Editing Kitsch

{{short description|Art or other objects that appeal to popular rather than high art tastes}}
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{{About|the art term}}
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[[File:A Friend in Need 1903 C.M.Coolidge.jpg|alt=|thumb|''A Friend in Need'', a 1903 ''[[Dogs Playing Poker]]'' painting by [[Cassius Marcellus Coolidge]], is a common example of modern kitsch.]]
[[File:Puppy de Jeff Koons (2) -- 2021 -- Bilbao, España.jpg|thumb|''Puppy'' by [[Jeff Koons]] (2010) is a self-aware display of kitsch, specifically as a combination of opulence and cuteness.]]

'''''Kitsch''''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ɪ|tʃ}} {{Respell|KICH}}; [[loanword]] from German){{efn|Despite being a direct borrowing from modern German, kitsch is most often left uncapitalized and without [[italics]] (cf. [[Gestalt psychology|Gestalt]], ''[[Sonderweg]]''). Pronunciation may also be colloquially realized as {{IPAc-en|k|ɪ|ʃ}} {{Respell|KISH}}.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kitsch|title=Definition of KITSCH|website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref> is a term applied to art and design that is perceived as [[Naivety|naïve]] imitation, overly eccentric, gratuitous or of banal [[Taste (sociology)|taste]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|author-link=Theodor W. Adorno|author-link2=Max Horkheimer|date=2002|title=Dialectic of Enlightenment - Philosophical Fragments|url=http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~randall/Readings%20W2/Horkheimer_Max_Adorno_Theodor_W_Dialectic_of_Enlightenment_Philosophical_Fragments.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614021407/http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~randall/Readings%20W2/Horkheimer_Max_Adorno_Theodor_W_Dialectic_of_Enlightenment_Philosophical_Fragments.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2017|access-date=22 October 2021|website=Wayback Machine Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Dutton|first=Denis|title=Kitsch|date=2003|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t046768|work=Oxford Art Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t046768|access-date=2021-10-22|url-access=subscription}}</ref> 

The modern [[avant-garde]] traditionally opposed kitsch for its [[melodrama|melodramatic]] tendencies, its superficial relationship with the [[human condition]] and its naturalistic standards of [[beauty]]. In the first half of the 20th century, kitsch was used in reference to mass-produced, [[popular culture|pop-cultural]] products that lacked the conceptual depth of [[fine art]]. However, since the emergence of [[Pop art|Pop Art]] in the 1950s, kitsch has taken on newfound highbrow appeal, often wielded in knowingly [[Irony|ironic]], humorous or [[Sincerity|earnest]] manners. 

To brand visual art as "kitsch" is often still [[pejorative]], though not exclusively. Art deemed kitsch may be enjoyed in an entirely positive and [[sincerity|sincere]] manner. For example, it carries the ability to be quaint or "quirky" without being offensive on the surface, as in the ''[[Dogs Playing Poker]]'' paintings. 

Along with visual art, the quality of kitsch can be used to describe works of [[music]], [[literature]] or any other creative medium. Kitsch relates to [[Camp (style)|camp]], as they both incorporate irony and extravagance.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scruton|first1=Roger|author-link1=Roger Scruton|date=21 February 2014|title=A fine line between art and kitsch|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rogerscruton/2014/02/21/a-fine-line-between-art-and-kitsch/#7fbd667e3679|website=Forbes|access-date=16 January 2017}}</ref>

==History and analysis==
[[File:Price Kensington Cottage Ware.jpg|thumb|A mass-produced [[teapot]] and milk jug set, themed after a rural cottage]]
[[File:Buzescu-Roma-Village.jpg|thumb|Examples of kitsch in architecture]]
[[File:Licheń bazylika 2.JPG|thumb|[[Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń| Basilica of Licheń]] in Poland, as an example of kitsch in sacred architecture]]
As a descriptive term, ''kitsch'' originated in the art markets of [[Munich#Capital of reunited Bavaria|Munich]], Germany in the 1860s and the 1870s, describing cheap, popular, and marketable pictures and sketches.<ref>Calinescu, Matei. Five Faces of Modernity. Kitsch, p.&nbsp;234.</ref> In ''Das Buch vom Kitsch'' (''The Book of Kitsch''), published in 1936, [[Hans Reimann (writer)|Hans Reimann]] defined it as a professional expression "born in a painter's studio".

