Editing Khmelnytsky Uprising

{{short description|Cossack rebellion within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648–1657}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=May  2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Khmelnytsky Uprising
| partof            = the [[Deluge (history)|Deluge]]
| image             = Pic I V Ivasiuk Mykola Bohdan Khmelnytskys Entry to Kyiv.jpg
| image_size        = 300
| caption           = ''Entrance of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi to Kyiv in 1649'' by 19th-century Ukrainian painter [[Mykola Ivasyuk]]
| date              = 25 January 1648 – 6 August 1657<br>{{Collapsible list|bullets=yes|title=''... list of phases
|'''First phase:''' 25 January 1648 - [[Treaty of Zboriv|15 August 1649]]
|'''Second phase:''' 9 February 1651 - [[Treaty of Bila Tserkva|28 September 1651]]<ref>Бойко, И., Голобуцкий, В., Гуслистый, К. (1954). [http://history.org.ua/LiberUA/VosUkrRos_1954/VosUkrRos_1954.pdf Воссоединение Украины с Россией]. [[Moscow]]: Издательство Академии Наук СССР.</ref>
|'''Third phase:''' {{circa|May 1652}} - [[Siege of Zhvanets|16 December 1653]]<ref>Зинько М. А. (2016). [https://old.bigenc.ru/domestic_history/text/2696000 Освободительная война украинского и белорусского народов 1648–54 гг.]. [[Moscow]]: ''[[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]'', old.bigenc.ru</ref>
|'''Pereaslav phase: '''[[Pereiaslav Agreement|18 January 1654]] - [[Truce of Vilna|3 November 1656]]
|'''Radnot phase: '''[[Treaty of Radnot|6 December 1656]] - 6 August 1657}}
| place             = Eastern parts of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (mostly in the modern-day territory of [[Ukraine]] and southern parts of [[Belarus]])
| result            = {{ublist|Cossack victory<ref>
*{{Cite web |last=Zhang |first=Jiansheng |title=Policy Research: Who Made Ukraine's Independence? |url=https://thesundaydiplomat.com/policy-research-who-made-ukraines-independence/ |website=thesundaydiplomat.com|quote=Founder of the Cossack Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky led a '''successful uprising against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1648 to 1657''', ultimately establishing an independent Cossack state.|date=25 February 2024|access-date=18 March 2025}}
*{{Cite book |last=Sysyn |first=Frank |title=The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Birth of Modern Ukraine: A Reappraisal of the Khmelnytsky "Revolution" |url=https://brill.com/downloadpdf/edcollchap-oa/book/9789004547278/BP000009.pdf |year=2024 |publisher=University of Alberta |location=Canada|page=21|quote=Ukraine had the most to offer to general European discussions in the question of how a '''successful revolt''' could be mounted in the seventeenth century that could fulfill many of the criteria of a revolution.}}
*{{Cite web |last=Cataliotti |first=Joseph |title=Khmelnytsky Uprising History, Causes & Aftermath |url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/khmelnytsky-uprising-overview-history-aftermath.html |website=study.com|date=9 May 2023|access-date=18 March 2025|quote=After nearly a decade of bloodshed, the uprising was successful, overthrowing Polish-Lithuanian rule.}}
*{{Cite book |last=Dyczok |first=Marta |title=Ukraine not 'the' Ukraine |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009365536 |year=2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781009365536 |isbn=9781009365536|quote=Khmelnytsky was the hetman who led the '''successful seventeenth-century uprising''' that freed many Ukrainian lands from Polish rule, but in the process, numerous Poles and Jews were killed, and the Cossack leader is depicted as a villain in their historiographies.}}
*{{Cite book |last=Alkov; Ilin |first=V.; V. |title=Timeline handbook on the course "History of Ukraine and Ukrainian culture" |url=https://repo.knmu.edu.ua/items/82f0a1e0-adeb-4880-bffc-070b17c00536 |location=[[Kharkiv]]|publisher=KhNMU|quote=Khmelnytsky Uprising or the National Liberation War headed by the hetman Bohdan Khmelnitskyi – the largest and successful Cossack uprising that finished with a creation of the first Ukrainian state – Hetmanate.|page=9|date=26 June 2020|access-date=21 May 2025}}
*{{Cite book |last=Shelton |first=Dinah |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4c1BzgEACAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |page=176|isbn=0028658477|quote=During the decade of his rule, Chmielnicki was responsible for leading a '''successful revolt against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth''', which dominated Ukraine at the time, and for bringing the lands he controlled under the authority of the tsardom of Muscovy in 1654.}}</ref><br>(See {{slink|#Aftermath}})}}
| territory         = Emergence of the [[Cossack Hetmanate]]
* Military intervention of the [[Tsardom of Russia]] in [[Cossack Hetmanate]]
| combatant1        = '''First phase:'''{{Plainlist| {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}}[[Cossack Hetmanate]] <br /> [[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[Crimean Khanate]]}}
| combatant1a       = '''Second phase:'''{{Plainlist|
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Cossack Hetmanate]]
* [[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[Crimean Khanate]]
* {{flagcountry|Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia}} 
}}
| combatant1b       = '''Third phase:'''{{Plainlist|
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Cossack Hetmanate]]
* [[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[Crimean Khanate]]
* {{flagcountry|Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia}} ([[Vasile Lupu|Lupu faction]])
}}
* {{flagcountry|Principality of Wallachia}}
| combatant1c       = '''Pereyaslav phase:'''{{Plainlist|
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Cossack Hetmanate]]
*[[Image:Appearance of Michael to Joshua at Dmitry Pozharsky banner.png|20px]] [[Tsardom of Russia]]
*{{flagcountry|Swedish Empire}}
*{{flagcountry|Margraviate of Brandenburg}}}}
| combatant1d       = '''[[Transylvanian campaign into Poland (1657)|Radnot phase]]:'''{{Plainlist|
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Cossack Hetmanate]]
*{{flagcountry|Principality of Transylvania}}
*{{flagcountry|Swedish Empire}}
*{{flagcountry|Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia}}}}
| combatant2        = '''First phase:'''{{Plainlist| {{flagcountry|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}}<br /> {{flagcountry|Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia}}}}
| combatant2a       = '''Second phase:'''{{Plainlist|
{{flagcountry|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
}}
| combatant2b       = '''Third phase:'''{{Plainlist|
* {{flagcountry|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
* {{flagcountry|Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia}} ([[Gheorghe Stefan|Ștefan faction]])
* {{flagcountry|Principality of Wallachia}}
* {{flagcountry|Principality of Transylvania}} 
}}
| combatant2c       = '''Pereyaslav phase:'''{{Plainlist|
* {{flagcountry|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
*[[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[Crimean Khanate]]}}
| combatant2d       = '''[[Transylvanian campaign into Poland (1657)|Radnot phase]]:'''{{Plainlist|
*{{flagcountry|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
*[[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[Crimean Khanate]]
*{{flagcountry|Holy Roman Empire}}
*{{flagcountry|Denmark-Norway}}
*[[Image:Appearance of Michael to Joshua at Dmitry Pozharsky banner.png|20px]] [[Tsardom of Russia]]}}(indirectly)
| commander1        = {{flagicon image|Alex K Bohdan Chmelnickyi prapor-horisontal.svg}} [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]{{Natural Causes}}<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Tymofiy Khmelnytsky]]{{KIA}}<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Ivan Bohun]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Maksym Kryvonis]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} [[Ivan Sirko]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} {{interlanguage link|Ivan Zolotarenko|uk|Іван Золотаренко}}{{KIA}}<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} Anton Zhdanovych <br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Cossack Hetmanat.svg|border=no}} Matvei Sikorski <br /> [[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[İslâm III Giray]]<br />[[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[Tugay Bey]]{{KIA}}<br />{{flagdeco|Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia}} [[Vasile Lupu]]<br /> 
[[Image:Appearance of Michael to Joshua at Dmitry Pozharsky banner.png|20px]] [[Alexis of Russia]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Moldavia.svg}} [[Gheorghe Ștefan]] (after [[Treaty of Radnot|Radnot]])<br /> {{flagdeco|Principality of Transylvania}} [[George II Rákóczi]] <br /> (after [[Treaty of Radnot|Radnot]])
| commander2        = {{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[John II Casimir of Poland|John II Casimir]] <br /> {{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Jeremi Wiśniowiecki]]{{Natural Causes}}<br /> {{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Marcin Kalinowski]]{{KIA}} <br /> {{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Mikołaj Potocki]]{{Natural Causes}} <br /> {{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Stefan Potocki (1624–1648)|Stefan Potocki]]{{KIA}} <br /> {{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} Andrzej Potocki <br /> {{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} Piotr Potocki<br />{{flagdeco|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Stefan Czarniecki]]<br />{{flagdeco|Principality of Wallachia}} [[Matei Basarab]] <br />{{flagicon image|Flag_of_Moldavia.svg}} [[Gheorghe Ștefan]] (till [[Treaty of Radnot|Radnot]]) <br />  {{flagdeco|Principality of Transylvania}} [[George II Rákóczi]] <br /> (till [[Treaty of Radnot|Radnot]]) <br /> [[Image:Gerae-tamga.svg|20px]] [[Mehmed IV Giray]]
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Khmelnytsky Uprising}}
| width             = 
}}
{{History of Ukraine}}

