Editing Lab-on-a-chip

{{Short description|Device integrating laboratory functions on a integrated circuit}}
{{About|the technology|the journal|Lab on a Chip (journal){{!}}''Lab on a Chip'' (journal)}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2010}}

A '''lab-on-a-chip''' ('''LOC''') is a device that integrates one or several [[laboratory]] functions on a single [[integrated circuit]] (commonly called a "chip") of only millimeters to a few square centimeters to achieve automation and [[high-throughput screening]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Volpatti, L. R. |author2=Yetisen, A. K. | title = Commercialization of microfluidic devices | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 32 | issue = 7 | pages = 347–350 |date=Jul 2014 | doi = 10.1016/j.tibtech.2014.04.010 |pmid=24954000 }}</ref> LOCs can handle extremely small fluid volumes down to less than [[pico-]]liters. Lab-on-a-chip devices are a subset of [[microelectromechanical systems]] (MEMS) devices and sometimes called "micro [[total analysis system]]s" (μTAS). LOCs may use [[microfluidics]], the physics, manipulation and study of minute amounts of fluids. However, strictly regarded "lab-on-a-chip" indicates generally the scaling of single or multiple lab processes down to chip-format, whereas "μTAS" is dedicated to the integration of the total sequence of lab processes to perform chemical analysis.

== History ==
[[File:Labonachip20017-300.jpg|thumb|[[Microelectromechanical systems]] [[integrated circuit|chip]], sometimes called "lab on a chip"]]
After the invention of [[microtechnology]] (≈1954) for realizing integrated [[semiconductor]] structures for microelectronic chips, these [[lithography]]-based technologies were soon applied in [[pressure sensor]] manufacturing (1966) as well. Due to further development of these usually [[CMOS]]-compatibility limited processes, a tool box became available to create micrometre or sub-micrometre sized mechanical structures in [[Wafer (electronics)|silicon wafers]] as well: the [[microelectromechanical systems]] (MEMS) era had started.

Next to pressure sensors, airbag sensors and other mechanically movable structures, fluid handling devices were developed. Examples are: channels (capillary connections), mixers, valves, pumps and dosing devices. The first LOC analysis system was a [[gas chromatograph]], developed in 1979 by S.C. Terry at Stanford University.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=James B. Angell |author2=Stephen C. Terry |author3=Phillip W. Barth |date=April 1983 |title=Silicon Micromechanical Devices |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=248 |issue=4 |pages=44–55 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0483-44|bibcode=1983SciAm.248d..44A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Terry J.H.Jerman | year = 1979 | title = A Gas Chromatographic Air Analyzer Fabricated on a Silicon Wafer | journal = IEEE Trans. Electron Devices | volume = 26 | issue = 12| pages = 1880–1886 | doi = 10.1109/T-ED.1979.19791 | bibcode = 1979ITED...26.1880T | s2cid = 21971431 }}</ref> However, only at the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s did the LOC research start to seriously grow as a few research groups in Europe developed micropumps, flowsensors and the concepts for integrated fluid treatments for analysis systems.<ref>A.Manz, N.Graber and H.M.Widmer: Miniaturized total Chemical Analysis systems: A Novel Concept for Chemical Sensing, Sensors and Actuators, B 1 (1990) 244–248.</ref>  These μTAS concepts demonstrated that integration of pre-treatment steps, usually done at lab-scale, could extend the simple sensor functionality towards a complete laboratory analysis, including additional cleaning and separation steps.

A big boost in research and commercial interest came in the mid-1990s, when μTAS technologies turned out to provide interesting tooling for [[genomics]] applications, like [[capillary electrophoresis]] and [[DNA microarrays]]. A big boost in research support also came from the military, especially from [[DARPA]] (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), for their interest in portable systems to aid in the detection of [[biological warfare|biological]] and [[chemical warfare]] agents. The added value was not only limited to integration of lab processes for analysis but also the characteristic possibilities of individual components and the application to other, non-analysis, lab processes. Hence the term "lab-on-a-chip" was introduced.