The study of kitsch was done almost exclusively in Germany until the 1970s, with [[Walter Benjamin]] being an important scholar in the field.<ref name="menninghaus">{{cite book |last=Menninghaus |first=Winfried |title=Walter Benjamin and the Architecture of Modernity |publisher=re.press |year=2009 |isbn=9780980544091 |editor=Andrew Benjamin and Charles Rice |pages=39–58 |chapter=On the Vital Significance of 'Kitsch': Walter Benjamin's Politics of 'Bad Taste' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFx1D_BC5tsC&pg=PA40}}</ref>

Kitsch is regarded as a modern phenomenon, coinciding with social changes in recent centuries such as the [[Industrial Revolution]], [[urbanization]], mass production, modern materials and media such as [[plastic]]s, [[radio]] and [[television]], the rise of the [[middle class]] and [[public education]]{{emdash}}all of which have factored into a perception of oversaturation of art produced for the popular taste.

===Kitsch in art theory and aesthetics===
[[Modernism|Modernist]] writer [[Hermann Broch]] argues that the essence of kitsch is imitation: kitsch mimics its immediate predecessor with no regard to ethics—it aims to copy the beautiful, not the good.<ref>{{cite book|last=Broch|first=Hermann|title=Geist and Zeitgeist: The Spirit in an Unspiritual Age. Six Essays by Hermann Broch| year=2002| publisher=Counterpoint| isbn=9781582431680|chapter=Evil in the Value System of Art|pages=13–40}}</ref> According to Walter Benjamin, kitsch, unlike art, is a utilitarian object lacking all critical distance between object and observer. According to critic Winfried Menninghaus, Benjamin's stance was that kitsch "offers instantaneous emotional gratification without intellectual effort, without the requirement of distance, without sublimation".<ref name="menninghaus"/> In a short essay from 1927, Benjamin observed that an artist who engages in kitschy reproductions of things and ideas from a bygone age deserved to be called a "furnished man"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Walter Benjamin: Dream Kitsch (trans. Edward Viesel) - - |url=https://www.edwardviesel.eu/0056.html |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=www.edwardviesel.eu}}</ref> (in the way that someone rents a "[[Apartment#Facilities|furnished apartment]]" where everything is already supplied).

Kitsch is less about the thing observed than about the observer.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eaglestone|first1=Robert|title=The Broken Voice: Reading Post-Holocaust Literature|date=25 May 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0191084201|page=155}}</ref> According to [[Roger Scruton]], "Kitsch is fake art, expressing fake emotions, whose purpose is to deceive the consumer into thinking he feels something deep and serious."<ref name=Scruton>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30439633|title=A Point of View: The strangely enduring power of kitsch|work=BBC News|date=12 December 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Kitsch Clock Lamp Ornament.jpg|thumb|A nautical-themed clock and lamp ornament]]Tomáš Kulka, in ''Kitsch and Art'', starts from two basic facts that kitsch "has an undeniable mass-appeal" and "considered (by the art-educated elite) bad", and then proposes three essential conditions: 
# Kitsch depicts a beautiful or highly emotionally charged subject; 
# The depicted subject is instantly and effortlessly identifiable;
# Kitsch does not substantially enrich our associations related to the depicted subject.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kitsch and art|last=Tomas|first=Kulka|publisher=Pennsylvania State Univ. Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0271015941|oclc=837730812}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Higgins | first=Kathleen Marie | last2=Kulka | first2=Tomas | title=Kitsch and Art | journal=The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism | publisher=JSTOR | volume=56 | issue=4 | year=1998 | issn=0021-8529 | doi=10.2307/432137 | jstor=432137 | page=410}}</ref>

