (linguistics)|derivation]] also occurs.

=== Numerals ===
The Keresan numeral system is a base 10 system. Numerals 11–19, as well as those between the multiple of tens, are formed by adding the word ''kʼátsi'' (/ kʼátsʰɪ /  'ten') ''f''ollowed by the word ''dzidra (''/tsɪtʂa/ 'more'). Numerals 20 and above are formed by adding a multiplicative adverb (''-wa'' or ''-ya'') to the base number and the word ''kʼátsi''.<ref name=":4" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="6" |Western Keres
|-
|'''1'''
|ísrkʼé
|'''11'''
|kʼátsi-írskʼá-dzidra
|'''21'''
|dyúya-kʼátsi-íisrkʼé-dzidra
|-
|'''2'''
|dyúuwʼée
|'''12'''
|kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra
|'''22'''
|dyúya-kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra
|-
|'''3'''
|chameʼée
|'''13'''
|kʼátsi-chami-dzidra
|'''30'''
|chamiya-kʼátsi
|-
|'''4'''
|dyáana
|'''14'''
|kʼátsi-dyáana-dzidra
|'''40'''
|dyáanawa-kʼátsi
|-
|'''5'''
|táam'a
|'''15'''
|kʼátsi-táamʼa-dzidra
|'''50'''
|táamʼawa-kʼátsi
|-
|'''6'''
|shʼísa
|'''16'''
|kʼátsi-shchʼísa-dzidra
|'''60'''
|shchʼísawa-kʼátsi
|-
|'''7'''
|mʼáiʼdyàana
|'''17'''
|kʼátsi-mʼáidyana-dzidra
|'''70'''
|mʼáidyanawa-kʼátsi
|-
|'''8'''
|kukʼúmishu
|'''18'''
|kʼátsi-kukʼúmishu-dzidra
|'''80'''
|kukʼúmishuwa-kʼátsi
|-
|'''9'''
|máyúkʼu
|'''19'''
|kʼátsi-máiyúkʼa-dzidra
|'''90'''
|máiyúkʼuwa-kʼátsi
|-
|'''10'''
|kʼátsi
|'''20'''
|dyúwa-kʼátsi
|'''100'''
|kʼádzawa-kʼátsi
|}

=== Loanwords from Spanish ===
[[European colonization of the Americas|European colonizers]] arriving in the [[Southwestern United States|Southwest US]] brought with them [[material culture]] and concepts that were unknown to the peoples living in the area. Words for the new ideas introduced by Spaniards were often [[Loanword|borrowed]] into Keres directly from [[Early Modern Spanish]], and a large number of these persists in Modern Keresan.<ref name=":6" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Semantic domain
!Modern Western Keres
!Modern Spanish
!English translation
|-
|'''Household items'''
|kamárîita, kuchâaru, kujûuna, méesa, mendâan, kuwêeta 
|''camarita, cuchara, colchón, mesa, ventana, cubeta (Mexico)''
|bed, spoon, mattress, table, window (glass), bucket
|-
|'''Social structure'''
|gumbanêerụ, rái, murâatụ, merigâanạ, kumanirá, ninêeru 
|''compañero, rey, mulato, americano(a), comunidad, dinero'' 
|workmate, king, black person, white person, community house, money
|-
|'''Food'''
|géesu, arûusị, kawé, kurántụ, mantạgîiyụ, mandêegạ
|''queso, arroz, café, cilantro, mantequilla, manteca''
|cheese, rice, coffee, cilantro, butter, lard/butter
|-
|'''Animal husbandry'''
|kawâayu, kanêeru, kujíinu, kurá, dûura, wáakạshị
|''caballo, carnero, cochino, corral, toro, vaca''
|horse, sheep, pen/corral, bull, cow
|-
|'''Religious concepts'''
|míisa, Háasus Kuríistị, nachạwêena, guréesima 
|''misa, Jesús Cristo, Noche Buena, Cuaresma''
|mass, Jesus Christ, Christmas, Lent
|-
|'''Days of the week'''
|tamîikụ, rûunishị, mâatịsị, mérikụsị, sruwêewesị, yêenịsị, sâawaru
|''domingo, lunes, martes, miércoles, jueves, viernes, sábado''
|Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday
|}

==Proto-language==<!---[[Proto-Keresan]] redirects here--->
{{Infobox proto-language
| name = Proto-Keresan
| familycolor = American
| ancestor = 
| target = Keresan languages
}}
Selected Proto-Keresan reconstructions of plants, animals, and toponyms by Miller and Davis (1963)<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/464748|doi=10.1086/464748|title=Proto-Keresan Phonology|year=1963|last1=Miller|first1=Wick R.|last2=Davis|first2=Irvine|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=29|issue=4|pages=310–330|s2cid=143519987|url-access=subscription}}</ref> are given below. The IPA transcription is based on the authors' description. Underlined consonants in reconstructions refer to uncertainties by the authors regarding aspiration (p. 312); these are shown as capitalized consonants in the IPA. 