Although the application of LOCs is still novel and modest, a growing interest of companies and applied research groups is observed in different fields such as chemical analysis, environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics and [[cellomics]], but also in synthetic chemistry such as rapid screening and microreactors for pharmaceutics. Besides further application developments, research in LOC systems is expected to extend towards downscaling of fluid handling structures as well, by using [[nanotechnology]]. Sub-micrometre and nano-sized channels, DNA labyrinths, single cell detection and analysis,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Chokkalingam Venkat | author2 = Tel Jurjen | author3 = Wimmers Florian | author4 =  Liu Xin | author5 = Semenov Sergey | author6 = Thiele Julian | author7 = Figdor Carl G. | author8 = Huck Wilhelm T.S. | year = 2013| title = Probing cellular heterogeneity in cytokine-secreting immune cells using droplet-based microfluidics | journal = Lab on a Chip | volume = 13 | issue = 24| pages = 4740–4744 | doi = 10.1039/C3LC50945A | pmid = 24185478 }}</ref> and nano-sensors, might become feasible, allowing new ways of interaction with biological species and large molecules.  Many books have been written that cover various aspects of these devices, including the fluid transport,<ref name=Kirby>{{cite book | author=Kirby, B.J. | title=Micro- and Nanoscale Fluid Mechanics: Transport in Microfluidic Devices| url=http://www.kirbyresearch.com/textbook| year=2010| publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=978-0-521-11903-0}}</ref><ref name=Bruus>{{cite book | author=Bruus, H. | title=Theoretical Microfluidics | year= 2007}}</ref><ref name=Karniadakis>{{cite book | author=Karniadakis, G.M. | author2=Beskok, A. | author3=Aluru, N. | title=Microflows and Nanoflows | year=2005 | publisher =[[Springer Verlag]] }}</ref> system properties,<ref name=Tabeling>{{cite book | author=Tabeling, P. | title=Introduction to Microfluidic}}</ref> sensing techniques,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Sensing methods for dielectrophoresis phenomenon: from bulky instruments to lab-on-a-chip|journal = IEEE Circuits and Systems Magazine|date = 2004-01-01|issn = 1531-636X|pages = 5–15|volume = 4|issue = 3|doi = 10.1109/MCAS.2004.1337805|first1 = Y.|last1 = Ghallab|first2 = W.|last2 = Badawy|s2cid = 6178424}}</ref> and bioanalytical applications.<ref name=Berthier>{{cite book |author1=Berthier, J.  |author2=Silberzan, P. | title=Microfluidics for Biotechnology}}</ref><ref name=Gomez>{{cite book | author=Gomez, F.A. | title=Biological Applications of Microfluidics }}{{ISBN missing}}</ref>

The size of the global lab on chip market was estimated at US$5,698 million in 2021 and is projected to increase to US$14,772 million by 2030, at a CAGR of 11.5% from 2022 to 2030 <ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.acumenresearchandconsulting.com/lab-on-chip-market |title = Acumen Research and Consulting |date = June 2022 |access-date=  23 May 2023}}</ref>

== Chip materials and fabrication technologies ==
The basis for most LOC fabrication processes is [[photolithography]]. Initially most processes were in silicon, as these well-developed technologies were directly derived from [[semiconductor]] fabrication. Because of demands for e.g. specific optical characteristics, bio- or chemical compatibility, lower production costs and faster prototyping, new processes have been developed such as glass, ceramics and metal [[industrial etching|etching]], deposition and bonding, [[polydimethylsiloxane]] (PDMS) processing (e.g., [[soft lithography]]), [[Off-stoichiometry thiol-ene polymer]]s (OSTEmer) processing, thick-film- and [[stereolithography]]-based 3D printing<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Gustavo |last2=Chiappone |first2=Annalisa |last3=Dietlikee |first3=Kurt |last4=Pirri |first4=Fabrizio |last5=Roppolo |first5=Ignazio |title=Fabrication and Functionalization of 3D Printed Polydimethylsiloxane-Based Microfluidic Devices Obtained through Digital Light Processing |journal=Advanced Materials Technologies |date=2020 |volume=5 |issue=9 |page=2000374 |doi=10.1002/admt.202000374 |s2cid=225360332 |url=https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/admt.202000374|url-access=subscription }}</ref> as well as fast replication methods via [[electroplating]], [[injection molding]] and [[Embossing (manufacturing)|embossing]]. The demand for cheap and easy LOC prototyping resulted in a simple methodology for the fabrication of PDMS microfluidic devices: ESCARGOT (Embedded SCAffold RemovinG Open Technology).<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Saggiomo, V. |author2=Velders, H. A. | title = Simple 3D Printed Scaffold-Removal Method for the Fabrication of Intricate Microfluidic Devices | journal = Advanced Science | volume = 2 | issue = 8 | pages = X |date=Jul 2015 | doi = 10.1002/advs.201500125 |pmid=27709002 | pmc = 5115388 }}</ref> This technique allows for the creation of microfluidic channels, in a single block of PDMS, via a dissolvable scaffold (made by e.g. [[3D printing]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7z8I7awRYY4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/7z8I7awRYY4 |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|title=Simple fabrication of complex microfluidic devices (ESCARGOT)|author=Vittorio Saggiomo|date=17 July 2015|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
Furthermore, the LOC field more and more exceeds the borders between lithography-based microsystem technology, nanotechnology and precision engineering. Printing is considered as a well-established yet maturing method for rapid prototyping in chip fabrication.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Loo J, Ho A, Turner A, Mak WC | title = Integrated Printed Microfluidic Biosensors | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 37 | issue = 10 | pages = 1104–1120 | date = 2019 | pmid = 30992149 | doi = 10.1016/j.tibtech.2019.03.009 | hdl = 1826/15985 | s2cid = 119536401 | url = http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/15985 }}</ref>