===Kitsch in Milan Kundera's ''The Unbearable Lightness of Being''===

The concept of kitsch is a central motif in [[Milan Kundera|Milan Kundera's]] 1984 novel ''[[The Unbearable Lightness of Being]]''. Towards the end of the novel, the book's narrator posits that the act of defecation (and specifically, the shame that surrounds it) poses a metaphysical challenge to the theory of divine creation: "Either/or: either shit is acceptable (in which case don't lock yourself in the bathroom!) or we are created in an unacceptable manner".<ref>Kundera, Milan (1984). ''The Unbearable Lightness of Being''. Harper Perennial. p. 248</ref> Thus, in order for us to continue to believe in the essential propriety and rightness of the universe (what the narrator calls "the categorical agreement with being"), we live in a world "in which shit is denied and everyone acts as though it did not exist". For Kundera's narrator, this is the definition of kitsch: an "aesthetic ideal" which "excludes everything from its purview which is essentially unacceptable in human existence".

The novel goes on to relate this definition of kitsch to politics, and specifically—given the novel's setting in [[Prague]] around the time of the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|1968 invasion by the Soviet Union]]—to [[communism]] and [[totalitarianism]]. He gives the example of the Communist [[May Day]] ceremony, and of the sight of children running on the grass and the feeling this is supposed to provoke. This emphasis on feeling is fundamental to how kitsch operates:

<blockquote>Kitsch causes two tears to flow in quick succession. The first tear says: How nice to see children running on the grass! The second tear says: How nice to be moved, together with all mankind, by children running on the grass! It is the second tear that makes kitsch kitsch.<ref name="auto1">Kundera, Milan (1984). ''The Unbearable Lightness of Being''. Harper Perennial. p. 251</ref></blockquote>

According to the narrator, kitsch is "the aesthetic ideal of all politicians and all political parties and movements"; however, where a society is dominated by a single political movement, the result is "totalitarian kitsch":

<blockquote>When I say "totalitarian," what I mean is that everything that infringes on kitsch must be banished for life: every display of individualism (because a deviation from the collective is a spit in the eye of the smiling brotherhood); every doubt (because anyone who starts doubting details will end by doubting life itself); all irony (because in the realm of kitsch everything must be taken quite seriously).<ref name="auto1"/></blockquote>

Kundera's concept of "totalitarian kitsch" has since been invoked in the study of the art and culture of regimes such as [[Stalinism|Stalin's Soviet Union]], [[Nazi Germany]], [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] and Iraq under [[Saddam Hussein]].<ref>Makiya, Kanan (2011). Review: What Is Totalitarian Art? Cultural Kitsch From Stalin to Saddam. ''Foreign Affairs''. '''90''' (3): 142–148</ref> Kundera's narrator ends up condemning kitsch for its "true function" as an ideological tool under such regimes, calling it "a folding screen set up to curtain off death".<ref>Kundera, Milan (1984). ''The Unbearable Lightness of Being''. Harper Perennial. p. 253</ref>

===Melancholic kitsch vs. nostalgic kitsch===

[[File:Kołobrzeg snow globe.JPG|thumb|right|A souvenir snow globe with an underwater motif]]
In her 1999 book ''The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience'', cultural historian [[Celeste Olalquiaga]] develops a theory of kitsch that situates its emergence as a specifically nineteenth-century phenomenon, relating it to the feelings of loss elicited by a world transformed by science and industry.<ref>Olalquiaga, Celeste (1999). ''The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience''. Bloomsbury.</ref> Focusing on examples such as [[paperweights]], [[aquariums]], [[mermaid|mermaids]] and [[the Crystal Palace]], Olalquiaga uses Benjamin's concept of the [[Walter Benjamin|"dialectical image"]] to argue for the utopian potential of "melancholic kitsch", which she differentiates from the more commonly discussed "nostalgic kitsch".<ref>Olalquiaga, Celeste (1999). ''The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience''. Bloomsbury. pp. 26, 75</ref>

