Editing Khepri

{{short description|Ancient Egyptian god}}
{{About|the Egyptian god|the type of robot|Khepera mobile robot}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Egyptian
| name = Khepri
| image = File:Khepri.svg
| alt = 
| caption = Khepri is often represented as a [[scarab (artifact)|scarab]] holding aloft the morning sun, or a scarab-headed man.  In one hand, the sun god holds a [[Was-sceptre|''was'' scepter]] and in the other an [[ankh]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1kk66gk|title=Studies in Aegean Art and Culture: A New York Aegean Bronze Age Colloquium in Memory of Ellen N. Davis|date=2016|publisher=INSTAP Academic Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1kk66gk |jstor=j.ctt1kk66gk|isbn=978-1-931534-86-4}}</ref>
| god_of = 
| hiero = <hiero>xpr:r-i-C2</hiero>
| cult_center = [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]<ref name="van Ryneveld" />
| symbol = [[scarab (artifact)|scarab]], [[Nymphaea caerulea|blue lotus]]
| parents = [[Nut (goddess)|Nut]] (some accounts)
| siblings = 
| consort = 
| offspring = All gods (some accounts), [[Ma’at]]
}}
'''Khepri''' ([[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]: ''ḫprj,'' also transliterated '''Khepera''', '''Kheper''', '''Khepra''', '''Chepri''') is a scarab-faced [[Egyptian pantheon|god]] in [[ancient Egyptian religion]] who represents the rising or morning sun. By extension, he can also represent creation and the renewal of life.<ref name="van Ryneveld">van Ryneveld, Maria M. ''The Presence and Significance of Khepri in Egyptian Religion and Art'', University of Pretoria (South Africa), Ann Arbor, 1992''. {{ProQuest|304016142}}.</ref>

==Etymology==
The name "Khepri" appeared in the [[Pyramid Texts|Pyramid texts]] and usually included the scarab hieroglyph as a [[determinative]] or [[ideogram]] as a potential means to make any allusions to the god clear.<ref name="Popielska-Grzybowska">{{Cite book |last=Popielska-Grzybowska |first=Joanna |title=Old Kingdom, New Perspectives |publisher=Oxbow Books |location=online |pages=230–234 |chapter=The concept of ḫprr in Old Kingdom religious texts}}</ref> Khepri is also mentioned in the [[Amduat]], as the god is intrinsically linked to cycle of the sun and Ra's nightly journey through the [[Duat]], the Egyptian underworld.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hornung |first1=Erik |title=Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many |last2=Baines |first2=John |publisher=Cornell University Press, pp. 155-156. |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8014-8384-4 |location=Ithaca, N.Y}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schweizer |first1=Andreas |title=The Sungod's Journey Through the Netherworld: Reading the Ancient Egyptian Amduat |last2=Lorton |first2=David |last3=Hornung |first3=Erik |date=2010 |publisher=Cornell University Press, pp. 19-20. |isbn=978-0-8014-4875-1 |location=Ithaca, N.Y}}</ref>

Khepri (''ḫprj'') is derived from the [[Egyptian language]] verb ''ḫpr,'' meaning to "develop" or "create".<ref name="Wilkinson3">Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003). ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt''. Thames & Hudson. pp. 230–233</ref> Khepri (''ḫprj'') can also be spelled "''Kheper''", which is the Egyptian term used to denote the sun god, the scarab beetle, and the verbs "''to come into existence''" or "''to be born".''<ref name="Liszka">Liszka, Kate. “Scarab Amulets in the Egyptian Collection of the Princeton University Art Museum.” ''Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University'', vol. 74, 2015, pp. 4–19. ''JSTOR'', www.jstor.org/stable/26388759. Accessed 1 Dec. 2020.</ref>

==Symbolism==
[[File:Pectoral_depicting_Khepri_(Tutankhamun).jpg|left|thumb|202x202px|A [[Pectoral (Ancient Egypt)|pectoral]] with three scarab beetles attached to a necklace. The jewelry was discovered in the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]]. The scarabs, which represent Khepri, are each pushing a sun.]]
The god was connected to and often depicted as a [[Scarabaeus sacer|scarab beetle]] (''ḫprr'' in Egyptian). Scarab beetles lay their eggs within dung balls, and as a result, young beetles emerge from the balls fully formed, having eaten their way out of the mounds.<ref name="Liszka"/> This caused [[ancient Egyptians]] to believe that these insects were created from nothingness.<ref name="Quirke-2001">{{Cite book |last=Quirke |first=Stephen |title=The Cult of Ra: Sun-Worship in Ancient Egypt |date=2001 |publisher=New York: Thames & Hudson, pp. 26 |pages=}}</ref> They also believed that each day the sun was reborn or created from nothing, thus explaining the connection made between the Sun and the scarab.<ref name="Liszka"/>