The '''Khmelnytsky Uprising''',{{efn|{{langx|pl|powstanie Chmielnickiego}}; in Ukraine known as '''Khmelʹnychchyna''' or {{langx|uk|повстання Богдана Хмельницького}}; {{langx|lt|Chmelnickio sukilimas}}; [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]: Паўстанне Багдана Хмяльніцкага; {{langx|ru|восстание Богдана Хмельницкого}}}} also known as the '''Cossack–Polish War''',<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm |title=Cossack-Polish War |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611092927/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm |archive-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> '''Khmelnytsky insurrection''',<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/The-Cossacks The Khmelnytsky insurrection] [[Britannica]]</ref> or the '''National Liberation War''',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alkov; Ilin |first=V.; V. |title=Timeline handbook on the course "History of Ukraine and Ukrainian culture" |url=https://repo.knmu.edu.ua/items/82f0a1e0-adeb-4880-bffc-070b17c00536 |location=[[Kharkiv]]|publisher=KhNMU|page=9|date=26 June 2020|access-date=21 May 2025}}</ref> was a [[Cossack uprisings|Cossack rebellion]] that took place between 1648 and 1657 in the eastern territories of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], which led to the creation of a [[Cossack Hetmanate]] in Ukraine. Under the command of [[hetman]] [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]], allied with the [[Crimean Tatars]] and local Ukrainian [[peasant]]ry, fought against [[Crown Army|Commonwealth's forces]]. The insurgency was accompanied by [[Batoh massacre|mass atrocities committed by Cossacks against prisoners of war]] and the civilian population, especially [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Jews]] and [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Ruthenian Uniate Church|Ruthenian Uniate]] clergy,<ref name="jewish2005" /><ref name="Chmielnicki-Massacres">{{cite book |author-last=Batista |author-first=Jakub |year=2014 |chapter=Chmielnicki Massacres (1648–1649) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVqqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |editor-last=Mikaberidze |editor-first=Alexander |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia |location=[[Santa Barbara, California]] |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |volume=1 |pages=100–101 |isbn=978-1-59884-926-4}}</ref> as well as savage reprisals by loyalist [[Jeremi Wiśniowiecki]], the ''[[voivode]]'' of [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] descent (military governor) of the [[Ruthenian Voivodeship]].{{r|davies|p=355}}

The uprising has a symbolic meaning in the history of [[Ukraine]]'s relationship with [[Poland]] and [[Russia]]. It ended the [[Catholic Church|Polish Catholic ''szlachta''′s]] domination over the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Ukrainian Orthodox]] population; at the same time, it led to the eventual incorporation of [[Left-bank Ukraine|eastern Ukraine]] into the [[Tsardom of Russia]] initiated by the 1654 [[Pereiaslav Agreement]], whereby the [[Cossacks]] would swear allegiance to the [[tsar]] while retaining a wide degree of autonomy. The event triggered a period of political turbulence and infighting in the Hetmanate known as [[The Ruin (Ukrainian history)|the Ruin]]. The success of the anti-Polish rebellion, along with internal conflicts in Poland and concurrent invasions waged by [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)|Russia]] and [[Second Northern War|Sweden]] against the Poles, ended the [[Polish Golden Age]] and caused a secular decline of Polish power during the period known as "the [[Deluge (history)|Deluge]]".

In [[Jewish history]], the Uprising is known for the atrocities against the Jews who, in their capacity as leaseholders (''[[arendator]]s''), were seen by the peasants as their immediate oppressors and became the subject of [[antisemitic]] violence.<ref name="jewish2005">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://eleven.co.il/diaspora/judeophobia-anti-semitism/14533/ |script-title=ru:Хмельницкий Богдан |title=Khmel'nitskiy Bogdan |language=ru |trans-title= Khmelnitsky Bogdan |encyclopedia=[[Shorter Jewish Encyclopedia|The Shorter Jewish Encyclopedia]] |date=2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306174634/https://eleven.co.il/diaspora/judeophobia-anti-semitism/14533/ |archive-date=6 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="jewish1906">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Rosenthal |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Rosenthal |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4685-cossacks-uprising |title=Cossacks' Uprising |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Encyclopedia|The Jewish Encyclopedia]] |date=1906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421104126/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4685-cossacks-uprising |archive-date=21 April 2024}}</ref> The Jews consider this event "the biggest national catastrophe since the destruction of [[Solomon's Temple]]."<ref name=":62">{{Cite news |author=Mikołaj Gliński |date=27 October 2014 |title=A Virtual Visit to the Museum of the History of Polish Jews |url=https://culture.pl/en/article/a-virtual-visit-to-the-museum-of-the-history-of-polish-jews |access-date=2018-09-25 |work=Culture.pl}}</ref>

== Background ==
[[File:Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648.PNG|250px|thumb|left|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648]]
[[File:Rzeczpospolita2nar.png|thumb|left|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
{{legend|hotpink|Kingdom of Poland}}]]
[[File:BlackSea1600-es.svg|thumb|Control of the territory of Ukraine in 1600]]
{{see also|Articles for the Reassurance of the Ruthenian people|Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)|Smolensk War|Pavlyuk uprising|1638 Ordination of the Zaporizhian Host|Metropolis of Kiev, Galicia and all Rus' (1620–1686)}}

In 1569 the [[Union of Lublin]] granted the southern [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuanian-controlled]] [[Ruthenia]]n [[voivodeship]]s of [[Volhynian Voivodeship (1569–1795)|Volhynia]], [[Podolian Voivodeship|Podolia]], [[Bracław Voivodeship|Bracław]] and [[Kiev Voivodeship|Kiev]]—to the [[Crown of Poland]] under the agreement forming the new [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (''Rzeczpospolita''). The Kingdom of Poland already controlled several [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] lands which formed the voivodeships of [[Ruthenian Voivodeship|Lviv]] and [[Belz Voivodeship|Belz]]. The combined lands would be formed into the [[Lesser Poland Province, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]].