The development of LOC devices using [[printed circuit board]] (PCB) substrates is an interesting alternative due to these differentiating characteristics: commercially available substrates with integrated electronics, sensors and actuators; disposable devices at low cost, and very high potential of commercialization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moschou |first=Despina |year=2017 |title=The lab-on-PCB approach: tackling the μTAS commercial upscaling bottleneck |journal=Lab on a Chip |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=1388–1405 |doi=10.1039/C7LC00121E |pmc= |pmid= 28294256|doi-access=free}}</ref> These devices are known as Lab-on-PCBs (LOPCBs).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perdigones|first=Francisco|title=Lab-on-PCB and Flow Driving: A Critical Review|journal=[[Micromachines]]|year=2021|volume=12|issue=2|pages=175|doi=10.3390/mi12020175|pmid=33578984|pmc=7916810|doi-access=free}}</ref> The following are some of the advantages of PCB technology:
a) PCB-based circuit design offers great flexibility and can be tailored to specific demands.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/elps.201900444 | title = The review of Lab-on-PCB for biomedical application | year = 2020 | last1 = Zhao | first1 = Wenhao | last2 = Tian | first2 = Shulin | last3 = Huang | first3 = Lei | last4 = Liu | first4 = Ke | last5 = Dong | first5 = Lijuan | journal = Electrophoresis | volume = 41 | issue = 16–17 | pages = 1433–1445 | pmid = 31945803 | s2cid = 210699552 }}</ref>
b) PCB technology enables the integration of electronic and sensing modules on the same platform, reducing device size while maintaining accuracy of detection.
c) The standardized and established PCB manufacturing process allows for cost-effective large-scale production of PCB-based detection devices.
d) The growth of flexible PCB technology has driven the development of wearable detection devices. As a result, over the past decade, there have been numerous reports on the application of Lab-on-PCB to various biomedical fields, including the fastest SARS-CoV-2 molecular diagnostic test.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Papamatthaiou |first1=Sotirios |last2=Boxall-Clasby |first2=James |last3=Douglas |first3=Edward J. A. |last4=Jajesniak |first4=Pawel |last5=Peyret |first5=Hadrien |last6=Mercer-Chalmers |first6=June |last7=Kumar |first7=Varun K. S. |last8=Lomonossoff |first8=George P. |last9=Reboud |first9=Julien |last10=Laabei |first10=Maisem |last11=Cooper |first11=Jonathan M. |last12=Kasprzyk-Hordern |first12=Barbara |last13=Moschou |first13=Despina |date=2023 |title=LoCKAmp: lab-on-PCB technology for |journal=Lab on a Chip |language=en |volume=23 |issue=20 |pages=4400–4412 |doi=10.1039/D3LC00441D |issn=1473-0197 |pmc=10563828 |pmid=37740394}}</ref>
e) PCBs are compatible with wet deposition methods, to allow for the fabrication of sensors using novel nanomaterials (e.g. graphene).<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1039/d2nr05838c | title = A sprayed graphene transistor platform for rapid and low-cost chemical sensing | year = 2023 | last1 = Fenech-Salerno | first1 = Benji | last2 = Holicky | first2 = Martin | last3 = Yao | first3 = Chengning | last4 = Cass | first4 = Anthony E. G. | last5 = Torrisi | first5 = Felice | journal = Nanoscale | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = 3243–3254 | pmid = 36723120 | s2cid = 256261782 | hdl = 10044/1/102808 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Papamatthaiou |first1=Sotirios |last2=Estrela |first2=Pedro |last3=Moschou |first3=Despina |date=2021-05-10 |title=Printable graphene BioFETs for DNA quantification in Lab-on-PCB microsystems |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=9815 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-89367-1 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8111018 |pmid=33972649|bibcode=2021NatSR..11.9815P }}</ref>