In hour twelve of the Amduat, a newly reborn Khepri helms the [[solar barque]] that pushes the sun, moving the morning sun across the early day sky.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Piankoff |first=Alexander |date=1934 |title=The Sky-Goddess Nut and the Night Journey of the Sun |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3855003 |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=20 |issue=1/2 |pages=57–61 |doi=10.2307/3855003 |jstor=3855003 |issn=0307-5133|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This mirrors the manner in which a scarab beetle pushes large balls of dung along the ground, highlighting the relationship made between Khepri and the insects.<ref name="Quirke-2001" />

Scarab shaped accessories were common in ancient Egypt, as rings or amulets meant to be attached to necklaces were often fashioned in the shape of these insects.<ref name="Liszka"/> Such objects that depicted scarabs were often handed out to the Egyptian people during public festivials, with them wearing the amulets to bring good fortune, to express their devotion to the king or the gods, or to have the scarabs act as protective charms.<ref name="Liszka"/> These scarab idols, whether they were made of faience, an amalgamated material composed of common minerals like quartz and alkaline salts that was cheap to produce, or turquoise, a rare and highly sought after stone, were often colored blue, which signifies that the color might have been significant in its relation to the gods.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Riccardelli |first=Authors: Carolyn |title=Egyptian Faience: Technology and Production {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egfc/hd_egfc.htm |access-date=2024-03-02 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Liszka"/>

The color had a variety of meanings to the ancient Egyptians. Blue could have represented the sky or the heavens, the primordial flood, which also suggests that the color symbolized a cycle of life, death, and rebirth.<ref name="Wilkinson-1994">{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Richard H. |title=Symbol & Magic in Egyptian Art |date=1994 |publisher=Thames and Hudson, pp. 107. |isbn=978-0-500-23663-5 |location=London}}</ref> Fertility was another characteristic potentially represented by the color blue, as the [[Nile river|Nile]] river was often highlighted by the color.<ref name="Wilkinson-1994" /> While it is impossible to assume that the blue scarabs depicted in Egyptian art were meant to represent both Khepri and the traits of the color, the correlation between the divine symbolism of the beetle and meaning of the color blue is unlikely to be a mere coincidence.

==Religion==
Khepri was a [[solar deity]] and thus connected to the rising sun and the [[Ancient Egyptian creation myths|mythical creation of the world]].<ref name="Popielska-Grzybowska"/> The god and the scarab beetle represented creation and rebirth.<ref name="Popielska-Grzybowska" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1kk66gk |title=Studies in Aegean Art and Culture: A New York Aegean Bronze Age Colloquium in Memory of Ellen N. Davis |date=2016 |publisher=INSTAP Academic Press |isbn=978-1-931534-86-4 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1kk66gk |jstor=j.ctt1kk66gk}}</ref> There was no [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] devoted to Khepri, as he was seen as a manifestation of the more prominent solar deity [[Ra]]. The scarab god was however included in the [[Creationism|creationist]] theory of [[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]] and later [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]].<ref name="van Ryneveld-2">van Ryneveld, Maria M. ''The Presence and Significance of Khepri in Egyptian Religion and Art'', University of Pretoria (South Africa), Ann Arbor, 1992''. {{ProQuest|304016142}}.''</ref> Often, Khepri and another solar deity, [[Atum]], were seen as aspects of Ra: Khepri represented the morning sun, Ra was the midday sun, and Atum represented the evening sun.<ref name="Wilkinson3"/> As a deity, Khepri's four main functions were creator, protector, sun-god, and the god of resurrection.<ref name="van Ryneveld-2" /> The central belief surrounding Khepri was the god's ability to renew life, in the same way he restored the sun's existence every morning.<ref name="van Ryneveld-2" />  Mummified scarab beetles and scarab amulets have been found in [[Pre-dynastic Egypt|pre-dynastic]] graves, suggesting that Khepri was respected early on in the history of Ancient Egypt.<ref name="van Ryneveld-2" />{{Ancient Egyptian religion}}

== Appearances in funerary texts ==
Khepri's most important role in ancient Egyptian religion is the integral part he plays in the life and death cycle of the sun. There are three major funerary texts in which Khepri makes an appearance; the Amduat, the [[Book of Caverns]], and the [[Book of Gates]].