These two types of kitsch correspond to two different forms of memory. Nostalgic kitsch functions through "reminiscence", which "sacrifices the intensity of experience for a conscious or fabricated sense of continuity":

<blockquote>Incapable of tolerating the intensity of the moment, reminiscence selects and consolidates an event's acceptable parts into a memory perceived as complete. […] This reconstructed experience is frozen as an emblem of itself, becoming a cultural fossil.<ref>Olalquiaga, Celeste (1999). ''The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience''. Bloomsbury. p. 292</ref></blockquote>

In contrast, melancholic kitsch functions through "remembrance", a form of memory that Olalquiaga links to the "[[souvenir]]", which attempts "to repossess the experience of intensity and immediacy through an object".<ref name="auto">Olalquiaga, Celeste (1999). ''The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience''. Bloomsbury. p. 291</ref> While reminiscence translates a remembered event to the realm of the symbolic ("deprived of immediacy in favour of representational meaning"), remembrance is "the memory of the unconscious", which "sacrific[es] the continuity of time for the intensity of the experience".<ref>Olalquiaga, Celeste (1999). ''The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience''. Bloomsbury. p. 294, 292</ref> Far from denying death, melancholic kitsch can only function through a recognition of its multiple "deaths" as a fragmentary remembrance that is subsequently commodified and reproduced. It "glorifies the perishable aspect of events, seeking in their partial and decaying memory the confirmation of its own temporal dislocation".<ref>Olalquiaga, Celeste (1999). ''The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience''. Bloomsbury. p. 298</ref>

Thus, for Olalquiaga, melancholic kitsch is able to function as a Benjaminian dialectical image: "an object whose decayed state exposes and reflects its utopian possibilities, a remnant constantly reliving its own death, a ruin".<ref name="auto"/>

==Further usage==

===Historical fiction===
Jewish-American author [[Art Spiegelman]] coined the term "[[Wikt:Holo-kitsch|Holo-kitsch]]" to describe mass-market, overly sentimental depictions of [[the Holocaust]] from the end of the [[Cold War]] onwards, including works inspired by his own graphic novel on the subject, ''[[Maus]]''. The term is usually used to criticize works seen as relying on [[melodrama]] and mass recognition to commercialize the experiences of [[Holocaust survivors]], such as ''[[Life Is Beautiful]]'' or ''[[The Boy in the Striped Pajamas]]'', but also includes more critically respected works like Polanski's ''[[The Pianist (2002 film)|The Pianist]]''.<ref>Audi, Anthony. [https://lithub.com/art-spiegelman-if-it-walks-like-a-fascist/ "Art Spiegelman: If It Walks Like a Fascist…"] ''Literary Hub'', 22 March 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2024.</ref><ref>Bourne, Michael. [https://themillions.com/2011/11/beyond-holokitsch-spiegelman-goes-meta.html "Beyond Holokitsch: Spiegelman Goes Meta"], ''The Millions'', 22 November 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2024.</ref><ref>Corliss, Richard. [https://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1869229,00.html "Defiance: Beyond Holo-kitsch"], ''Time'', 1 January, 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2024.</ref>

Swiss historian and anti-Semitism expert [[Stefan Maechler]] also commented on the role of kitsch sentimentality in the context of [[Wilkomirski syndrome]], writing on ''[[Fragments: Memories of a Wartime Childhood]]'' that "once the professed interrelationship between the first-person narrator, the death-camp story he narrates, and historical reality are proved palpably false, what was a masterpiece becomes kitsch."<ref>Maechler 2000, p. 281.</ref>