Although the [[Ruthenian nobility|local nobility]] were formally granted full rights within the Rzeczpospolita by a 1572 royal decree,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-date=2006 |pages=307}}</ref> this was often ignored by city councils, and both the nobility and city burgers were under enormous pressure to convert to [[Roman Catholicism]] and use of the [[Polish language]].<ref name=":0" /> This assimilation of [[Polish culture]] on the part of the Ruthenian nobility alienated them from the lower classes, and most especially to the [[Cossacks]], who proved stubbornly resistant to Catholicism and [[Polonization]].<ref name=":0" /> It was especially important in regard to powerful and traditionally influential great princely families of Ruthenian origins, among them [[Wiśniowiecki]], [[Czartoryski]], [[Ostrogski family|Ostrogski]], [[Sanguszko]], [[Zbaraski]], [[Korecki family|Korecki]] and [[Zasławski]], which acquired even more power and were able to gather more lands, creating huge [[latifundia]]. This ''[[szlachta]]'', along with upper-class Polish [[Magnates of Poland and Lithuania|magnates]], oppressed the lower-class Ruthenians, with the introduction of [[Counter-Reformation]] [[missionary]] practices and the use of [[Jew]]ish [[arendator]]s to manage their estates.

Local [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] traditions were also affected from the assumption of [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical power]] by the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] in 1448. The growing [[History of Russia#Muscovy|Russian state]] in the north sought to acquire the southern lands of [[Kievan Rus']], and with the [[fall of Constantinople]] it began this process by insisting that the [[List of Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow|Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus′]] was now the primate of the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Church]].

The pressure of [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] expansionism culminated with the [[Union of Brest]] in 1596, which attempted to retain the autonomy of the Eastern Orthodox churches in present-day [[Ukraine]], [[Poland]] and [[Belarus]] by aligning themselves with the [[Pope|Bishop of Rome]]. Many [[Cossacks]] were also against the [[Uniate Church]]. While all of the people [[History of Christianity in Ukraine|did not unite under one church]], the concepts of [[autonomy]] were implanted into consciousness of the area and came out in force during the military campaign of [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]].

== Khmelnytsky's role ==
[[File:Matejko Khmelnytsky with Tugay Bey.jpg|thumb|''Bohdan Khmelnytsky with [[Tugay Bey]] at [[Lviv]]'', oil on canvas by [[Jan Matejko]], 1885, [[National Museum, Warsaw|National Museum]] in [[Warsaw]].]]

Born to a noble family, Bohdan Khmelnytsky attended a [[Jesuit]] school, probably in [[Lviv]]. At the age of 22, he joined his father in the service of the Commonwealth, battling against the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]]. After being held captive in [[Constantinople]], he returned home as a [[Registered Cossack]], settling in his ''[[khutor]]'' [[Subotiv]] with a wife and several children. He participated in campaigns for Grand Crown [[Hetman]] [[Stanisław Koniecpolski]], led delegations to King [[Władysław IV Vasa]] in [[Warsaw]] and generally was well respected within the Cossack ranks. The course of his life was altered, however, when [[Aleksander Koniecpolski (1620–1659)|Aleksander Koniecpolski]], heir to hetman Koniecpolski's magnate estate, attempted to seize Khmelnytsky's land. In 1647 [[Chyhyryn]] deputy of [[starosta]] (head of the local royal administration) [[Daniel Czapliński]] openly started to harass Khmelnytsky on behalf of the younger Koniecpolski in an attempt to force him off the land. On two occasions raids were made to Subotiv, during which considerable property damage was done and his son [[Yurii Khmelnytsky|Yurii]] was badly beaten, until Khmelnytsky moved his family to a relative's house in [[Chyhyryn]]. He twice sought assistance from the king by traveling to Warsaw, only to find him either unwilling or powerless to confront the will of a magnate.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ivan |last=Krypiakevych |title=Bohdan Khmelnytsky |date=1954}}</ref>

Having received no support from Polish officials, Khmelnytsky turned to his Cossack friends and subordinates. The case of a Cossack being unfairly treated by the Poles found a lot of support not only in his regiment but also throughout the [[Sich]]. All through the autumn of 1647, Khmelnytsky travelled from one regiment to another and had numerous consultations with different Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine. His activity raised the suspicions of Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts, and he was promptly arrested. [[Polkovnyk]] ([[colonel]]) [[Mykhailo Krychevsky]] assisted Khmelnytsky in his escape, and with a group of supporters he headed for the [[Zaporozhian Sich]].

The Cossacks were already on the brink of a new rebellion as plans for the new war with the [[Ottoman Empire]] advanced by the Polish king Władysław IV Vasa were cancelled by the [[Sejm]]. Cossacks were gearing up to resume their traditional and lucrative attacks on the Ottoman Empire (in the first quarter of the 17th century they raided the Black Sea shores almost annually), as they greatly resented being prevented from the pirate activities by the peace treaties between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. Rumors about the emerging hostilities with "the infidels" were greeted with joy, and the news that there was to be no raiding after all was explosive in itself.<ref name="davies">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57754186 |title=God's playground: a history of Poland: in two volumes |date=2005 |isbn=0-231-12816-9 |edition=2 |location=New York |oclc=57754186}}</ref>

However, the Cossack rebellion might have fizzled in the same manner as the great rebellions of 1637–1638 but for the strategies of Khmelnytsky. Having taken part in the [[Pavliuk uprising|1637 rebellion]], he realized that Cossacks, while having an excellent infantry, could not hope to match the Polish cavalry, which was possibly the best in Europe at the time.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} However, combining Cossack infantry with [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] cavalry could provide a balanced military force and give the Cossacks a chance to beat the Polish army.

== Beginning ==

On January 25, 1648, Khmelnytsky brought a contingent of 400–500 Cossacks to the [[Zaporozhian Sich]] and quickly killed the guards assigned by the Commonwealth to protect the entrance. Once at the Sich, his oratory and diplomatic skills struck a nerve with oppressed Ruthenians. As his men repelled an attempt by Commonwealth forces to retake the Sich, more recruits joined his cause. The [[Cossack Rada]] elected him [[Hetman]] by the end of the month. Khmelnytsky threw most of his resources into recruiting more fighters. He sent emissaries to [[Crimea]], enjoining the [[Crimean Tatars|Tatars]] to join him in a potential assault against their shared enemy, the Commonwealth.

By April 1648 word of an uprising had spread throughout the Commonwealth. Either because they underestimated the size of the uprising,{{sfn|Chirovsky|1984|p=176}} or because they wanted to act quickly to prevent it from spreading,<ref>{{in lang|uk}}Terletskyi, Omelian: ''History of the Ukrainian Nation, Volume II: The Cossack Cause'', p. 75. 1924.</ref> the Commonwealth's Grand Crown Hetman [[Mikołaj Potocki]] and Field Crown Hetman [[Marcin Kalinowski]] sent 3,000 soldiers under the command of Potocki's son, [[Stefan Potocki (1624–1648)|Stefan]], towards Khmelnytsky, without waiting to gather additional forces from [[Prince]] [[Jeremi Wiśniowiecki]]. Khmelnytsky marshalled his forces and met his enemy at the [[Battle of Zhovti Vody]], which saw a considerable number of defections on the field of battle by [[Registered Cossacks]], who changed their allegiance from the Commonwealth to Khmelnytsky. The victory was quickly followed by rout of the Commonwealth's armies at the [[Battle of Korsuń]], which saw both the elder Potocki and Kalinowski captured and imprisoned by the Tatars.

In addition to the loss of significant forces and military leadership, the Polish state also lost King Władysław IV Vasa, who died in 1648, leaving the Crown of Poland leaderless and in disarray at a time of rebellion. The szlachta was on the run from its peasants, their palaces and estates in flames. All the while, Khmelnytsky's army marched westward.

