Editing Laboratory glassware

{{Short description|Variety of equipment usually made of glass used for scientific experiments}}

[[File:Lab glassware.jpg|thumb|250px|Three [[beaker (glassware)|beakers]], an [[Erlenmeyer flask]], a [[graduated cylinder]] and a [[volumetric flask]]]]

'''Laboratory glassware''' is a variety of equipment used in [[science|scientific]] work, traditionally made of [[glass]]. Glass may be blown, bent, cut, molded, or formed into many sizes and shapes. It is commonly used in [[chemistry]], [[biology]], and analytical [[laboratory|laboratories]].  Many laboratories have training programs to demonstrate how glassware is used and to alert first–time users to the [[Laboratory safety#Safety hazards|safety hazards]] involved with using glassware.

==History==
[[File:Man Group portrait (detail).jpg|thumb|upright|Late 17th-century laboratory glassware in the painting by [[Cornelis de Man]] ([[National Museum, Warsaw|National Museum]] in [[Warsaw]]).]]

=== Ancient era ===
The history of glassware dates back to the [[Phoenicia]]ns who fused [[obsidian]] together in [[campfire]]s, making the first glassware.  Glassware evolved as other ancient civilizations including the Syrians, Egyptians, and Romans refined the art of glassmaking. [[Mary the Jewess]], an alchemist in Alexandria during the 1st century AD, is credited for the creation of some of the first glassware for chemical such as the ''[[kerotakis]]'' which was used for the collection of fumes from a heated material.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=Seth C |date=2019-12-16 |title=A Brief History of Early Silica Glass: Impact on Science and Society |url=https://riviste.fupress.net/index.php/subs/article/view/267 |journal=Substantia |language=en |pages=125–138 Pages |doi=10.13128/SUBSTANTIA-267}}</ref> Despite these creations, glassware for chemical uses was still limited during this time because of the low thermal stability necessary for experimentation, so equipment was primarily made using [[copper]] or [[Ceramic|ceramic materials]] instead.<ref name=":0" />

=== Early modern era ===
Glassware improved once again during the 14th-16th century, with the skill and knowledge of glass makers in [[Venice]]. During this time, the Venetians gathered knowledge about glassmaking from the East with information coming from [[Syria]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref name=":0" /> Along with knowledge about glassmaking, glassmakers in Venice also received higher quality raw materials from the East such as imported plant ash which contained higher soda content compared to plant ash from other areas.<ref name=":0" /> This combination of better raw materials and information from the East led to the production of clearer and higher thermal and chemical durability leading towards the shift to the use of glassware in laboratories.<ref name=":0" />

=== Modern era ===
[[File:Women at War, 1914-1918 Q28370.jpg|thumb|A chemist with laboratory glassware, November 1918]]
Many glasses that were produced in bulk in the 1830s would quickly become unclear and dirty because of the low quality glass being used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Espahangizi |first=Kijan |title=From Topos to Oikos: The Standardization of Glass Containers as Epistemic Boundaries in Modern Laboratory Research (1850–1900) |journal=Science in Context |year=2015 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=397–425|doi=10.1017/S0269889715000137 |pmid=26256505 |s2cid=45645118 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/155318/1/ZORA_NL_155318.pdf }}</ref>
During the 19th century, more chemists began to recognize the importance of glassware due to its transparency, and the ability to control the conditions of experiments.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Catherine M. |date=2015-03-01 |title=The "Wonderful Properties of Glass": Liebig'sKaliapparatand the Practice of Chemistry in Glass |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/681036 |journal=Isis |volume=106 |issue=1 |pages=43–69 |doi=10.1086/681036 |pmid=26027307 |s2cid=8478216 |issn=0021-1753}}</ref> [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]], who invented the [[test tube]], and [[Michael Faraday]] both contributed to the rise of chemical glassblowing. Faraday published ''Chemical Manipulation'' in 1827 which detailed the process for creating many types of small tube glassware and some experimental techniques for tube chemistry.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chemical manipulation; being instructions to students in chemistry, on the methods of performing experiments of demonstration or of research, with accuracy and success / By Michael Faraday. |url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/dmqcm6vu |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=Wellcome Collection |language=en}}</ref> Berzelius wrote a similar textbook titled ''Chemical Operations and Apparatus'' which provided a variety of chemical glassblowing techniques.<ref name=":1" /> The rise of this chemical glassblowing widened the availability of chemical experimentation and led to a shift towards the dominant use of glassware in laboratories. With the emergence of glassware in laboratories, the need for organization and standards arose. The ''Prussian Society for the Advancement of Industry'' was one of the earliest organizations to support the collaborative improvement of the quality of glass used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Espahangizi |first=Kijan |date=2015-08-10 |title=From Topos to Oikos: The Standardization of Glass Containers as Epistemic Boundaries in Modern Laboratory Research (1850–1900) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0269889715000137 |journal=Science in Context |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=397–425 |doi=10.1017/s0269889715000137 |pmid=26256505 |s2cid=45645118 |issn=0269-8897|hdl=20.500.11850/103657 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Following the development of [[borosilicate glass]] by [[Otto Schott]] in the late 19th century, most laboratory glassware was manufactured in Germany up until the start of [[World War I]].<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Jensen|first1=William|title=The origin of pyrex|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|date=2006|volume=83|issue=5|page=692|doi=10.1021/ed083p692|bibcode=2006JChEd..83..692J}}</ref>  Before World War I, glass producers in the United States had difficulty competing with German laboratory glassware manufacturers because laboratory glassware was classified as educational material and was not subject to an import tax.  During World War I, the supply of laboratory glassware to the United States was cut off.<ref name=":2" />