===Reclamation===
The [[Kitsch movement]] is an international movement of classical painters, founded{{clarify|Sources indicate that this was more of an aestethic statement than the founding of a movement|date=September 2014}} in 1998 upon a philosophy proposed by [[Odd Nerdrum]],<ref>E.J. Pettinger [http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/the-kitsch-campaign/Content?oid=926148] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407050738/http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/the-kitsch-campaign/Content?oid=926148|date=7 April 2012}} "The Kitsch Campaign" [Boise Weekly], 29 December 2004.</ref> which he clarified in his 2001 book ''On Kitsch'',<ref>Dag Solhjell and Odd Nerdrum. ''On Kitsch'', Kagge Publishing, August 2001, {{ISBN|8248901238}}.</ref> in cooperation with Jan-Ove Tuv and others incorporating the techniques of the [[Old Master]]s with narrative, [[romanticism]], and emotionally charged imagery.

==See also==
*{{annotated link|Cliché}}
*{{annotated link|Lowbrow (art movement)}}
*{{annotated link|Museum of Bad Art}}
*{{annotated link|Poshlost}}
*[[Prolefeed]]—in ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]],'' [[popular culture]] for entertaining Oceania's working class
;Notable examples 
*{{annotated link|Velvet Elvis}}
*{{annotated link|Chinese Girl|''Chinese Girl''}}
*{{annotated link|Christmas cards}}
*{{annotated link|Chocolate box art}}
*{{annotated link|Thomas Kinkade}}

==References ==
'''Informational notes'''
{{Notelist}}

'''Citations'''
{{Reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
* {{cite book | last=Horkheimer | first=Max | last2=Adorno | first2=Theodor W. | editor-last1=Schmid Noerr | editor-first1=Gunzelin | title=Dialectic of enlightenment : philosophical fragments | publication-place=Stanford, California | date=2002 | isbn=978-0-8047-8809-0 | oclc=919087055 | author-link=Max Horkheimer | author-link2=Theodor W. Adorno | translator-last1=Jephcott |translator-first1=Edmund | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614021407/http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~randall/Readings%20W2/Horkheimer_Max_Adorno_Theodor_W_Dialectic_of_Enlightenment_Philosophical_Fragments.pdf | url = http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~randall/Readings%20W2/Horkheimer_Max_Adorno_Theodor_W_Dialectic_of_Enlightenment_Philosophical_Fragments.pdf | archive-date = June 14, 2017}}