Khmelnytsky stopped his forces at [[Bila Tserkva]] and issued a list of demands to the Polish Crown, including raising the number of Registered Cossacks, returning churches taken from the Orthodox faithful and paying the Cossacks for wages, which had been withheld for five years.{{sfn|Chirovsky|1984|p=178}}

News of the peasant uprisings now troubled a nobleman such as Khmelnytsky; however, after discussing information gathered across the country with his advisers, the Cossack leadership soon realized the potential for autonomy was there for the taking. Although Khmelnytsky's personal resentment of the szlachta and the magnates influenced his transformation into a revolutionary, it was his ambition to become the ruler of a Ruthenian nation that expanded the uprising from a simple rebellion into a national movement. Khmelnytsky had his forces join a peasant revolt at the [[Battle of Pyliavtsi]], striking another terrible blow to weakened and depleted Polish forces.

{{Location map+|Ukraine|float=left|width=400|caption=Locations during the Khmelnitsky Uprising: Number=last digit of year; Blue Triangle=Cossack victory; Yellow Dot=Cossack defeat; Circle=siege
|places=
{{Location map~|Ukraine|lat=49.0833|long=32.6666 |label=Chyhyryn      |position=right}}
{{Location map~|Ukraine|lat=47.8166|long=35.1000 |label=Sich          |position=right}}
{{Location map~|Ukraine|lat=46.1500|long=33.6833 |label=Perekop       |position=right}}
{{Location map~|Ukraine|lat=44.7500|long=33.9066 |label=Bakhchisarai  |position=right}}
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[[File:Envoy Jakub Śmiarowski to Bohdan Khmelnytsky (73678097) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Reception of [[John Casimir Vasa|John Casimir]]'s envoy by Khmelnitsky in [[Zamość]].]]
Khmelnytsky was persuaded not to lay siege to Lviv, in exchange for 200,000 red guldens, according to some sources, but [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky|Hrushevsky]] stated that Khmelnytsky did indeed lay siege to the town, for about two weeks. After obtaining the ransom, he moved to besiege [[Zamość]], when he finally heard about the election of the new Polish King, [[John Casimir Vasa]], whom Khmelnytsky favored. According to Hrushevsky, John Casimir sent him a letter informing the Cossack leader about his election. He assured him that he would grant Cossacks and all of the Orthodox faith various privileges. He requested for Khmelnytsky to stop his campaign and await the royal delegation. Khmelnytsky answered that he would comply with his monarch's request and then turned back. He made a triumphant entry into [[Kiev]] on [[Christmas]] 1648, and he was hailed as "the Moses, savior, redeemer, and liberator of the people from Polish captivity... the illustrious ruler of Rus".

In February 1649, during negotiations with a Polish delegation headed by nobleman [[Adam Kysil]] in [[Pereiaslav]], Khmelnytsky declared that he was "the sole autocrat of Rus" and that he had "enough power in Ukraine, [[Podolia]], and [[Volhynia]]... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, [[Chełm]], and [[Halych]]".<ref>V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. p. 203, Lebid, Kiev. 1995</ref> It became clear to the Polish envoys that Khmelnytsky had positioned himself no longer as simply a leader of the Zaporozhian Cossacks but as that of an independent state and stated his claims to the heritage of the Rus'.

[[File:Spotkanie z Tuhaj Bejem 2.jpg|thumb|''Meeting of [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] with [[Tugay Bey]]'' by [[Juliusz Kossak]].]]

A [[Vilnius]] [[panegyric]] in Khmelnytsky's honour (1650–1651) explained it: "While in Poland it is King Jan II Casimir Vasa, in Rus it is Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky".<ref name="Encyclopedia_o_U_BH">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\K\H\KhmelnytskyBohdan.htm |title=Khmelnytsky, Bohdan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] |access-date=10 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225033812/https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKhmelnytskyBohdan.htm |archive-date=25 February 2024}}</ref>

Following the [[Battle of Zbarazh|Battles of Zbarazh]] and [[Battle of Zboriv (1649)|Zboriv]], Khmelnytsky gained numerous privileges for the Cossacks under the [[Treaty of Zboriv]]. When hostilities resumed, however, his forces suffered a massive defeat in 1651 at the [[Battle of Berestechko]], considered to be one of the largest land battles of the 17th century, and their former allies, the [[Crimean Tatars]], abandoned them. They were forced at [[Battle of Bila Tserkva (1651)|Bila Tserkva]] to accept the [[Treaty of Bila Tserkva]]. A year later, in 1652, the Cossacks had their revenge at the [[Battle of Batih]], where Khmelnytsky ordered Cossacks to kill all Polish prisoners and paid Tatars for possession of the prisoners, an event known as the [[Batih massacre]].<ref>{{cite web |first1=Radosław |last1=Sikora |author-link=Radosław Sikora |title=Rzeź polskich jeńców pod Batohem |trans-title=The slaughter of Polish prisoners of war at Batoh |date=3 June 2014 |language=pl |url=http://historia.wp.pl/title,Rzez-polskich-jencow-pod-Batohem,wid,16653408,wiadomosc.html?ticaid=114cd4&_ticrsn=3 |access-date=4 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Sebastian |last=Duda |author-link=Sebastian Duda |title=Sarmacki Katyń |trans-title=Sarmatian Katyn |language=pl |url=http://wyborcza.pl/alehistoria/1,136627,15456961,Sarmacki_Katyn.html |website=wyborcza.pl |date=14 February 2014 |access-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>

However, the enormous casualties suffered by the Cossacks at Berestechko made the idea of creating an independent state impossible to implement. Khmelnytsky had to decide whether to stay under Polish–Lithuanian influence or ally with the Muscovites.

== Tatars' role ==

The Tatars of the [[Crimean Khanate]], then a [[Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire|vassal state]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], participated in the insurrection, seeing it as a source of captives to be sold. [[Slave raiding]] sent a large influx of captives to slave markets in [[Crimea]]{{sfn|Magocsi|1996|p=200}} at the time of the Uprising. Ottoman Jews collected funds to mount a concerted ransom effort to gain the freedom of their people.

== Aftermath ==

[[File:The occupation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (union state of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania) during The Deluge and Chmielnicki's Uprising.png|250px|thumb|left|The [[Russo-Polish War (1654–67)|Russo-Polish]] and [[Second Northern War]]s diminished the scope of Polish–Lithuanian control.]]
[[File:Location of Cossack Hetmanate.png|thumb|Territory gained after the Khmelnytsky uprising.]]
[[File:Khmelnytsky uprising 1648-1654.jpg|thumb|right|The Khmelnytsky uprising path (1648-1654).]]

The uprising began a period in Polish history known as [[The Deluge (Polish history)|The Deluge]] (which included the Swedish invasion of the Commonwealth during the [[Second Northern War]] of 1655–1660), that temporarily freed the Ukrainians from Polish domination but in a short time subjected them to Russian domination. Weakened by wars, in 1654 Khmelnytsky persuaded the Cossacks to ally with the Russian tsar in the [[Treaty of Pereyaslav]], which led to the [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]]. When Poland–Lithuania and Russia signed the [[Truce of Vilna]] and agreed on an anti-Swedish alliance in 1657, Khmelnytsky's Cossacks supported the [[Treaty of Radnot|invasion of the Commonwealth by Sweden's Transylvanian allies]] instead.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558–1721 |first=Robert I. |last=Frost |publisher=[[Longman]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-582-06429-4 |pages=173–174, 183}}</ref> Although the Commonwealth tried to regain its influence over the Cossacks (note the [[Treaty of Hadiach]] of 1658), the new Cossack subjects became even more dominated by Russia. The Hetmanate entered a new political situation which was far different than in the Commonwealth, and the church was much more subordinate to the tsar there. Russia had a traditional practice of imprisoning as well as executing Orthodox officials, which was foreign to people from the Commonwealth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC |title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 |date=2004 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page=117|isbn=978-0-300-10586-5 |language=en}}</ref> With the Commonwealth becoming increasingly weak, Cossacks became more and more integrated into the [[Russian Empire]], with their autonomy and privileges eroded. The remnants of these privileges were gradually abolished in the aftermath of the [[Great Northern War]] (1700–1721), in which hetman [[Ivan Mazepa]] sided with Sweden. By the time that the last of the [[partitions of Poland]] ended the existence of the Commonwealth in 1795, many Cossacks had already left Ukraine to colonise the [[Kuban]] and, in process, were [[Russification|russified]].