Each text is similar in that the lifeless corpse of Khepri is conjoined with the soul of Ra at some point during the god's journey through the underworld.<ref name="SBL Press, pp. 249-2018">{{Cite book |title=The Ancient Egyptian Netherworld Books |date=2018 |publisher=SBL Press, pp. 249 |isbn=978-0-88414-045-0 |editor-last=Darnell |editor-first=John Coleman |series=Writings from The Ancient World |location=Atlanta, Georgia |editor-last2=Manassa |editor-first2=Colleen}}</ref><ref name="Hornung-1999a">{{Cite book |last1=Hornung |first1=Erik |title=The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife |last2=Lorton |first2=David |date=1999 |publisher=Cornell University Press, pp. 84 |isbn=978-0-8014-3515-7 |location=Ithaca, N.Y}}</ref> In fact, the Book of Gates and the Amduat have been noted to be very similar, with the only significant difference between the two funerary texts being that the Amduat focuses more on the journey Ra takes through the Underworld, whereas the Book of Gates focuses more on the journey a human soul takes to follow the solar god.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dardir |first=Mohamed |date=2020-03-01 |title=The Relation between Scenes and Texts of the Book of the Gates and Amduat applied on Seti I Tomb |url=https://ijhth.journals.ekb.eg/article_155890.html |journal=International Journal of Heritage, Tourism and Hospitality |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=300–324 |doi=10.21608/ijhth.2020.155890 |issn=2636-414X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Khepri's corpse is reached in both texts in the sixth hour of the night, and he leads the solar barque out of the Underworld in both stories as well.<ref name="SBL Press, pp. 249-2018" /><ref name="Hornung-1999b">{{Cite book |last1=Hornung |first1=Erik |title=The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife |last2=Lorton |first2=David |date=1999 |publisher=Cornell Univ. Press, pp. 37. |isbn=978-0-8014-3515-7 |location=Ithaca, N.Y}}</ref><ref name="Hornung-1999c">{{Cite book |last1=Hornung |first1=Erik |title=The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife |last2=Lorton |first2=David |date=1999 |publisher=Cornell Univ. Press, pp. 41. |isbn=978-0-8014-3515-7 |location=Ithaca, N.Y}}</ref>

The Book of Caverns is unique among these funerary texts in that it is not divided into hours as the other two are, rather it is broken up into tableaus.<ref name="Hornung-1999a" /> Regardless of this difference, Khepri's corpse is still depicted within the Underworld, appearing in the third tableau instead of the sixth hour.<ref name="Hornung-1999a" />
[[File:Book_of_Caverns-Schema_(cropped).png|center|thumb|244x244px|The Third Tableau of the Book of Caverns, in which Khepri's corpse is shown in the bottom middle to be surrounded by a massive serpent.]]

== Khepri's role in the Amduat ==
The Amduat is the nightly journey Ra, and by proxy the sun, takes through the underworld, as he is exhausted and aged from his day's work of moving the solar barque across the sky.<ref name="Schweizer-2010">{{Cite book |last1=Schweizer |first1=Andreas |title=The Sungod's Journey Through the Netherworld: Reading the Ancient Egyptian Amduat |last2=Lorton |first2=David |last3=Hornung |first3=Erik |date=2010 |publisher=Cornell University Press, pp.1-2. |isbn=978-0-8014-4875-1 |location=Ithaca, N.Y}}</ref> Through this voyage across the underworld, both the Ra and the sun are reborn, as the god takes the form of Khepri, who leads the sun across the sky during the morning.<ref name="Schweizer-2010" />