'''Further reading'''
* Adorno, Theodor (2001). ''The Culture Industry''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-25380-2}}
* [[Thorsten Botz-Bornstein|Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten]] (2008). "Wabi and Kitsch: Two Japanese Paradigms" in ''Æ: Canadian Aesthetics Journal'' 15.
* [[Thorsten Botz-Bornstein|Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten]] (2019) ''The New Aesthetics of Deculturation: Neoliberalism, Fundamentalism and Kitsch'' (Bloomsbury). Foreword by Olivier Roy.
*Braungart, Wolfgang (2002). "Kitsch. Faszination und Herausforderung des Banalen und Trivialen". Max Niemeyer Verlag. {{ISBN|3-484-32112-1}}/0083-4564.
* [[Mark Cheetham|Cheetham, Mark A]] (2001). "Kant, Art and Art History: moments of discipline". [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-521-80018-8}}.
* [[Gillo Dorfles|Dorfles, Gillo]] (1969, translated from the 1968 Italian version, ''Il Kitsch''). ''Kitsch: The World of Bad Taste'', Universe Books. LCCN 78-93950
* [[Norbert Elias|Elias, Norbert]] (1998[1935]). "The Kitsch Style and the Age of Kitsch," in J. Goudsblom and S. Mennell (eds) ''The Norbert Elias Reader''. Oxford: [[Wiley-Blackwell|Blackwell]].
* Gelfert, Hans-Dieter (2000). "Was ist Kitsch?". [[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]] in Göttingen. {{ISBN|3-525-34024-9}}.
* Giesz, Ludwig (1971). ''Phänomenologie des Kitsches''. 2. vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. [Partially translated into English in Dorfles (1969)]. Reprint (1994): Ungekürzte Ausgabe. Frankfurt am Main: [[S. Fischer Verlag]]. {{ISBN|3-596-12034-9}} / {{ISBN|978-3-596-12034-5}}.
* Gorelik, Boris (2013). ''Incredible Tretchikoff: Life of an artist and adventurer''. Art / Books, London. {{ISBN|978-1-908970-08-4}}
* Greenberg, Clement (1978). ''Art and Culture''. [[Beacon Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8070-6681-8}}
* Holliday, Ruth and Potts, Tracey (2012) Kitsch! Cultural Politics and Taste, Manchester University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-7190-6616-0}}
* Karpfen, Fritz (1925). "Kitsch. Eine Studie über die Entartung der Kunst". Weltbund-Verlag, Hamburg.
* Kristeller, Paul Oskar (1990). "The Modern System of the Arts" (In "Renaissance Thought and the Arts"). [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-691-02010-5}}
* Kulka, Tomas (1996). ''Kitsch and Art''. [[Pennsylvania State University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-271-01594-2}}
* Moles, Abraham (nouvelle édition 1977). ''Psychologie du Kitsch: L'art du Bonheur'', Denoël-Gonthier
* Nerdrum, Odd (Editor) (2001). ''On Kitsch''. [[Distributed Art Publishers]]. {{ISBN|82-489-0123-8}}
* Olalquiaga, Celeste (2002). ''The Artificial Kingdom: On the Kitsch Experience''. [[University of Minnesota]] {{ISBN|0-8166-4117-X}}
* Reimann, Hans (1936). "Das Buch vom Kitsch". [[Piper Verlag]], München.
* Richter, Gerd, (1972). ''Kitsch-Lexicon'', [[Bertelsmann]]. {{ISBN|3-570-03148-9}}
* Ryynänen, Max (2018). "Contemporary Kitsch: The Death of Pseudo Art and the Birth of Everyday Cheesiness (A Postcolonial Inquiry)" in ''Terra Aestheticae'' 1, pp.&nbsp;70–86. 
* Scruton, Roger (2009). ''Beauty: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0199229759}}
* Scruton, Roger (1983). ''The Aesthetic Understanding: Essays in the Philosophy of Art and Culture'' {{ISBN|1890318027}}
* Shiner, Larry (2001). "The Invention of Art". [[University of Chicago Press]]. {{ISBN|0-226-75342-5}}.
* Thuller, Gabrielle (2006 and 2007). "Kunst und Kitsch. Wie erkenne ich?", {{ISBN|3-7630-2463-8}}. "Kitsch. Balsam für Herz und Seele", {{ISBN|978-3-7630-2493-3}}. (Both on [[Belser-Verlag]], Stuttgart.)
* Ward, Peter (1994). ''Kitsch in Sync: A Consumer's Guide to Bad Taste'', [[Plexus Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-85965-152-5}}
*"Kitsch. Texte und Theorien", (2007). [[Reclam]]. {{ISBN|978-3-15-018476-9}}. (Includes classic texts of kitsch criticism from authors like Theodor Adorno, Ferdinand Avenarius, Edward Koelwel, Walter Benjamin, Ernst Bloch, Hermann Broch, Richard Egenter, etc.).

==External links==
* [http://www.artdesigncafe.com/kitsch-1992 "Kitsch"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103001119/http://www.artdesigncafe.com/kitsch-1992 |date=3 November 2012 }}. In John Walker's ''Glossary of art, architecture & design since 1945''.
* [http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/kitsch.html Avant-Garde and Kitsch] – essay by Clement Greenberg

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