:{| class="wikitable sortable"
! no. !! gloss !! Proto-Keresan
!IPA
|-
| 10 || wheat || *ʔáṣánɪ
|*/ʔáʂáni̥/
|-
| 17 || centipede || *ʔíʔìˑdʸawa
|*/ʔíʔìːcàwà/
|-
| 19 || [[cholla cactus]] || *ʔiˑbánɪ
|*/ʔiːpáni̥/
|-
| 27 || porcupine || *ʔiˑṣ̍á
|*/ʔiːʂʼá/
|-
| 45 || toad || *bêˑrak̠ᴀ
|*/pêːɾàKḁ/
|-
| 63 || turkey || *cinᴀ
|*/tsʰinḁ/
|-
| 64 || fox || *cúsk̠ɪ
|*/tsʰúsKi̥/
|-
| 71 || locust || *c̍íˑga
|*/tsʼíːkà/
|-
| 72 || [[Zia Pueblo]] || *c̍íˑy̍á
|*/tsʼíːjˀá/
|-
| 78 || [[kiva]] || *c̆ídʸá
|*/tʃícá/
|-
| 83 || medicine man || *č̇áyâˑni
|*/tʃʼájâːnì/
|-
| 84 || hawk || *č̇ɨ́ˑríga
|*/tʃʼɨ́ːɾíka/
|-
| 85 || [[horned toad]] || *dabínᴜsk̠ᴀ
|*/*tapínu̥sKḁ/
|-
| 87 || [[Santa Ana Pueblo]] || *dámáyá
|*/támájá/
|-
| 88 || squash || *dâˑni
|*/tâːnì/
|-
| 91 || corn husk || *díˑskámí
|*/tíːskʰámí/
|-
| 93 || dog || *díyᴀ
|/*tíjḁ/
|-
| 98 || [[bobcat]] || *dʸáˑdʸᴜ
|*/cáːcu̥/
|-
| 101 || deer || *dʸán̍é
|*/cánˀé/
|-
| 104 || gourd || *dʸáˑwí
|*/cáːwí/
|-
| 105 || [[piñon pine]] || *dʸèic̠ɪ
|*/cèiTSi̥
|-
| 108 || [[elk]] || *dʸɨ́ˑṣᴀ
|*/cɨ́ːʂḁ/
|-
| 110 || [[badger]] || *dʸúˑbí
|*/*cúːpí/
|-
| 112 || beans || *gánami
|*/kánàmì/
|-
| 114 || seed || *gáwɪc̠ɪ
|*/káwi̥TSi̥/
|-
| 119 || bear || *gúháyᴀ
|*/kúhájḁ/
|-
| 124 || [[yucca]] || *háʔásc̐á
|*/háʔástʃʼá/
|-
| 127 || oak || *ha̍ˑbánɪ
|
|-
| 137 || pine tree || *hâˑniˑ
|*/hâːniː/
|-
| 147 || [[Jemez Pueblo]] || *héˑmíšíˑ-cɪ, *héˑmíšíˑ-zé
|/*héːmíʃíː-tsʰi̥/, */*héːmíʃíː-tsé/
|-
| 149 || turtle || *héyᴀdʸɪ
|*/héjḁci̥/
|-
| 157 || willow || *híẓᵻsk̍áwa
|*/*híʂɨ̥skʼáwa/
|-
| 158 || dove || *húˑʔùˑga
|
|-
| 161 || yucca fruit || *hùˑsk̍ani
|
|-
| 169 || antelope || *kɨ́ˑc̠ɪ
|
|-
| 175 || wolf || *k̍ákana
|
|-
| 176 || spider || *k̍ámᴀsk̠ᵻ
|
|-
| 198 || [[mountain lion]] || *mûˑk̍aiẓᴀ
|
|-
| 200 || buffalo || *múšêiẓᴀ
|
|-
| 201 || [[Saponaria officinalis|soapweed]] || *múšɪ
|
|-
| 213 || hummingbird || *m̍îˑzᴀ
|
|-
| 225 || [[prairie dog]] || *nɨ́t̠ɪ
|
|-
| 232 || [[bedbug]] || *peséc̍uru
|
|-
| 239 || salamander || *p̍águra
|
|-
| 241 || rabbit || *rèˑdʸᴀ
|
|-
| 246 || woodpecker || *sbíga
|
|-
| 247 || chicken || *sbíˑná
|
|-
| 251 || [[meadowlark]] || *sc̐áˑná
|
|-
| 254 || grasshopper || *sc̐ár̍ɪ
|
|-
| 260 || crow || *sc̐ɨ́r̍á
|
|-
| 262 || wild honey || *sc̐úmᵻ
|
|-
| 264 || mosquito || *sc̐úy̍úˑná
|
|-
| 274 || ant || *síˑʔí
|
|-
| 275 || squirrel || *síˑdʸᴀ
|
|-
| 279 || mouse || *síyan̍ᵻ
|
|-
| 282 || [[bighorn sheep]] || *skàˑsk̠ᴜ
|
|-
| 286 || [[bullsnake]] || *sk̍áʔáˑdʸᴜ
|
|-
| 287 || fish || *sk̍àˑšᵻ
|
|-
| 291 || peas || *sk̍úrúˑná
|
|-
| 293 || dwarf corn || *spíníní
|
|-
| 306 || parrot || *šâˑwit̠ᴀ
|
|-
| 307 || flea, louse || *šínaˑ
|
|-
| 309 || goose || *šúˑdá
|
|-
| 318 || [[blue jay]] || *ṣúisɪ
|
|-
| 319 || snake || *ṣûˑwiˑ
|
|-
| 342 || [[abalone]] shell || *w̍a̍ˑbɨ́nɪ
|
|-
| 347 || duck || *w̍âˑyuṣᴀ
|
|-
| 354 || corn silk || *yábášɪ
|
|-
| 355 || corn || *yáˑčínɪ
|
|-
| 356 || [[mesquite]] || *yêˑt̠ᴜ
|
|-
| 357 || worm || *yúʔúbɨ́
|
|-
| 369 || corn cob || *y̍úˑskúm̍á
|
|}

== In popular media ==
Keres was one of the seven languages sung in the Coca-Cola "It's Beautiful" commercial during the [[Super Bowl XLVIII|2014 Super Bowl]] featuring "[[America the Beautiful]]".<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Native Language Spotlighted During Coca-Cola Super Bowl Ad
| work = Indian Country Today Media Network
| access-date = 2014-02-26
| date = 2014-02-03
| url = http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/02/03/native-language-spotlighted-during-coca-cola-super-bowl-ad-153398
| archive-date = 2014-03-01
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140301192633/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/02/03/native-language-spotlighted-during-coca-cola-super-bowl-ad-153398
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Keresan Sign Language]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin |2}}