Sources vary as to when the uprising ended. Russian and some Polish sources give the end-date of the uprising as 1654, pointing to the [[Treaty of Pereyaslav]] as ending the war;<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite encyclopedia |language=pl |url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3926691 |title=Kozackie powstania |trans-title=Cossack uprisings |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429081026/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3926691 |archive-date=29 April 2009}}
|{{cite encyclopedia |language=pl |url=http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl/57278,,,,kozackie_powstania,haslo.html |title=Kozackie powstania |trans-title=Cossack uprisings |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922082044/http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl/57278,,,,kozackie_powstania,haslo.html |archive-date=2017-09-22 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia WIEM]]}}
|{{cite encyclopedia |language=pl |url=http://encyklopedia.interia.pl/haslo?hid=80321 |title=Kozackie Powstania |trans-title=Cossack Uprisings |encyclopedia=[[Encyklopedia Interia]]}}
}}</ref> Ukrainian sources give the date as Khmelnytsky's death in 1657;<ref name="history.franko.lviv.ua">{{cite web |url=http://history.franko.lviv.ua/yak_r5-1.htm |script-title=uk:КОЗАЦЬКА ЕРА: § 1. Козацька революція 1648–1657 рр. |title=Kozats'ka Era: § 1. Kozatsʹka revolyutsiya 1648–1657 rr. |language=uk |trans-title=The Cossack Era: § 1. The Cossack Revolution of 1648–1657. |work=franko.lviv.ua |access-date=11 March 2009 |archive-date=3 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203232040/http://history.franko.lviv.ua/yak_r5-1.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\C\O\Cossack6PolishWar.htm |title=Cossack-Polish War |encyclopedia=encyclopediaofukraine.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505213655/https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages%5CC%5CO%5CCossack6PolishWar.htm |archive-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> and few Polish sources give the date as 1655 and the [[Battle of Jezierna]] or Jeziorna (November 1655). There is some overlap between the last phase of the uprising and the beginning of the [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]], as Cossack and Russian forces became allied.

== Casualties ==

Estimates of the death tolls of the Khmelnytsky uprising vary, as do many others from the eras analyzed by [[historical demography]]. As better sources and methodology are becoming available, such estimates are subject to continuing revision.<ref name="Musz">{{cite journal |first=Jadwiga |last=Muszyńska |url=http://www.studiajudaica.pl/sj04musz.pdf |title=The Urbanised Jewry of the Sandomierz and Lublin Provinces in the 18th Century: A Study in the Settlement of Population |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629160331/http://www.studiajudaica.pl/sj04musz.pdf |archive-date=29 June 2007 |journal=[[Studia Judaica]] |volume=2 |date=1999 |number=4 |pages=223–239}}</ref> Population losses of the entire Commonwealth population in the years 1648–1667 (a period which includes the Uprising, but also the [[Russo-Polish War (1654–67)|Polish-Russian War]] and [[Deluge (history)|the Swedish invasion]]) are estimated at 4 million (roughly a decrease from 11 to 12 million to 7–8 million).<ref name="Pogonowski">Based on [http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg 1618 population map] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217222629/http://homepage.interaccess.com/~netpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1618.jpg |date=2013-02-17 }} (p. 115), 1618 languages map (p. 119), 1657–1667 losses map (p. 128) and [http://homepage.interaccess.com/%7Enetpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg 1717 map] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217222634/http://homepage.interaccess.com/~netpol/POLISH/historia/MAPY/1717.jpg |date=2013-02-17 }} (p. 141) from{{cite book |last=Pogonowski |first=Iwo Cyprian |author-link=Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski |title=Poland a Historical Atlas |publisher=Hippocrene Books |date=1987 |isbn=0-88029-394-2}}</ref>

=== {{anchor|Khmelnytsky massacres}}Massacres ===
{{See also|Batih massacre}}
[[File:Hab batoh 970.jpg|thumb|[[Batih massacre|Massacre]] of 8,000 Polish captives after the [[Battle of Batih]] in 1652.]]

Before the Khmelnytsky uprising, magnates had sold and leased certain privileges to [[arendator]]s, many of whom were Jewish, who earned money from the collections they made for the magnates by receiving a percentage of an estate's revenue. By not supervising their estates directly, the magnates left it to the leaseholders and collectors to become objects of hatred to the oppressed and long-suffering peasants. Khmelnytsky told the people that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." With this as their battle cry, Cossacks and the peasantry [[massacre]]d numerous Jewish and Polish–Lithuanian townsfolk, as well as {{lang|pl|[[szlachta]]}} during the years 1648–1649. ''[[Yeven Mezulah]],'' the contemporary 17th-century chronicle by [[Nathan ben Moses Hannover]], an eyewitness, states:
<blockquote>Wherever they found the {{lang|pl|szlachta}}, royal officials or Jews, they [Cossacks] killed them all, sparing neither women nor children. They pillaged the estates of the Jews and nobles, burned churches and killed their priests, leaving nothing whole. It was a rare individual in those days who had not soaked his hands in blood ...<ref>{{cite book |first=Anna |last=Reid |title=Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=0-8133-3792-5 |page=35}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Jews ===

{{main|Khmelnytsky pogroms}}
[[File:Yeven53.png|450px|thumb|First edition of ''[[Yeven Mezulah]]'' (1653): "I write of the Evil Decrees of [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky|Chmiel]], [[Yimakh shemo|may his name be obliterated]]... in (5)'408 to '411 [[Anno Mundi]]"]]

Most Jewish communities in the rebellious [[Cossack Hetmanate|Hetmanate]] were devastated by the uprising and ensuing massacres, though occasionally a Jewish population was spared, notably after the capture of the town of [[Brody]] (the population of which was 70% Jewish). According to the book known as ''[[History of the Rus]]'', Khmelnytsky's rationale was largely mercantile and the Jews of Brody, which was a major trading centre, were judged to be useful "for turnovers and profits" and thus they were only required to pay "moderate indemnities" in kind.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://izbornyk.org.ua/istrus/istrus05.htm |chapter=Chapter 4 |page=80 |title=[[History of the Rus]] |language=ru |script-quote=ru:А по симъ правиламъ и обширный торговый городъ Броды, наполненный почти одними Жидами, оставленъ въ прежней свободѣ и цѣлости, яко признанный отъ Рускихъ жителей полезнымъ для ихъ оборотовъ и заработковъ, а только взята отъ Жидовъ умѣренная контрибуція сукнами, полотнами и кожами для пошитья реестровому войску мундировъ и обуви, да для продовольствія войскъ нѣкоторая провизія. |quote=A po sim" pravilam" i obshirnyy torgovyy gorod" Brody, napolnennyy pochti odnimi Zhidami, ostavlen" v" prezhney svobodѣ i tsѣlosti, yako priznannyy ot" Ruskikh" zhiteley poleznym" dlya ikh" oborotov" i zarabotkov", a tol'ko vzyata ot" Zhidov" umѣrennaya kontributsíya suknami, polotnami i kozhami dlya poshit'ya reyestrovomu voysku mundirov" i obuvi, da dlya prodovol'stvíya voysk" nѣkotoraya provizíya. |trans-quote=And according to these rules, the vast trading city of Brody, filled almost exclusively with Jews, was left in its former freedom and integrity, as recognized by the Russian inhabitants as useful for their turnover and earnings, and only a moderate indemnity was taken from the Jews in cloth, linen and leather for sewing to the registered army uniforms and shoes, and some provisions for feeding the troops. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922071455/http://izbornyk.org.ua/istrus/istrus05.htm |archive-date=22 September 2023}}</ref> One estimate (1996) reports that 15,000–30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed.{{sfn|Magocsi|1996|p=350}} A 2014 estimate puts the number of Jews that died during the national uprising of Ukrainians to 18,000–20,000 people between the years 1648–1649;<ref name="Chmielnicki-Massacres"/> of these, 3,000–6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in [[Nemirov]] in May 1648 and 1,500 in [[Tulczyn]] in July 1648.<ref name="Chmielnicki-Massacres"/>