In 1915 [[Corning Inc.|Corning Glassworks]] developed their own borosilicate glass, introduced under the name [[Pyrex]]. This was a boon to the war effort in the United States.<ref name=":2" />  Though many laboratories turned back to imports after the war ended, research into better glassware flourished.  Glassware became more resistant to [[thermal shock]] while maintaining [[Chemically inert|chemical inertness]].<ref name="history1">{{cite journal |last1=Donnelly |first1=Alan |date=March 1970 |title=History of Laboratory Glassware |journal=Laboratory Medicine|doi=10.1093/labmed/1.3.28 }}</ref>

During the 1920s efforts to [[Standardization|standardise]] the dimensions of laboratory glassware began, particularly for [[ground glass joints]], with some manufacturer specific standardisation beginning to occur around this time. Commercial standards began development around 1930, allowing the compatibility of joints between different manufacturers for the first time, along with other features.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sella2020-01-06T12:05:00+00:00 |first=Andrea |title=The story of Quickfit, part one: Friedrich's joints |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/the-story-of-quickfit-part-one-friedrichs-joints/4010557.article |access-date=2024-02-28 |website=Chemistry World |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The story of Quickfit, part two: Flaig’s joints |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/the-story-of-quickfit-part-two-flaigs-joints/4010728.article |access-date=2024-02-28 |website=Chemistry World |language=en}}</ref> This quickly led to the high degree of standardisation and [[modularity]] seen in modern glassware.

==Laboratory glassware selection==
Laboratory glassware is typically selected by a person in charge of a particular laboratory analysis to match the needs of a given task.  The task may require a piece of glassware made with a specific type of glass.  The task may be readily performed using low cost, [[mass-produced]] glassware, or it may require a specialized piece created by a [[Scientific glassblowing|glass blower]].  The task may require controlling the flow of [[fluid]].  The task may have distinctive quality assurance requirements.

===Type of glass===
[[File:Verrerie-p1030903.jpg|thumb|left|Brown glass jars with some clear lab glassware in the background]]
Laboratory glassware may be made from several types of [[glass]], each with different capabilities and used for different purposes. [[Borosilicate glass]] is a type of transparent glass that is composed of boron oxide and silica, its main feature is a low coefficient of thermal expansion making it more resistant to thermal shock than most other glasses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soo-Jin Park |first=Min-Kang Seo |date=2011 |title=Element and Processing |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/borosilicate-glass#:~:text=Borosilicate%20glass%20is%20a%20type,than%20any%20other%20common%20glass. |journal=Interface Science and Technology |volume=18 |pages=431–499|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-375049-5.00006-2 |isbn=9780123750495 }}</ref> [[Quartz glass]] can withstand very high temperatures and is transparent in certain parts of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].  Darkened brown or amber (actinic) glass can block [[ultraviolet]] and [[infrared]] radiation.  Heavy-wall glass can withstand pressurized applications. [[Fritted glass]] is finely porous glass through which gas or liquid may pass.  Coated glassware is specially treated to reduce the occurrence of breakage or failure. [[Silanization|Silanized]] (siliconized) glassware is specially treated to prevent organic samples from sticking to the glass.<ref name="Siliconized">{{cite journal|last1=Bhargava|first1=Hemendra|title=Improved Recovery of Morphine from Biological Tissues Using Siliconized Glassware|journal=Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|date=1977|volume=66|issue=7|pages=1044–1045|doi=10.1002/jps.2600660738|pmid=886442}}</ref>

===Scientific glass blowing===
Scientific glass blowing, which is practiced in some larger laboratories, is a specialized field of glassblowing.  Scientific glassblowing involves precisely controlling the shape and dimension of glass, repairing expensive or difficult-to-replace glassware, and fusing together various glass parts. Many parts are available fused to a length of [[glass tubing]] to create highly specialized piece of laboratory glassware.