* {{cite journal |last=Boas |first=Franz |date=1923 |title=A Keresan text |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=2 |issue=3–4 |pages=171–180 |doi=10.1086/463743 |s2cid=144375478 }}
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |date=1997 |title=American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America |series=Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics |volume=4 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-509427-5 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Irvine |date=1963 |title=Bibliography of Keresan linguistic sources |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=289–293 |doi=10.1086/464745 |s2cid=145202838 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Irvine |date=1964 |title=The language of Santa Ana Pueblo |url=https://archive.org/details/bulletin1911964smit/page/n88 |periodical=Anthropological Papers |series=Bulletin (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology) |volume=191 |issue=69 |pages=53–190 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |issn=0082-8882 |via=U.S. Government Printing Office }}
* {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Irvine |date=1966 |title=''Acoma Grammar and Texts''. Wick R. Miller |department=Review |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=810–811 |doi=10.1525/aa.1966.68.3.02a00450 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Irvine |date=1968 |title=Acoma Grammar and Texts. By Wick R. Miller |department=Review |journal=Language |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=185–189 |doi=10.2307/411485 |jstor=411485 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Irvine |date=1974 |title=Keresan–Caddoan comparisons |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=265–267 |doi=10.1086/465321 |s2cid=143862548 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Hawley |first=Florence |date=1950 |title=Keresan patterns of kinship and social organization |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=499–512 |doi=10.1525/aa.1950.52.4.02a00050 |doi-access= }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kroskrity |first=Paul V. |date=1983 |title=On male and female speech in the Pueblo Southwest |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=88–91 |doi=10.1086/465769 |s2cid=144870648 }}
* {{cite thesis |last=Lachler |first=Jordan |title=A grammar of Laguna Keres |date=2006 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of New Mexico |isbn=978-05-4273622-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Maring |first=Joel M. |date=1975 |chapter=Speech variation in Acoma Keresan |editor-last1=Kinkade |editor-first1=M. Dale |editor-last2=Hale |editor-first2=Kenneth L. |editor-last3=Werner |editor-first3=Oswald |title=Linguistics and Anthropology: In Honor of C. F. Voegelin |location=Lisse, Netherlands |publisher=Peter de Ridder Press |pages=473–485 |isbn=978-90-316-0079-3 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Mickey |first=Barbara H. |date=1956 |title=Acoma kinship terms |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=249–256 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.12.3.3629083 |s2cid=156497463 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Wick R. |date=1959 |title=Some notes on Acoma kinship terminology |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=179–184 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.15.2.3628805 |s2cid=146921018 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Wick R. |date=1959 |title=Spanish loanwords in Acoma: I |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=147–153 |doi=10.1086/464521 |s2cid=222527399 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Wick R. |date=1960 |title=Spanish loanwords in Acoma: II |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=41–49 |doi=10.1086/464552 |s2cid=224808846 }}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Wick R. |date=1965 |title=Acoma Grammar and Texts |series=University of California Publications in Linguistics |volume=40 |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=University of California Press |issn=0068-6484 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Wick R. |last2=Davis |first2=Irvine |date=1963 |title=Proto-Keresan phonology |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=310–330 |doi=10.1086/464748 |s2cid=143519987 }}