There are two hours of the Amduat that Khepri is involved. Hour six sees the solar barque of Ra reach the primordial waters of Nun, in which rests the corpse of Khepri surrounded by an enormous multi-headed snake.<ref name="Hornung-1999b"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schweizer |first1=Andreas |title=The Sungod's Journey Through the Netherworld: Reading the Ancient Egyptian Amduat |last2=Lorton |first2=David |last3=Hornung |first3=Erik |date=2010 |publisher=Cornell University Press, pp. 120. |isbn=978-0-8014-4875-1 |location=Ithaca, N.Y}}</ref> It is unclear how Khepri died and how a serpent with five heads came to guard his corpse. Nevertheless, the ''ba'', or soul, of Ra combines itself with Khepri's body, thus resurrecting the solar god.<ref name="Hornung-1999b" />

Khepri is not explicitly mentioned again within the Amduat until the twelve hour, the last hour as the sun begins its ascent back into the sky. In this hour, Khepri is at the helm of the solar barque, leading the vessel out of the underworld and, with the help of Shu, the god of air and winds, back into the sky, so that sun may once again bathe the world in its light.<ref name="Hornung-1999c"/> Khepri plays a vital role in this journey, as he is the one that guides the sun through the last leg of its voyage through the underworld and ushers in the dawn of a new day as the god of the morning sun.
[[File:Egypt,_Third_Intermediate_Period,_late_Dynasty_21_(1069-945_BC)_or_early_Dy_-_Book_of_Amduat_of_Buiruharmut,_with_Elements_of_the_Tenth_through_Twelfth_H_-_1914.725_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif|center|thumb|375x375px|The 12th Hour of the Amduat is depicted here, with Khepri in his scarab form seen at the helm of the solar barque.]]

== Gallery ==
Khepri was depicted as either a scarab holding aloft the sun disk or as a human male with a scarab for a head. The [[Scarab (artifact)|scarab amulets]] that the Egyptians used as jewelry and as [[Seal (emblem)|seals]] allude to Khepri and the newborn sun.<ref>Hart, George (2005). ''The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses''. Routledge. pp. 84–85</ref> The beetle carvings became so common that excavators have found them throughout the Mediterranean.<ref name="Liszka"/><gallery>
File:QV66_Khepri_Tomb_of_Nefertari_entrance.jpg|Painting of Khepri in [[QV66]], the entrance to the tomb of [[Nefertari]].
File:Thoth_and_Khepri_from_the_Papyrus_of_Imenemsauf.jpg|A depiction of Khepri with the upper body of a winged scarab and the lower body of a male human.
File:Nun_Raises_the_Sun.jpg|[[Nu (mythology)|Nun]], god of the waters of chaos, lifts the barque of the sun god Ra, who is represented by both the scarab and the sun disk, into the sky at the beginning of time.
File:Khepri_-_Egyptian_relief.jpg|Relief of Khepri holding the sun.
File:Statue_of_Khepri,_British_Museum_09.jpg|Statue of Khepri.
File:Relief_panel_showing_two_baboons_offering_the_wedjat_eye_to_the_sun_god_Khepri,_who_holds_the_Underworld_sign_MET_DP241031.jpg|On this relief panel, Khepri is depicted solely as a scarab beetle.  Above his head the sun god holds the Duat, a symbol for the afterlife.  The scarab stands on a sun disk with sun rays extending downwards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Relief panel showing two baboons offering the wedjat eye to the sun god Khepri, who holds the Underworld sign |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/549700 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>
File:Ancient_Egyptian_Scarabs.jpg|alt=Scarab beetles were one of the most common material objects made by the ancient Egyptians.  These scarabs, from the Middle Kingdom, were likely used as jewelry, specifically amulets.  The scarab beetle is symbolic of Khepri, the Egyptian sun deity who represents creation and rebirth[9].|Scarab beetles were one of the most common material objects made by the ancient Egyptians.  These scarabs, from the Middle Kingdom, were likely used as jewelry, specifically amulets.  The scarab beetle is symbolic of Khepri, the Egyptian sun deity who represents creation and rebirth.<ref name="Liszka" />
</gallery>

== See also ==
*[[Solar myths|Solar Myths]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
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[[Category:Animal gods]]
[[Category:Egyptian gods]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Life-death-rebirth gods]]
[[Category:Stellar gods]]
[[Category:Mythological insects]]
[[Category:Beetles and humans]]
[[Category:Ra]]
[[Category:Epithets of Amun-Ra]]
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[[Category:Insects in religion]]
[[Category:Beetles]]
[[Category:Arthropod deities]]