===Controlling fluid flow===
When using glassware it is often necessary to control the flow of fluid.  It is commonly stopped with a [[Bung|stopper]]. Fluid may be transported between connected pieces of glassware.  Types of interconnecting components include [[glass tubing]],  T-connectors, Y-connectors, and glass adapters.  For a leak-tight connection a [[ground glass joint]] is used (possibly reinforced using a clamping method such as a [[Keck clips]]).  Another way to connect glassware is with a [[hose barb]] and flexible [[Tube (fluid conveyance)|tubing]]. Fluid flow can be switched selectively using a [[valve]], of which a [[stopcock]] is a common type fused to the glassware. Valves made entirely of glass may be used to restrict [[fluid]] flows. Fluid, or any material which flows, can be directed into a narrow opening using a [[Funnels (laboratory)|funnel]].

{{Gallery
|title=Controlling fluid flow with specific glassware
|width=160 | height=170
|align=center
|footer= 
|File:All Glass Check Valve.jpg
 |alt1=An all-glass check valve.
 |An all-glass check valve.
|File:Erlenmeyer and Filtering Flask.jpg
 |alt2=An Erlenmeyer and a filtering flask.
 |An Erlenmeyer and a filtering flask. Note the barbed sidearm on the filtering flask.
|File:Glass adapter with barbed end and ground glass fitting.jpg
 |alt3=A glass adapter. 
 |A glass adapter with a hose barb on the left and a ground glass connector on the right.
|File:Glindemann PTFE Sealing Ring for Taper Joint Glassware.JPG
 |alt4=A taper joint stopper with PTFE sealing ring.
 |A taper joint stopper with [[PTFE]] sealing ring. Note the optical transparency of the narrow sealing ring pressured by glass joint on the right.
|File:T bore plug.JPG
 |alt5=A thread T-bore plug valve
 |A thread T-bore plug valve used as a side arm on a [[Schlenk flask]].
|File:Sidearm stockcock.JPG
 |alt6=A common straight bore glass stopcock attached with a plastic plug retainer 
 |A common straight bore glass [[stopcock]] attached with a plastic plug retainer in the side arm of a [[Schlenk flask]].
}}

===Quality assurance===
====Metrology====
Laboratory glassware can be used for high precision volumetric measurements. With high precision measurements, such as those made in a testing laboratory, the [[Metrology|metrological]] grade of the glassware becomes important.  The metrological grade then can be determined by both the [[confidence interval]] around the nominal value of measurement marks and the traceability of the calibration to an NIST standard. Periodically it may be necessary to check the calibration of the laboratory glassware.<ref name="metrology">{{cite journal|last1=Castanheira|first1=I.|title=Quality assurance of volumetric glassware for the determination of vitamins in food|journal=Food Control|date=2006|volume=17|issue=9|pages=719–726|doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.04.010}}</ref>

====Dissolved silica====
Laboratory glassware is composed of silica, which is considered [[insoluble]] in most substances, with a few exceptions such as [[hydrofluoric acid]] or strong [[alkali hydroxide]]s. Though insoluble, a minute quantity of silica will [[Dissolution (chemistry)|dissolve]] in neutral water, which may affect high precision, low [[Reference range|threshold]] measurements of silica in water.<ref name="silica_dissolution">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Jia-Zhong|title=Laboratory glassware as a contaminant in silicate analysis of natural water samples|journal=Water Research|date=1999|volume=33|issue=12|pages=2879–2883|doi=10.1016/s0043-1354(98)00508-9|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====Cleaning====
[[File:Caricamento della vetreria di laboratorio in lavastoviglie.jpg|thumb|right|Cleaning laboratory glassware in a dishwasher]]
Cleaning laboratory glassware is a frequent necessity and may be done using multiple methods depending on the nature of the contamination and the purity requirements of its use.  Glassware can be soaked in a detergent solution to remove grease and loosen most contaminations, these contaminations are then scrubbed with a brush or scouring pad to remove particles which cannot be rinsed.  Sturdy glassware may be able to withstand [[sonication]] as an alternative to scrubbing.  Solvents are used to remove organic residues that soap cannot remove, and inorganic residues that do not dissolve in water can often be dissolved with a dilute acid.  When cleaning is finished it is common practice to rinse glassware multiple times, often finally with [[Purified water|deionised water]], before suspending it upside down on drying racks.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=How To |url=https://www.chem.rochester.edu/notvoodoo/pages/how_to.php?page=clean_glassware |access-date=2024-08-06 |website=www.chem.rochester.edu}}</ref>  Specialised dishwashers can be used to automate these cleaning methods.