== Advantages ==
LOCs may provide advantages, which are specific to their application. Typical advantages<ref name=":0" /> are:
* low fluid volumes consumption (less waste, lower reagents costs and less required sample volumes for diagnostics)
* faster analysis and response times due to short diffusion distances, fast heating, high surface to volume ratios, small heat capacities.
* better process control because of a faster response of the system (e.g. thermal control for exothermic chemical reactions)
* compactness of the systems due to integration of much functionality and small volumes
* massive parallelization due to compactness, which allows high-throughput analysis
* lower fabrication costs, allowing cost-effective disposable chips, fabricated in mass production<ref name="researchgate.net">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1063/1.4821315 | volume=7 | title=Manufacturing and wetting low-cost microfluidic cell separation devices | year=2013 | journal=Biomicrofluidics | page=056501 | author=Pawell Ryan S | issue=5 | pmid=24404077 | pmc=3785532}}</ref>
* part quality may be verified automatically<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s10404-014-1464-1 | volume=18 | issue=4 | title=Automating microfluidic part verification | journal=Microfluidics and Nanofluidics | pages=657–665|year = 2015|last1 = Pawell|first1 = Ryan S.| last2=Taylor | first2=Robert A. | last3=Morris | first3=Kevin V. | last4=Barber | first4=Tracie J. | s2cid=96793921 }}</ref>
* safer platform for chemical, radioactive or biological studies because of integration of functionality, smaller fluid volumes and stored energies

== Disadvantages ==
The most prominent disadvantages<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Engel|first1=U|last2=Eckstein|first2=R|date=2002-09-09|title=Microforming – from basic research to its realization|journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology|volume=125|issue=Supplement C|pages=35–44|doi=10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00415-6}}</ref> of labs-on-chip are:
* The micro-manufacturing process required to make them is complex and labor-intensive, requiring both expensive equipment and specialized personnel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sanchez-Salmeron|first1=A. J.|last2=Lopez-Tarazon|first2=R.|last3=Guzman-Diana|first3=R.|last4=Ricolfe-Viala|first4=C.|date=2005-08-30|title=Recent development in micro-handling systems for micro-manufacturing|journal=Journal of Materials Processing Technology|series=2005 International Forum on the Advances in Materials Processing Technology|volume=167|issue=2|pages=499–507|doi=10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.06.027}}</ref> It can be overcome by the recent technology advancement on low-cost [[3D printing]] and [[laser engraving]].
*The complex fluidic actuation network requires multiple pumps and connectors, where fine control is difficult. It can be overcome by careful simulation, an intrinsic pump, such as air-bag embed chip, or by using a centrifugal force to replace the pumping, i.e. [[centrifugal micro-fluidic biochip]].
* Most LOCs are novel proof of concept application that are not yet fully developed for widespread use.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Microfluidics and BioMEMS Applications |volume = 10|publisher= SpringerLink|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-3534-5|series = Microsystems|year = 2002|isbn = 978-1-4419-5316-2}}</ref> More validations are needed before practical employment.
* In the microliter scale that LOCs deal with, surface dependent effects like capillary forces, surface roughness or chemical interactions are more dominant.<ref name=":1" /> This can sometimes make replicating lab processes in LOCs quite challenging and more complex than in conventional lab equipment.
* Detection principles may not always scale down in a positive way, leading to low [[signal-to-noise ratio]]s.