In Jewish circles, this massacre became known as Gzeyres Takh Vetat, sometimes shortened to Takh Vetat (spelled in multiple ways in English. In {{langx|he| גזירות ת"ח ות"ט}}). This translates to "the (evil) decrees of (years) 408 and 409" referring to the years 5408 and 5409 on the Jewish calendar, which corresponds to the years 1648 and 1649 on the non-Jewish calendar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gzeyres Takh Vetat |url=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/gzeyres_takh_vetat |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919205029/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Gzeyres_Takh_Vetat |archive-date=19 September 2020 |access-date=16 April 2024 |website=[[YIVO]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2011 |title=Tach V'Tat |url=https://www.jewishhistory.org/tach-vtat/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221100540/https://www.jewishhistory.org/tach-vtat/ |archive-date=21 February 2024 |access-date=16 April 2024 |website=www.jewishhistory.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

Due to the widespread murders, Jewish elders at the Council of Vilna banned merrymaking by a decree on July 3, 1661: they set limitations on wedding celebrations, public drinking, fire dances, masquerades, and Jewish comic entertainers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gordon |first=Mel |title=Catastrophe in Ukraine, Comedy Today |newspaper=Reform Judaism |pages=50–51 |date=Spring 2011}}</ref> Stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces, or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond. These stories filled many with despair, led others to identify [[Sabbatai Zevi]] as the Messiah,<ref>Karen Armstrong, ''[[The Battle for God]]: A History of Fundamentalism'', Random House, 2001, pp. 25–28.</ref><ref>Not all scholars agree with the connection between the Jewish pogroms during the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the rise of the [[Sabbateans]]. [[Gershom Scholem]], the leading scholar of the Sabbateanism movement, considers this explanation rather simplistic and proposes that the main reason for the rise of Sabbateanism is, in fact, linked to the widespread dissemination of [[Lurianic Kabbalah]] during that period. see: [[Gershom Scholem|Scholem, Gershom]] (1973). ''Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah: 1626–1676''. London: Routledge Kegan Paul. pp 1-102 {{ISBN|0-7100-7703-3}};</ref> and contributed in later years to growing interest in [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidism]].

The accounts of contemporary Jewish chroniclers of the events tended to emphasize large casualty figures, but since the end of the 20th century they have been re-evaluated downwards. Early 20th-century estimates of Jewish deaths were based on the accounts of the Jewish chroniclers of the time, and tended to be high, ranging from 100,000 to 500,000 or more; in 1916 [[Simon Dubnow]] stated:
<blockquote>The losses inflicted on the Jews of Poland during the fatal decade 1648–1658 were appalling. In the reports of the chroniclers, the number of Jewish victims varies between one hundred thousand and five hundred thousand. But even if we accept the lower figure, the number of victims still remains colossal, even exceeding the catastrophes of the Crusades and the Black Death in Western Europe. Some seven hundred Jewish communities in Poland had suffered massacre and pillage. In the Ukrainian cities situated on the left banks of the Dnieper, the region populated by Cossacks ... the Jewish communities had disappeared almost completely. In the localities on the right shore of the Dnieper or in the Polish part of Ukraine as well as those of Volhynia and Podolia, wherever Cossacks had made their appearance, only about one tenth of the Jewish population survived.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dubnow |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Dubnow |title=History of the Jews in Russia and Poland |translator-first=Israel |translator-last=Friedlander |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |date=1916 |volume=1 |pages=156–157}}. Quoted in {{cite book |first=Joseph P. |last=Schultz |title=Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |date=1981 |isbn=0-8386-1707-7 |page=268}}</ref></blockquote>

From the 1960s to the 1980s historians still considered 100,000 a reasonable estimate of the Jews killed and, according to [[Edward Flannery]], many considered it "a minimum".<ref name=Flannery>[[Edward H. Flannery]]. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Paulist Press, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8091-4324-0}}, p. 158 and footnote 33, p. 327.</ref> [[Max Dimont]] in ''Jews, God, and History'', first published in 1962, writes "Perhaps as many as 100,000 Jews perished in the decade of this revolution."<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Max Dimont |first=Max I. |last=Dimont |title=Jews, God, and History |publisher=Signet Classic |date=2004 |isbn=0-451-52940-5 |page=247}}</ref> [[Edward Flannery]], writing in ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', first published in 1965, also gives figures of 100,000 to 500,000, stating "Many historians consider the second figure exaggerated and the first a minimum."<ref name=Flannery/> [[Martin Gilbert]] in his ''Jewish History Atlas'' published in 1976 states, "Over 100,000 Jews were killed; many more were tortured or ill-treated, others fled ...."<ref>{{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Gilbert |title=Jewish History Atlas |location=London |date=1976 |page=530}}, cited in {{cite book |first=Herbert Arthur |last=Strauss |title=Hostages of modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism 1870–1933/39 |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |date=1993 |page=1013 |isbn=3-11-013715-1}} (footnote 3)</ref> Many other sources of the time give similar figures.<ref>Other 1960s–1980s estimates of Jews killed:{{bulleted list|
|{{cite book |quote=In 1648, under the leadership of Chmielnicki, they ravaged the land with fire and sword. Their hatred of the Jews was boundless and they rarely attempted to persuade the unfortunate to convert. These persecutions were characterized by hitherto-unknown atrocities. Children were torn apart or thrown into the fire before the eyes of their mothers, women were burned alive, men were skinned and mutilated. People must have thought hell had let loose all the tormenting monsters that medieval painters had portrayed dragging the condemned to eternal punishment. The roads were choked with thousands of refugees trying to escape the murderous hordes. The famous rabbis of the Talmud schools died by the hundreds as martyrs for their faith. The total number of the dead was estimated at about one hundred thousand. |last=Vogt |first=Hannah |author-link=Hannah Vogt |title=The Jews: A Chronicle for Christian Conscience |publisher=Association Press |date=1967 |page=72}}
|{{cite book |quote=In their revolt, the Ukrainians slaughtered over one hundred thousand Jews. |last=Rubenstein |first=Richard L. |author-link=Richard L. Rubenstein |title=Power Struggle: An Autobiographical Confession |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] |date=1974 |page=95}}
|{{cite book |quote=Thus, when in 1648, the Ukrainians under Chmielnicki rose against Polish dominion the Jews were to bear the main brunt of their fury. Within eighteen months over three hundred Jewish townships were destroyed and over one hundred thousand Jews—about a fifth of Polish Jewry—perished. It was the greatest calamity the Jews were to experience until the rise of Hitler. |last=Bermant |first=Chaim |author-link=Chaim Bermant |title=The Jews |publisher=Redwood Burn |date=1978 |isbn=0-297-77419-0 |page=12}}
|{{cite book |quote=Under the leadership of the barbaric Bogdan Chmielnitski, they exploded in a revolt of terrible violence in which their anger at their Polish lords also turned against Jewish 'infidels,' some of whom had been used by the Poles as tax collectors... In the ten years between 1648 and 1658 no fewer than 100,000 Jews were killed. |first=David |last=Bamberger |title=My People: Abba Eban's History of the Jews |publisher=Behrman House |date=1978 |isbn=0-87441-263-3 |pages=184–185}}
|{{cite book |quote=... set off bloody massacres, led by Bogdan Chmielnicki (1593–1657), in which nearly 300,000 Eastern European Jews were killed or uprooted. |first=Gertrude |last=Hirschler |title=Ashkenaz: The German Jewish Heritage |publisher=[[Yeshiva University Museum]] |date=1988 |page=64}}
}}</ref>