Resistant residues may require more powerful cleaning methods.  Base baths are commonly used for organic residues, although the strong alkaline conditions do slowly dissolve the glass itself, and concentrated [[hydrochloric acid]] is common for removing inorganic residues.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 August 2024 |title=Base bath standard operating procedure |url=https://ehs.umass.edu/sites/default/files/Base%20Baths%20SOP.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927032845/https://ehs.umass.edu/sites/default/files/Base%20Baths%20SOP.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2023 |access-date=6 August 2024 |website=University of Massachusetts Amherst}}</ref>  Even more severe methods exist, such as acidic peroxide ([[piranha solution]]), [[aqua regia]], and [[chromic acid]], but these are considered somewhat of a last resort due to the hazards of using them, and their use by students is restricted in many institutions.<ref name=":3" />

For certain sensitive experiments glassware may require specialised procedures and ultra-pure water or solvents to dissolve trace quantities of specific contaminations known to interfere with an experiment.<ref name="cleaning_reagent">{{cite journal|last1=Campos|first1=M.L.A.M.|title=Dissolved organic carbon in rainwater: Glassware decontamination and sample preservation and volatile organic carbon|journal=Atmospheric Environment|date=2007|volume=41|issue=39|pages=8924–8931|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.08.017|bibcode=2007AtmEn..41.8924C}}</ref>

==Examples==
There are many different kinds of laboratory glassware items:

Examples of glassware containers include:
* [[Beaker (glassware)|Beakers]] are simple cylindrical shaped containers used to hold [[reagent]]s or [[Sample (material)|samples]].
* [[Laboratory flask|Flasks]] are narrow-necked glass containers, typically conical or spherical, used in a laboratory to hold reagents or samples. Examples flasks include the [[Erlenmeyer flask]], [[Florence flask]], and [[Schlenk flask]].
* [[Reagent bottle]]s are containers with narrow openings generally used to store [[reagents]] or samples. Small bottles are called [[vial]]s.
* [[Jar]]s are cylindrical containers with wide openings that may be sealed. [[Bell jar]]s are used to contain vacuums.
* [[Test tube]]s are used by [[chemist]]s to hold, mix, or heat small quantities of solid or liquid chemicals, especially for [[qualitative data|qualitative]] experiments and assays
* [[Desiccator]]s of glass construction are used to dry materials or keep material dry.
* [[Evaporating dish|Glass evaporating dishes]], such as [[watch glass]]es, are primarily used as an evaporating surface (though they may be used to cover a beaker.)
* The [[Petri dish]] is a flat dish filled with a nutritious gelatin that allows for microorganisms to quickly grow, its named after its inventor Julius Petri in the 1880s.
* [[Microscope slide]]s are thin strips used to hold items under a microscope.

Examples of glassware used for measurements include:
* [[Graduated cylinders]] are thin and tall cylindrical containers used for volumetric measurements.
* [[Volumetric flask]]s are for measuring a specific volume of fluid.
* [[Burette]]s are similar to graduated cylinders but have a valve at the end used to disperse precise amounts of liquid reagents often for titrations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Heney |first=Paul |date=2020-08-26 |title=What is a burette? |url=https://www.rdworldonline.com/what-is-a-burette/ |website=R&D World}}</ref>
* Glass [[pipette]]s are used to transfer precise quantities of fluids.
* [[Ebulliometer|Glass Ebulliometers]] are used to accurately measure the boiling point of liquids.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ebulliometer |url=http://www.monashscientific.com.au/Ebulliometer.htm |website=Monash Scientific}}</ref>

Other examples of glassware includes:
* [[Stirring rod]]s are glass rods used to mix chemicals.
* [[Condenser (laboratory)|Condensers]] are used to condense vapors by cooling them down and turning them into liquids.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Abdulwahab |first=Abdulkareem |title=Experimental study of condenser material in the air conditioning system |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214785321061708 |website=Science Direct}}</ref>
* [[Retort|Glass retorts]] are used for distillation by heating, they have a bulb with a long curved spout.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Retort |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_2231#:~:text=This%20object%20is%20a%20retort,material%20from%20another%20through%20heating. |website=National Museum of American History}}</ref>
* [[Abderhalden's drying pistol|Drying pistols]] are used to free samples from traces of water, or other volatile impurities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sella |first=Andrea |date=2009-09-28 |title=Classic Kit: Abderhalden's drying pistol |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/classic-kit-abderhaldens-drying-pistol/3004898.article |website=Chemistry World}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://americanhistory.si.edu/science-under-glass Smithsonian Science Under Glass]
* [http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistrylabexperiments/ig/Chemistry-Laboratory-Glassware/ Chemistry Laboratory Glassware at About.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207151427/http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistrylabexperiments/ig/Chemistry-Laboratory-Glassware/ |date=2013-02-07 }}
* [https://www.chem.rochester.edu/notvoodoo/pages/how_to.php?page=clean_glassware How to clean glassware]

{{Laboratory equipment}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Laboratory Glassware}}
[[Category:Laboratory glassware| ]]