== Global health ==
Lab-on-a-chip technology may soon become an important part of efforts to improve [[global health]],<ref name="Yager2006">{{cite journal |author= Paul Yager |author2= Thayne Edwards |author3= Elain Fu |author4= Kristen Helton |author5= Kjell Nelson |author6= Milton R. Tam |author7= Bernhard H. Weigl |date=July 2006 |title= Microfluidic diagnostic technologies for global public health |journal= [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume= 442 |issue= 7101 |pages= 412–418|doi= 10.1038/nature05064 |pmid= 16871209 |bibcode= 2006Natur.442..412Y |s2cid= 4429504 |doi-access= free }}</ref> particularly through the development of [[point-of-care testing]] devices.<ref name="Yetisen2013">{{cite journal | author = Yetisen A. K. | year = 2013 | title = Paper-based microfluidic point-of-care diagnostic devices | journal = Lab on a Chip |volume= 13 |issue= 12 |pages= 2210–2251 |doi=10.1039/C3LC50169H| pmid = 23652632 | s2cid = 17745196 }}</ref>  In countries with few healthcare resources, [[infectious diseases]] that would be treatable in a developed nation are often deadly.  In some cases, poor healthcare clinics have the drugs to treat a certain illness but lack the [[diagnostic tool]]s to identify patients who should receive the drugs.  Many researchers believe that LOC technology may be the key to powerful new diagnostic instruments. The goal of these researchers is to create [[microfluidic]] chips that will allow healthcare providers in poorly equipped clinics to perform diagnostic tests such as [[microbiological culture]] [[assays]], [[immunoassays]] and [[nucleic acid]] [[assays]] with no laboratory support.

=== Global challenges ===
For the chips to be used in areas with limited resources, many challenges must be overcome.  In developed nations, the most highly valued traits for diagnostic tools include speed, sensitivity, and specificity; but in countries where the healthcare infrastructure is less well developed, attributes such as ease of use and shelf life must also be considered.  The reagents that come with the chip, for example, must be designed so that they remain effective for months even if the chip is not kept in a [[climate control]]led environment.  Chip designers must also keep [[cost]], [[scalability]], and [[recyclability]] in mind as they choose what materials and fabrication techniques to use.

=== Examples of global LOC application ===
One of the most prominent and well known LOC devices to reach the market is the at home pregnancy test kit, a device that utilizes [[paper-based microfluidics]] technology. 

Another active area of LOC research involves ways to diagnose and manage common [[infectious diseases]] caused by [[bacteria]], e.g. [[bacteriuria]], or [[virus]]es, e.g. [[influenza]]. A gold standard for diagnosing [[bacteriuria]] ([[urinary tract infections]]) is [[microbial culture]]. A recent study based on lab-on-a-chip technology, Digital Dipstick,<ref name="IseriBiggel2020">{{cite journal|last1=Iseri|first1=Emre|last2=Biggel|first2=Michael|last3=Goossens|first3=Herman|last4=Moons|first4=Pieter|last5=van der Wijngaart|first5=Wouter|title=Digital dipstick: miniaturized bacteria detection and digital quantification for the point-of-care|journal=Lab on a Chip|year=2020|volume=20|issue=23|pages=4349–4356|issn=1473-0197|doi=10.1039/D0LC00793E|pmid=33169747|doi-access=free}}</ref> miniaturised [[microbiological culture]] into a dipstick format and enabled it to be used at the [[point-of-care]]. Lab-on-a-chip technology can also be useful for the diagnosis and management of viral infections. In 2023, researchers developed a working prototype of an [[RT-LAMP]] lab-on-a-chip system called LoCKAmp, which provided results for [[SARS-CoV-2]] tests within three minutes.<ref name="pmid37740394">{{cite journal |vauthors=Papamatthaiou S, Boxall-Clasby J, Douglas EJ, Jajesniak P, Peyret H, Mercer-Chalmers J, Kumar VK, Lomonossoff GP, Reboud J, Laabei M, Cooper JM, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Moschou D |title=LoCKAmp: lab-on-PCB technology for <3 minute virus genetic detection |journal=[[Lab on a Chip]] |volume=23 |issue=20 |pages=4400–4412 |date=October 2023 |pmid=37740394 |pmc=10563828 |doi=10.1039/d3lc00441d}}</ref><ref name="Engineer 2023">{{cite web |title=LoCKAmp diagnosis device hailed as 'world's fastest Covid test' |website=[[The Engineer (UK magazine)|The Engineer]] |date=2 November 2023 |url=https://www.theengineer.co.uk/content/news/lockamp-diagnosis-device-hailed-as-world-s-fastest-covid-test/ |access-date=29 October 2024}}</ref> Managing [[HIV]] infections is another area where lab-on-a-chips may be useful. Around 36.9 million people are infected with HIV in the world today, and 59% of these people receive [[anti-retroviral]] treatment. Only 75% of people living with HIV knew their status.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet|title = Global HIV & AIDS statistics — 2019 fact sheet}}</ref>  Measuring the number of [[CD4+ T lymphocytes]] in a person's blood is an accurate way to determine if a person has HIV and to track the progress of an HIV infection.{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}} At the moment, flow [[cytometry]] is the gold standard for obtaining CD4 counts, but flow cytometry is a complicated technique that is not available in most developing areas because it requires trained technicians and expensive equipment. Recently such a cytometer was developed for just $5.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ozcan|first=Aydogan|title=Diagnosis in the palm of your hand|url=http://dailybruin.com/2011/08/21/43312-8-22-radio-diagnosis/|work=Multimedia::Cytometer|publisher=The Daily Bruin|access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref> 
Another active area of LOC research is for controlled separation and mixing.  In such devices it is possible to quickly diagnose and potentially treat diseases. As mentioned above, a big motivation for development of these is that they can potentially be manufactured at very low cost.<ref name="researchgate.net"/>  One more area of research that is being looked into with regards to LOC is with home security.  Automated monitoring of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is a desired functionality for LOC.  If this application becomes reliable, these micro-devices could be installed on a global scale and notify homeowners of potentially dangerous compounds.<ref>{{cite journal |doi =10.1038/micronano.2015.39|title =Chip-scale gas chromatography: From injection through detection|journal =Microsystems & Nanoengineering|volume =1|year =2015|last1 =Akbar|first1 =Muhammad|last2 =Restaino|first2 =Michael|last3 =Agah|first3 =Masoud|issue =1|page =15039|doi-access =free|bibcode =2015MicNa...115039A}}</ref>