Although many modern sources still give estimates of Jews killed in the uprising at 100,000<ref>Sources estimating 100,000 Jews killed:{{bulleted list|
|{{cite news |quote=Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |title=Judaism Timeline 1618–1770 |work=[[CBS News]] |access-date=13 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227112617/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |archive-date=27 December 2023}}
|{{cite book |quote=The peasants of Ukraine rose up in 1648 under a petty aristocrat Bogdan Chmielnicki. ... It is estimated that 100,000 Jews were massacred and 300 of their communities destroyed. |first=Oscar |last=Reiss |title=The Jews in Colonial America |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |date=2004 |isbn=0-7864-1730-7 |pages=98–99}}
|{{cite book |quote=Moreover, Poles must have been keenly aware of the massacre of Jews in 1768 and even more so as the result of the much more widespread massacres (approximately 100,000 dead) of the earlier Chmielnicki pogroms during the preceding century. |first=Manus I. |last=Midlarsky |title=The Killing Trap: genocide in the twentieth century |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2005 |isbn=0-521-81545-2 |page=352}}
|{{cite book |quote=... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage. |first=Martin |last=Gilbert |author-link=Martin Gilbert |title=Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |date=1999 |isbn=0-231-10965-2 |page=219}}
|{{cite book |quote=A series of massacres perpetrated by the Ukrainian Cossacks under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki saw the death of up to 100,000 Jews and the destruction of perhaps 700 communities between 1648 and 1654 ... |first=Samuel |last=Totten |author-link=Samuel Totten |title=Teaching About Genocide: Issues, Approaches, and Resources |publisher=Information Age Publishing |date=2004 |isbn=1-59311-074-X |page=25}}
|{{cite book |quote=In response to Poland having taken control of much of the Ukraine in the early seventeenth century, Ukrainian peasants mobilized as groups of cavalry, and these "cossacks" in the Chmielnicki uprising of 1648 killed an estimated 100,000 Jews. |first=Cara |last=Camcastle |title=The More Moderate Side of Joseph De Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |date=2005 |isbn=0-7735-2976-4 |page=26}}
|{{cite book |quote=Is there not a difference in nature between Hitler's extermination of three million Polish Jews between 1939 and 1945 because he wanted every Jew dead and the mass murder 1648–49 of 100,000 Polish Jews by General Bogdan Chmielnicki because he wanted to end Polish rule in the Ukraine and was prepared to use Cossack terrorism to kill Jews in the process? |first=Colin Martin |last=Tatz |author-link=Colin Tatz |title=With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |date=2003 |isbn=1-85984-550-9 |page=146}}
|{{cite book |quote=... massacring an estimated one hundred thousand Jews as the Ukrainian Bogdan Chmielnicki had done nearly three centuries earlier. |first=Mosheh |last=Weiss |title=A Brief History of the Jewish People |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |date=2004 |isbn=0-7425-4402-8 |page=193}}
}}</ref> or more,<ref>Sources estimating more than 100,000 Jews killed:{{bulleted list|
|{{cite book |quote=This situation changed for the worse in 1648–49, the years in which the Chmelnicki massacres took place. These persecutions, which swept over a large part of the Polish Commonwealth, wrought havoc with the Jewry of that country. Many Jewish communities were practically annihilated by the ruthless Cossack bands, and many more were disintegrated by the flight of their members to escape the enemy... The Jews of the Ukraine, Podolia and Eastern Galicia bore the brunt of the massacres. It is estimated that about two hundred thousand Jews were killed in these provinces during the fatal years of 1648–49. |last=Waxman |first=Meyer |author-link=Meyer Waxman |title=History of Jewish Literature Part 3 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |date=2003 |isbn=0-7661-4370-8 |page=20}}
|{{cite book |quote=...carried out in 1648 and 1649 by the Cossacks of the Ukraine, led by Bogdan Chmielnicki. The anti-Semitic outburst took the lives of from 150,000 to 200,000 Jews. |first=Micheal |last=Clodfelter |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |date=2002 |page=56}}
|{{cite book |quote=Between 100,000–500,000 Jews were murdered by the Cossacks during the Chmielnicki massacres. |first1=Zev |last1=Garber |first2=Bruce |last2=Zuckerman |title=Double Takes: Thinking and Rethinking Issues of Modern Judaism in Ancient Contexts |publisher=University Press of America |date=2004 |isbn=0-7618-2894-X |page=77, footnote 17}}
|{{cite book |quote=After defeating the Polish army, the Cossacks joined with the Polish peasantry, murdering over 100,000 Jews. |title=Chmielnicki, Bohdan |url=https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/people/history/soviet-bloc/chmielnicki-bohdan |publisher=[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]] |edition=Sixth |date=2001–2005}}
|{{cite book |quote=In 1648–55 the Cossack under Bogdan Chmielnicki (1593–1657) joined with the Tartars in the Ukraine to rid themselves of Polish rule... Before the decade was over, more than 100,000 Jews had been slaughtered. |first=Robert Melvin |last=Spector |title=World Without Civilization: Mass Murder and the Holocaust, History, and Analysis |publisher=University Press of America |date=2005 |isbn=0-7618-2963-6 |page=77}}
|{{cite book |quote=By the time the Cossacks and the Poles signed a peace treaty in 1654, 700 Jewish communities had been destroyed and more than 100,000 Jews killed. |first=Sol |last=Scharfstein |title=Jewish History and You |publisher=KTAV Publishing House |date=2004 |isbn=0-88125-806-7 |page=42}}
}}</ref> others put the numbers killed at between 40,000 and 100,000,<ref>Sources estimating 40,000–100,000 Jews killed:{{bulleted list|
|{{cite book |quote=Finally, in the spring of 1648, under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki (1595–1657), the Cossacks revolted in the Ukraine against Polish Rule. ... Although the exact number of Jews massacred is unknown, with estimates ranging from 40,000 to 100,000 ... |first1=Naomi E. |last1=Pasachoff |first2=Robert J. |last2=Littman |title=A Concise History Of The Jewish People |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |date=2005 |isbn=0-7425-4366-8 |page=182}}
|{{cite book |quote=Even when there was mass destruction, as in the Chmielnicki uprising in 1648, the violence against Jews, where between 40000 and 100000 Jews were murdered ... |first1=David Theo |last1=Goldberg |first2=John |last2=Solomos |title=A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |date=2002 |isbn=0-631-20616-7 |page=68}}
|{{cite book |quote=A lower estimate puts the Jewish pogrom deaths in the Ukraine, 1648–56, at 56,000. |first=Micheal |last=Clodfelter |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company]] |date=2002 |page=56}}
}}</ref> and recent academic studies have argued fatalities were even lower. Modern [[historiography|historiographic]] methods, particularly from the realm of [[historical demography]], became more widely adopted and tended to result in lower fatality numbers.<ref name="Musz"/> Newer studies of the Jewish population of the affected areas of Ukraine in that period estimate it to be 50,000.<ref name="Jews in Ukraine">Stampfer in his article estimates the population at about 40,000; the same figure is given by Henry Abramson in his article on "[http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ukraine Ukraine]" (2010), in the ''[[YIVO Institute for Jewish Research|YIVO]] Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe''. Paul M. Johnson in his ''A History of the Jews'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=mv0grelUicsC&dq=jewish+settlements+in+western+poland&pg=PA251 p. 251]) and Edward Fram in his ''Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Law and Life in Poland, 1550–1655'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=RULE5enwigEC&dq=jewish+population+ukraine+seventeenth&pg=PA20 p. 20]) give a higher estimate of over 51,000.</ref> According to [[Orest Subtelny]]:
<blockquote>Weinryb cites the calculations of {{ill|Shmuel Ettinger|lt=S. Ettinger|he|שמואל_אטינגר}} indicating that about 50,000 Jews lived in the area where the uprising occurred. See B. Weinryb, "The Hebrew Chronicles on Bohdan Khmelnytsky and the Cossack-Polish War", ''Harvard Ukrainian Studies'' 1 (1977): 153–77. While many of them were killed, Jewish losses did not reach the hair-raising figures that are often associated with the uprising. In the words of Weinryb (''The Jews of Poland'', 193–4), "The fragmentary information of the period—and to a great extent information from subsequent years, including reports of recovery—clearly indicate that the catastrophe may have not been as great as has been assumed."{{sfn|Subtelny|1994|pp=127–128}}</blockquote>