* {{cite book |last=Mithun |first=Marianne |date=1999 |title=The Languages of Native North America |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29875-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sims |first1=Christine P. |last2=Valiquette |first2=Hilaire |date=1990 |title=More on male and female speech in (Acoma and Laguna) Keresan |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=162–166 |doi=10.1086/466144 |s2cid=143626730 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Spencer |first=Robert F. |date=1946 |title=The phonemes of Keresan |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=229–236 |doi=10.1086/463918 |s2cid=144257720 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Spencer |first=Robert F. |date=1947 |title=Spanish loanwords in Keresan |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=130–146 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.3.2.3628729 |s2cid=164169397 }}
* {{cite thesis |last=Valiquette |first=Hilaire Paul |title=A study for a lexicon of Laguna Keresan |date=1990 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of New Mexico }}
* {{cite journal |last=Walker |first=Willard |date=1967 |title=Acoma Grammar and Texts. By Wick R. Miller |department=Review |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=254–257 |doi=10.1086/464971 }}
* {{cite journal |last=White |first=Leslie A. |date=1928 |title=Summary report of field work at Acoma |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=559–568 |doi=10.1525/aa.1928.30.4.02a00020 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Yumitani |first=Yukihiro |date=1987 |title=A comparative sketch of Pueblo languages: Phonology |journal=Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=12 |pages=119–139 |doi=10.17161/KWPL.1808.514 |doi-access=free |hdl=1808/514 |hdl-access=free }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has a list of reconstructed forms at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Keresan reconstructions|Appendix:Proto-Keresan reconstructions]]'''''}}
* [http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/4402/24/keres.html.txt Nathan Romero, "Chochiti Keres: About Me and My Language: The politics of saving a vanishing language: The politics of writing"], Language Documentation Training Center, University of Hawaii, Manoa (UHM)
*{{cite book|author=John Menaul|title=Child's catechism in English and Laguna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nm5NAAAAYAAJ|access-date=25 August 2012|year=1880}}
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=hmI1AQAAMAAJ&q=keres+language Grammatical and Lexical Notes on the Keres Language (Acoma-Laguna Dialect) of the Keresan Stock]
*[http://www.suduva.com/english_acoma_words.htm English-Queres Language Vocabulary]
*[http://keres.co Keres Language Project] – [http://dictionary.keres.co Keres Audio Dictionary]

{{Language families}}
{{Languages of New Mexico}}
{{North American languages}}
{{Indigenous Peoples of NM}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Keresan Languages}}
[[Category:Keresan languages| ]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southwest]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the Southwestern United States]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Pueblo peoples]]
[[Category:Acoma Pueblo]]
[[Category:Laguna Pueblo]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Language isolates of North America]]
[[Category:Pueblo linguistic area]]