== Plant sciences ==
Lab-on-a-chip devices could be used to characterize [[pollen tube]] guidance in ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. Specifically, plant on a chip is a miniaturized device in which pollen tissues and ovules could be incubated for plant sciences studies.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=AK Yetisen |author2=L Jiang |author3=J R Cooper |author4=Y Qin |author5=R Palanivelu |author6=Y Zohar |title=A microsystem-based assay for studying pollen tube guidance in plant reproduction. |journal= J. Micromech. Microeng. |volume=25 |issue= 5|pages= 054018|date=May 2011 |doi= 10.1088/0960-1317/21/5/054018|bibcode=2011JMiMi..21e4018Y |s2cid=12989263 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biology|Technology}}
* [[Biochemical assays]]
* [[Dielectrophoresis]]: detection of cancer cells and bacteria.
* [[Immunoassay]]: detect bacteria, viruses and cancers based on antigen-antibody reactions.
* [[Electrophysiology#Planar patch clamp|Ion channel screening]] (patch clamp)
* [[Microfluidics]]
* [[Microphysiometry]]
* [[Organ-on-a-chip]]
* Real-time [[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]]: detection of bacteria, viruses and cancers.
* Testing the safety and efficacy of new drugs, as with [[lung on a chip]]
* [[Total analysis system]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
;Books
* Geschke, Klank & Telleman, eds.: Microsystem Engineering of Lab-on-a-chip Devices, 1st ed, John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|3-527-30733-8}}.
* {{cite book |editor= Herold, KE |editor2= Rasooly, A| year= 2009|title=Lab-on-a-Chip Technology: Fabrication and Microfluidics | publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 978-1-904455-46-2}}
* {{cite book |editor= Herold, KE |editor2= Rasooly, A| year= 2009|title=Lab-on-a-Chip Technology: Biomolecular Separation and Analysis | publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 978-1-904455-47-9}}
* {{cite book |author1=Yehya H. Ghallab |author2=Wael Badawy | year= 2010|title=Lab-on-a-chip: Techniques, Circuits, and Biomedical Applications | publisher=Artech House | isbn= 978-1-59693-418-4| pages=220}}
* (2012) Gareth Jenkins & Colin D Mansfield (eds): [https://www.springer.com/chemistry/biotechnology/book/978-1-62703-133-2 Methods in Molecular Biology – Microfluidic Diagnostics], Humana Press, {{ISBN|978-1-62703-133-2}}

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