A 2003 study by Israeli demographer [[Shaul Stampfer]] of [[Hebrew University]] dedicated solely to the issue of Jewish casualties in the uprising concludes that 18,000–20,000 Jews died out of a total population of 40,000. He attributes many of these deaths to disease and famine.<ref name="Stampfer">{{cite journal |last=Stampfer |first=Shaul |journal=Jewish History |volume=17 |title=What Actually Happened to the Jews of Ukraine in 1648? |pages=165–178 |date=2003 |issue=2 |doi=10.1023/A:1022330717763}}</ref> [[Paul Robert Magocsi]] states that Jewish chroniclers of the 17th century "provide invariably inflated figures with respect to the loss of life among the Jewish population of Ukraine. The numbers range from 60,000–80,000 (Nathan Hannover) to 100,000 (Sabbatai Cohen), but that "[t]he Israeli scholars Shmuel Ettinger and Bernard D. Weinryb speak instead of the 'annihilation of tens of thousands of Jewish lives', and the Ukrainian-American historian [[Jaroslaw Pelenski]] narrows the number of Jewish deaths to between 6,000 and 14,000".{{sfn|Magocsi|1996|p=201}} Orest Subtelny concludes:
<blockquote>Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history.{{sfn|Subtelny|1994|pp=127–128}}</blockquote>

In the two decades following the uprising the Commonwealth suffered two more major wars ([[Deluge (history)|The Deluge]] and [[Russo-Polish War (1654–67)]]; during that period total Jewish casualties are estimated at another 20,000 to 30,000.

=== Ukrainian population ===

[[File:Cossack army in 1648.PNG|thumb|250px|Cossack army in 1648.]]

While the Cossacks and peasants (known as ''pospolity''<ref>[https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/ЭСБЕ/Посполитые Посполитые] [[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]]</ref>) were in many cases the perpetrators of massacres of Polish [[szlachta]] members and their collaborators, they also suffered the horrendous loss of life resulting from Polish reprisals, Tatar raids, famine, plague and general destruction due to war.

At the initial stages of the uprising, armies of the magnate [[Jeremi Wiśniowiecki]], on their retreat westward inflicted terrible retribution on the civilian population, leaving behind them a trail of burned towns and villages.{{sfn|Subtelny|1994|p=128}} In addition, Khmelnytsky's Tatar allies often continued their raids against the civilian population, in spite of protests from the Cossacks. After the Cossacks' alliance with [[Tsardom of Russia]] was enacted, the Tatar raids became unrestrained; coupled with the onset of famine, they led to a virtual depopulation of whole areas of the country. The extent of the tragedy can be exemplified by a report of a Polish officer of the time, describing the devastation:
<blockquote>I estimate that the number of infants alone who were found dead along the roads and in the castles reached 10,000. I ordered them to be buried in the fields and one grave alone contained over 270 bodies... All the infants were less than a year old since the older ones were driven off into captivity. The surviving peasants wander about in groups, bewailing their misfortune.{{sfn|Subtelny|1994|p=136}}</blockquote>
== In popular culture ==

The rebellion had a major effect on [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]]. ''[[With Fire and Sword]]'' is a historical fiction novel, set in the 17th century in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Khmelnytsky Uprising.

''[[With Fire and Sword (film)|With Fire and Sword]]'' is also a Polish historical drama film directed by [[Jerzy Hoffman]]. The film is based on the novel ''With Fire and Sword'', the first part in [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]'s [[The Trilogy]].

== See also ==

* [[History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)#Cossacks and Cossack rebellions]]
* [[Ogniem i Mieczem]]
* [[Wars of national liberation]]
* [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]]
* [[Deluge (history)]]
* [[With Fire and Sword (film)|''With Fire and Sword'' (film)]]
* [[Pereiaslav Agreement]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul Robert |author-link=Paul Robert Magocsi |title=A History of Ukraine |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |date=1996 |isbn=0-8020-7820-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Subtelny |first=Orest |date=1994 |author-link=Orest Subtelny |title=[[Ukraine: A History]] |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |isbn=0-8020-0591-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Chirovsky |first=Nicholas |title=The Lithuanian-Rus' commonwealth, the Polish domination, and the Cossack-Hetman State |publisher=Philosophical Library |date=1984}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Citation |last=Sysyn |first=Frank E. |title=A curse on both their houses: Catholic attitudes toward the Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Khmel'nyts'kyi Uprising in Father Pawel Ruszel 'Fawor niebieski' |work=Israel and the Nations |year=1987 |pages=xi–xxiv}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rosman |first=Moshe (Murray) J. |title=Dubno in the wake of Khmel'nyts'kyi |journal=[[Jewish History (journal)|Jewish History]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=2003 |pages=239–255 |doi=10.1023/a:1022352222729 |s2cid=159067943}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Yakovenko |first=Natalia |title=The events of 1648–1649: contemporary reports and the problem of verification |journal=[[Jewish History (journal)|Jewish History]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=2003 |pages=165–178|doi=10.1023/A:1022308423637 |s2cid=159214775}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kohut |first=Zenon E. |title=The Khmelnytsky Uprising, the image of Jews, and the shaping of Ukrainian historical memory |journal=[[Jewish History (journal)|Jewish History]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=2003 |pages=141–163|doi=10.1023/A:1022300121820 |s2cid=159708538}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sysyn |first=Frank E. |title=The Khmel'nyts'kyi Uprising: a characterization of the Ukrainian revolt |journal=[[Jewish History (journal)|Jewish History]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=2003 |pages=115–139 |doi=10.1023/A:1022356306799 |s2cid=159327759}}
* {{Cite book |first=Serhii |last=Plokhi |title=The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001}}
* {{Cite book |first=Sholem |last=Asch |title=Kiddush HaShem: An Epic of 1648 |publisher=[[Jewish Publication Society of America]] |year=1919}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4685-cossacks-uprising Cossacks' Uprising, Jewish Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/horsemusket/korsun/default.aspx The Zaporozhian Cossack Battle at Korsun] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208182836/http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/horsemusket/korsun/default.aspx |date=2009-02-08 }}

{{Jews and Judaism in Lithuania}}
{{Lithuanian wars and conflicts}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Zaporozhian Cossack uprisings}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Khmelnytsky Uprising| ]]
[[Category:1640s conflicts]]
[[Category:1650s conflicts]]
[[Category:Antisemitism in Ukraine]]
[[Category:17th-century rebellions]]
[[Category:Cossack uprisings]]
[[Category:Cossack Hetmanate]]
[[Category:Anti-Jewish pogroms in Europe]]
[[Category:Jewish Ukrainian history]]
[[Category:Jewish Polish history]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:1640s in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:1650s in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:National revivals]]
[[Category:Ukrainian independence movement]]
[[Category:1640s in Russia]]
[[Category:1650s in Russia]]
[[Category:Genocides in Europe]]
[[Category:Polish–Ukrainian wars]]